WEEK5: (TUE 1/02/2022, LESSON5-6 11.20 – 13.

00)

OBJECTIVES:

To describe and demonstrate the melting of ice, evaporation and boiling of

water.
To discuss the molecular behaviour during melting and boiling.
To distinguish between boiling and evaporation.

MELTING, BOILING AND EVAPORATION (CHANGING STATE):

A change of state refers to a substance changing its state between solid, liquid or gas. This is
summarised below:

MELTING AND BOILING:

o Melting is the process by which a substance changes state from solid to liquid at constant
temperature called melting point.

o Boiling is the process by which a substance changes state from liquid to gas at constant
temperature called boiling point.

o Melting and boiling points: Melting point is the constant temperature at which a solid
changes into a liquid. Boiling point is the constant temperature at which a liquid changes into
a gas.

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Kinetic theory to explain melting and boiling:

o For any pure substance undergoing melting or boiling, the energy supplied is just enough to
weaken (break) intermolecular forces.

o This increases the molecular separation without affecting the KE, and hence temperature
of the molecules. Therefore a substance melts or boils at a constant temperature.

Difference between melting and boiling:

Melting Boiling

-Substance changes state from solid to liquid -substance changes state from liquid to gas
-Less energy is supplied -more energy is supplied,
-Occurs at a lower temp -Occurs at a higher temp

Similarities between melting and boiling:

-Both involve change of state

-Temperature stays the same in both processes
-Need supply of energy
-Molecular separation increases

The boiling and melting temperature for pure water:

At standard atmospheric pressure (760 mmHg),

í pure water boils at a constant temperature of 100 oC, which is its boiling point
(temperature).

í pure ice melts at a constant temperature of 0 oC, which is its meting point (temperature).

The heating curve during melting and boiling: (start here)

o Usually, when a substance is heated, its temperature increases

o However, when a substance changes its state (from solid to liquid or from liquid to gas), the
temperature remains constant, even though energy is still being added.

o The heating curve is shown below.

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CONDENSATION AND SOLIDIFICATION:

Condensation is the process of changing vapour (gas) into a liquid by decreasing the
temperature.

Examples:

(i) Formation of water droplets on the outside surface of a cold water container

(ii) Formation of clouds in the sky.

Molecular behaviour (kinetic theory and condensation):

Thermal energy is lost particles arrange themselves into “low energy” positions (get close
together) gas turns into liquid.

Note: Condensation is the opposite of evaporation.

Solidification is the process of changing a liquid into a solid by decreasing the temperature
well enough.

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Example: Water freezing to ice. Molten candle wax becoming a solid.

Molecular behaviour (kinetic theory and solidification):

Thermal energy is lost particles arrange themselves into “low energy” positions (get close
together) liquid turns into solid.

Note: Solidification is the same as freezing. For most substances, the melting and freezing
points are the same temperatures.

EVAPORATION:

Evaporation is the change in state from a liquid to a gas at a temperature below the boiling point
of the liquid OR It is the process by which a liquid turns into a gas (vapour) at a temperature
below the boiling point of the liquid.

Evaporation and kinetic theory of matter:

o The molecules in a liquid have a range of different energies, with some having more KE than
others.

o Evaporation occurs when the fast moving particles of a liquid with the greatest energy
overcome the intermolecular attraction of their neighbours and escape from the surface of
the liquid into the surrounding space (air).

Note:

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(i) This chain summarises the occurrence of evaporation.

Fast moving & break or weaken and escape

high energetic intermolecular from the liquid
particles attraction surface

(ii) Evaporation increases the amount of water vapour in the air.

(iii) The diagram below also demonstrates occurrence of evaporation.

Evaporation and cooling of the liquid:

o As most energetic particles escape from the liquid surface, they carry with them heat from
the liquid.
o Average kinetic energy of the remaining liquid particles decreases and therefore the
temperature of liquid decreases i.e. the liquid cools.

Cooling of a body in contact with an evaporating liquid:

o The evaporating liquid draws heat energy from the object in contact with the liquid.

o The KE of the liquid molecules increases resulting into a large number of fast moving
molecules escaping from the liquid surface.

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o As a result, the temperature of the object decreases and the object cools down.
Note:

Where there are refrigerators, this is the process by which food stuffs are cooled and
preserved. Evaporation is also used in air conditioning units.

Factors affecting (influencing) evaporation:

(a) Temperature of the liquid: Increase in temperature increases the rate of evaporation
because more particles (molecules) have enough KE to escape from the liquid surface.

(b) Surface area of the liquid: Increase in surface area increases the rate of evaporation
because more surface molecules are able to escape.

(c) Movement of air across the liquid surface (drought): Increase in wind speed over the
liquid surface increases the rate of evaporation because it gives the particles more KE to
escape from the liquid surface or blows away most of the surface particles.

(d) Humidity (amount of vapour in the atmosphere): Increase in humidity decreases the
rate of evaporation because the capacity of the atmosphere to hold the increasing
amount of water vapour decreases.

(e) Atmospheric pressure: Increase in atmospheric pressure decreases the rate of

evaporation because a few particles only have enough KE to escape from the liquid
surface.

Properties of evaporation:

 Occurs at any temperature – not just the boiling point

Only happens at the surface of the liquid – not throughout the liquid like boiling
Does not require a steady energy source (opposite to boiling which needs a steady energy
source)
Bubbles not formed in the liquid

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Boiling and evaporation: (differences and similarities):

Differences:

Evaporation
1. It takes place at any temperature below
the boiling point of a liquid.
2. It only takes place at the liquid surface.
3. Bubbles are not formed
4. Average kinetic energy of the molecules
decreases and therefore the temperature of
liquid decreases (causes cooling)
5. Occurs at a much slower rate
6. Requires internal energy and no external
source of heat is needed
Boiling
It takes place only at the boiling point of the
liquid.
It takes place anywhere within the liquid.
Bubbles are formed
Average kinetic energy of the molecules stays
the same and therefore the temperature of
liquid remains constant.
Occurs more rapidly
External source of heat is needed

Similarities: In both processes,

1. heat is absorbed.
2. the liquid is converted into vapour (gas).
3. the most energetic particles scape from the surface of the liquid.

TRIAL QUESTIONS:

1. An IGCSE student notices a puddle of water on the pavement as he leaves home on a  

warm day. When he returns one hour later, the puddle is only half as wide as before.

(a) State the name of the process causing the decrease in the size of the puddle.

(b) Explain how the process leads to the observed effect.

2(a) The diagram below shows the paths of a few molecules in air and a single dust particle.  
The actual molecules are too small to show on the diagram.

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 Explain why the dust particle undergoes small random movements.

(b) The diagram below shows the paths of a few molecules leaving the surface of a liquid. The
liquid is below its boiling point.

(i) State which liquid molecules are likely to leave the surface.

(ii) Explain your answer above.

3. Three beakers containing different amounts of the same liquid (at the same
temperature) are left in a school laboratory overnight. The beakers are stored next to
each other. In which beaker does the greatest quantity of the liquid evaporate? Justify
your answer.

4. When a liquid evaporates, some molecules escape from its surface. Using only the
relevant key words provided, discuss which molecules, and how this changes the
temperature of the remaining liquid.

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5. Two containers made of insulating material contain the same volume of water at room  
temperature. The containers do not have lids. The volume of liquid in each container  
gradually decreases.

(a) After a certain time, the temperature of the water has decreased to below room  
temperature. Explain, in terms of molecules, why the temperature has decreased.

(b) One of the containers is wide and shallow. The other container is narrow and deep.
  Predict which container has the greater rate of cooling. Explain your answer.

THE CONCEPT OF LATENT HEAT:

It is the amount of thermal energy required to change the state of substance at constant
temperature. It can be absorbed or given out by a substance.

Latent heat in terms of molecules (kinetic theory):

Latent energy supplied  weakens intermolecular forces, increasing molecular separation. KE

stays the same but PE increases  as substance changes state at constant temperature.

Key concept:
Latent heat is also called hidden heat because its supply to a substance _________________

Forms of latent heat:

o Latent heat of fusion: Is the amount of thermal energy required to change a solid into a
liquid at melting point. It is also equivalent to the heat given out during solidification at
melting point.

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o Latent heat of vapourisation: Is the amount of thermal energy required to change a liquid
into a gas (vapour) at boiling point. It is also equivalent to the heat given out during
condensation at boiling point.

Specific latent heat (SLH):

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It is the amount of thermal energy required to change the state of 1kg of a substance at
constant temperature. It is denoted by L.

Forms of specific latent heat:

o Specific latent heat of fusion (Lf): Is the amount of thermal energy required to change 1kg
of a solid into a liquid at melting point.

o Specific latent heat of vapourisation (Lv): Is the amount of thermal energy required to
change 1kg of a liquid into a gas at boiling point.

Mathematical expression for specific latent heat of a body:

The illustration can used to derive the required formula.

Mass/kg Energy/J Method

1 1200
2 2400 2 × 1200
5 6000 5 × 1200
Suppose E is the energy supplied to an object of mass m and specific latent heat L resulting
into a change of state.

Examples of latent energy calculations:

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Challenges:

1. How much heat is needed to change 20 g of ice at 0o C to steam at 100o C?

2. An aluminium can of mass 100 g contains 200 g of water. Both, initially at 15 o C, are
placed in a freezer at −5.0o C. Calculate the quantity of heat that has to be removed from
the water and the can for their temperatures to fall to −5.0 o C.

Experiment to measure specific latent heats for steam and ice:

(a) Measuring SLH of fusion of Ice

Experimental set-up is drawn as follows:

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Procedure (method)

o A funnel is packed (filled) with crushed ice blocks.

o An electric heater of known rating p is immersed into the ice and a beaker of known mass is
placed under the funnel.

o With the heater off, the mass of melted water collected in the beaker for a measured time,
t, is noted as m1.

o The heater is turned on for the same time interval, t, and the mass of melted water, m2 is
noted.

o Assuming no heat loss to the surrounding, heat supplied by the heater = heat used to melt
the ice. Hence

pt = (m2 – m1)Lf and Lf = pt/(m2 – m1)

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Note:
o In practice, inaccuracies arise because some of the heat supplied is lost to the surroundings.
At the same time, some energy from the surroundings also transferred to the ice. But
overall, these two factors tend to cancel each other and give a fairly accurate value of Lf.

o Errors in this experiment can be reduced by repeating the experiment several times and
taking the average value.

o In case the power rating of the electric heater is not known, repeated measurements of the
voltage and current are taken whilst the power supply is on, and corresponding average
values calculated.

o Electrical power is then calculated from P = IV, where I is the average current and V is
the average voltage.

(b) Measuring SLH of Vapourisation of steam

Experimental set-up is drawn as follows:

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o Some water is added into a vacuum flask placed on a digital balance.

o A heater of known rating p is immersed in the water and turned on until the water boils. The
corresponding mass of the boiling water and the flask is noted as m1. The stop-watch is
simultaneously started.

o Water is allowed to continue boiling for a measured time interval t and the corresponding
mass is noted as m2.

o At boiling point, electrical energy supplied by the heater = thermal energy absorbed by
water. Hence

pt = (m1 – m2)Lv and Lv = pt/(m1 – m2)

Example:

A 100 W immersion heater placed in water in an insulated beaker was switched on until water
started boiling. The mass of the beaker and water notes 50.1g. After 500 seconds, the mass of
the remaining water and the beaker was 30.1g. Estimate the specific latent heat of
vapourisation.

Solution:
Mass of water boiled away = 50.1 – 30.1 = 20.0g

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Lv = pt/m OR pt/(m2 – m1)
= (100 x 500)/0.02
= 2 500 000 J/kg
Note:
o In practice, inaccuracies arise because some of heat supplied is lost to the surroundings thus
making the value of Lv much bigger than expected.

o Errors in this experiment can be reduced by repeating the experiment several times and
taking the average value.

o In case the power rating of the electric heater is not known, repeated measurements of the
voltage and current are taken whilst the power supply is on, and corresponding average
values calculated.

o Electrical power is then calculated from P = IV, where I is the average current and V is
the average voltage.

o Instead of a vacuum flask, an insulated beaker can also work as shown below.

Comparing Heating/cooling curve relating for ice and steam:

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The graph shows the absorption of heat energy by water, as it changes state from ice at -T ºC
to steam at temperatures above 100 ºC.

A: The temperature of ice rises as ice absorbs heat.

B: Ice is melting (changing) into water at 0 o C, as it absorbs of latent heat of fusion.

C: The temperature of water rises it absorbs heat.

D: Water is boiling (changing) into steam at 100o C as water absorbs latent heat of  
vaporization.
E: Steam absorbs heat and its temperature increases above the boiling point of water.

Showing how you can get total energy absorbed/released during two or more
stages:

A: Heat absorbed = mcΔT = mc(0 – –T) = mcT

B: Heat absorbed = mlf

C: Heat absorbed = mcΔT = mc(100 – 0) = mc(100). Note that water may be heated to a  
temperature below 100oC. In this case, the highest temperature reached is what will be  
used instead of 100oC.

D: Heat absorbed = mlv

Note:

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(i) A cooling curve is the opposite of a heating curve. Latent heat absorbed during heating =
latent given out during cooling.

(i) Total heat absorbed from ice at –T oC to steam at 100oC = sum of energies at  
different stages.

(ii) For one or more stages, total heat will just involve only those stages.

Challenges:

1.

2.

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