ECE 2302

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

TOPIC-2
SUBSURFACE EXPLORATIONS

1
 Subsurface Investigations
Subsurface/Site Investigations
 Site investigations refers to the procedure
of determining surface and subsurface
conditions in an area proposed for
construction
 Surface and subsurface features may
influence what can be built and will affect
design and construction procedure
 Information on surface condition is
important for planning construction
techniques
Objectives for Subsurface Investigation
• Determine depth, thickness and nature
of lithological of various soils or rocks
• Determine horizontal and vertical
variability of the rock strata
• Determine engineering properties of
various strata
• Determine depth of water table (ground
water)
Stages of subsurface investigation
(i) Reconnaissance (office and field)
(ii) Drilling, Samplings and Soundings
Sampling An example of Boring logs after drilling, showing soil
(iii) Laboratory Testing of the samples stratification, ground water and with laboratory testing 2
 Reconnaissance
Reconnaissance
 Collection of all the available information about subsurface prior to drilling and sampling, sounding.
 Depending on the engineering organization and the nature of project, varying amount of effort are
expended in the reconnaissance stage
 Drilling and sampling program can be planned more effectively if available information is reviewed
prior to initiation of drilling
 Reconnaissance is commonly accomplished in two phases
Office Reconnaissance
Field Reconnaissance
Office Reconnaissance
Several tasks can be accomplished during office phase
It should be kept in mind that gaining information by drilling and sampling is expensive. Hence Office
Reconnaissance can be achieved through
 Review of design plan and Preliminary plans:
 Review of Engineering Reports
 Review of published Information (Topographic Maps, Google earth maps, Geological Maps, Agricultural soil maps,
Aerial photographs, well log data)

3
 Office Reconnaissance

Office Reconnaissance
Review of Engineering Reports
o Engineeering reports may provide general information on the soil, rock and ground water conditions of the
area.
o Many private companies and private agencies have a ccumulated information on certain geographical
information and specific type of project
o Report on previous construction may be helpful for anticipated foundation problems
o Government agencies are the primary source of information of public records

Review of published Information or open file Geological report

Other information pertaining to site area can be obtained from
Topographic Maps
Google earth maps
Geological Maps
Agricultural soil maps
Aerial photographs
Well log data)

Next formulated field visit, decide on the number and depth of boring and stake the boring location

4
 Field Reconnaissance
Field Reconnaissance
 After the office phase, the field phase should commence with a site visit
 Field reconnaissance has two major purpose
 Allow experiences observer to view the site and record information that is pertinent
to boring plan or foundation design
 Gather information needed by drilling crew to accomplish boring program
 Number of items to look for in the field during reconnaissance are
(a) Proposed location of structure: If the location is poor, we can shift the location
(b) Topography and vegetation: Accessibility etc
(c) Soil geology, gully and natural slopes: surface depression or slope stability problems
(d) Surface and subsurface water: Indicate drainage problem
(e) Geology of the site: Any rock outcrop
(f) Information needed by drilling crew
i. Boring plan: Staking the boring
ii. Type of equipment required: Truck mounted (dry areas)or Track mounted
(marshy terrain)
iii. Right of access: Properties owner need to be notified and permission to access
obtained
iv. Location of utility: Waterline, Sewer line, gas lines electrical line ( Any part of
the drilling rigs must be 6 m away from power line) must be shown on the plan

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Formulation of the Boring Plan-Spacing and depth of borings
Fomulation
 Boring plan should be developed during final stage of office reconnaissance for subsequent
preview during field reconnaissance
 Several factors help determine the number depth and layout of borings
 Nature of construction project
 Complexity of subsurface materials
 Personal judgements of the construction manager
 Policy of the organization involved
 Below are common guidelines to selecting the spacing and depth of borings
Spacing
Most Engineering companies use guidelines set by American Society of Civil Engineers
• For important structures one hole per 232 m2 or one hole per 465 m2giving spacing of 15
m and 22m per hole
• Some Engineers prefer to prefer to use a random boring plan rather than a grid patter
Depth
Depth of hole depends on loads that are likely to be imposed on the structure. Multistory
building depth will depend on number of stories. Guidelines used are
(a) Depth of 2B below the footing bottom (B= width of footing)
(b) Depth= Bedrock depth if bedrock is shallower than 2B with some rock coring
(c) Number of story : Db=3S0.7 (Light steel and narrow concrete) and Db=6S0.7 (heavy
streel and wide concrete) where Db=depth of boring and S= number of stories
(d) Depth ∆σ/σ’o<0.1 (∆σ =change is stress from foundation, σ’o =effective overburden
stress)

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Influence Zone of stress below a foundation

Depth of influence Zin is equal to 2B below the footing bottom (B= width of footing)

∆σv = profile of Change σ’o = Effective

in pressure due to overburden pressure due
application of loading on to insitu soil profile
foundation with depth

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 Pressure distribution below loaded foundation

 Foundation needs to be desired to

resist
(a) Bearing failure
(b) Settlement of the foundation due to
addition load from foundation
 The influence load diminishes at
depth equal to 2B hence settlement
is minimal at that depth
 Subsurface investigation
information up to depth of 2B
below the foundation footing.

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Distribution of stress underneath structures (Boussinesq method- Point Load)

Load Q is in kN
Z is any distance below the
footing

r is radial distance away from

the footing. For stress
directly below the center of
footing r=0

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 EXAMPLE 1: Distribution of stress underneath structures (Bossiness method- Point Load)
Review of previous subsurface investigation revealed that a site for the construction of city lighting pole and sign structure consists
of 3 m thick sand layer overlying 8 m thick sandy gravel layer. The unit weights of the subsurface materials are as shown.
Highway design code stipulates that the boring for sign structure be advanced at least to a depth where the change in stress due to
load on the sign structure is approximately 5% of the effective overburden pressure. Calculate the required depth of boring for a
sign structure that will be required to carry 150kN load.
Q=150 kN Effective
Maximum change in stress
overburden stress
with be at the center of light
structure r=0 corresponding σ’v0 =∑γ∆Z
to IB=0.48 Depth,
Unit weight,γ stress due to layer σ'v0 ∆σv ∆σ v/σ 'vo Advance
Layer
Z(m) ∆Z(m) (kN/m )
3 2
thickness (kN/m ) (kN/m2) (kN/m )
2
(%) boring to
0 0 17 0 0.0 -
atleast
0.5 0.5 17 8.5 8.5 288.0 3388.2

SAND
1 0.5 17 8.5 17.0 72.0 423.5 between 4-
with clay
1.5
2
0.5
0.5
17
17
8.5
8.5
25.5
34.0
32.0
18.0
125.5
52.9
4.5 m deep
2.5 0.5 17 8.5 42.5 11.5 27.1 where the
3
3.5
0.5
0.5
17
18
8.5
9
51.0
60.0
8.0
5.9
15.7
9.8
change in
Dense SAND with clay
Unit weight, γ=17 kN/m3
4 0.5 18 9 69.0 4.5 6.5 stress due to
3m

4.5 0.5 18 9 78.0 3.6 4.6

foundation
2.5 m

Water content, w=10%

5 0.5 18 9 87.0 2.9 3.3
5.5 0.5 18 9 96.0 2.4 2.5 will be at
Sandy
6
6.5
0.5
0.5
18
18
9
9
105.0
114.0
2.0
1.7
1.9
1.5
approximate
Very dense Sandy Gravel 7 0.5 18 9 123.0 1.5 1.2 ly 5% of the
Gravel with Silt with Silt 7.5 0.5 18 9 132.0 1.3 1.0
Unit weight, γ=18 8 0.5 18 9 141.0 1.1 0.8
effective
overburden
8m

kN/m3 8.5 0.5 18 9 150.0 1.0 0.7

Water content, 9 0.5 18 9 159.0 0.9 0.6
w=12% 9.5 0.5 18 9 168.0 0.8 0.5 stress
10 0.5 18 9 177.0 0.7 0.4
10.5 0.5 18 9 186.0 0.7 0.4
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Distribution of stress underneath structures (2V:1H Method)

q is in kN/m2

q0 is in kN then

𝑞𝑞0
Δ𝜎𝜎 =
𝐵𝐵 + 𝑧𝑧 + 𝐿𝐿 + 𝑧𝑧

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 Assignment 1: Question 1
Review of previous subsurface investigation revealed that a site for the construction of building foundation consists of 3 m thick
sand layer overlying 8 m thick sandy gravel layer. The unit weights of the subsurface materials are as shown. Design code stipulates
that the boring be advanced at least to a depth below the bottom of the foundation footing where the change in stress due to load on
the foundations approximately 5% of the effective overburden pressure. Calculate the required depth of boring for a square
foundation footing that will be required to carry 250kN load.
Note: Please limit your work to one page.

q0=250 kN

Df=0.5 m

B=2.0 m
3m

Dense SAND with silt

Unit weight, γ=15 kN/m3
Water content, w=10%

Very dense Sandy Gravel

with Silt
8m

Unit weight, γ= 17 kN/m3

Water content, w=13%

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 Subsurface Explorations: Sounding, Drilling and Sampling
Soil boring
Exploration
 Exploration can be accomplished in two
ways
(a) Test Pits: Provide visual identification of soil
strata. Excavated to limited depth
(b) Boring: Can be extended to greater depths

Test Pit

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 Test Pits
 Excavation by hand or an excavator
 Soil lithology, type, depth of layer
and color is observed and logged
 Sample collected are disturbed
samples
 Different soils types are represented
by different shading.

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 Drilling Hole Advancing Techniques

 When soil investigation extends to some depth, mechanical means of drilling are used.
 Two techniques are widely used
 Auger method: hollow stem auger, Solid flight auger or continuous flight auger
 Wash boring
 Augering/ wash boring are means of advancing the boring
 When advancing the hole casing may be required to protect the hole from collapsing/caving in

Auger head contains

Wash boring replicable carbide teeth.
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 Augering & Wash boring

Wash boring have to be cased to be Hollow stem auger have distant

advanced. Normally they are used to advantage over solid stem auger in
clean the holes after solid stem that they do not need to be removed
auguring frequently for sample to be taken

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 Insitu Soil Sampling
disturbed
Standard Penetration Testing
Soil sampling can be disturbed (SPT)/ Split spoon sampling
or undisturbed sample

undisturbed
Shelby Tube sampling

SPT sampling

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 SPT SAMPLING

SPT hammer

SPT Sampler

Casing

SPT Testing
 Split spoon sampler is used to collect sample
 The split spoon has an inside diameter of
34.93 mm and outside diameter of 50.8 mm
 The sampler is driven into the soil by hammer
blow. The weight of the hammer is 622.7 N
the hammer drops a distance of 0.762 m
 The number of blows required for a split
spoon to penetrate Three (3)-152 mm are
recorded
 The number of blow required for the last
two- 152 mm intervals are added and given
Standard Penetration Number, N at that depth
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 Sample storage
SPT Testing Example 2: Sample disturbance
 The Split spoon is opened, and the recovery of
the sample is measured (length of the sample
inside the spoon)
 Visual classification of soil is done
 Boring logs are produced
 The sample are recovered from the split
spoon and stored in a glass jar or zip lock bag
to preserve the moisture
 Indicate boring number, depth, sample number

Sample
stored in
Ziplock
bag to Example 3: SPT, N value
preserve QUESTION
moisture Standard Penetration Test was conducted using a
standard split spoon sample. The recorded blow
counts for the three 150 mm penetrations were 8-
12-7. Determine the SPT, N value
Solution
N-value is the sum of the blow counts for the last two- 152
mm intervals

N=12+7=19 19

Factors affecting N- value
 The type of soil and density
state. Dense soils have high
N-value than loose soil.
Soil above water table have
higher values than soil
below water table
 The type of hammer:
Different hammers have
different efficiency ( Auto
Hammer =80% efficiency,
safety Hammer 60%
efficiency) hence N-vanue
from Donout hammer will
be more that the N-value
from Auto hammer
 The depth where the sample is
collected: The effect of
effective soil overburden
pressure at very deeper
depth. N value at deeper
depth will be more than
N-values at shallower
depth.
Factor affecting N-value
We need to correct N-value for both hammer type
(efficiency) and soil overburden pressure
Correction for overburden
 The effect of the effective
overburden pressure so
should be accounted for
 The coefficienct CN varies
with effective overburden
stress
 The Coefficient is multiplied
Correcting for Hammer efficiency by N60 to obtain (N1)60
 The standard practice is to express N-value to an
average energy ratio of 60%
ηH=80% for Auto hammer and 60% for safety
hammer
Other coefficients can be neglected
N60=N ηH /60
For Safety hammer N60=N
For Auto hammer N60=80N /60=1.333 N
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 EXAMPLE 4: Correction for overburden

several correlations existing

for determining CN
SAND with Silt
Unit weight, γ=16
3m

kN/m3
Water content, Solution
w=15%
SAND with gravel and
Determine N-value
5m

with Silt
Unit weight, γ=17 kN/ (1) N =8+12=20
8m

m3
SPT= 2-8-12 Water content,
w=18% Determine N60
N60= Nx80/60=20x80/60=26.6=27
Correction for overbudden
Determine (N1)60
Boring logs showed soil lithology consist of 3 m
CN=(Pa/σ’o)0.5
of Sand with silt overlying 8 m thick layer of
sand with gravel and silty. The properties of the σ’v0 =∑γH= (16x3)+(18x5)=138kN/m2
soils are as shown on the figure. SPT was taken a
depth of 5 m below the SAND with gravel and CN=(Pa/σ’o)0.5=(100/138) 0.5=0.85
Silt layer using an Auto Hammer Rig .The blow
counts were 2-8-12 for each 152 mm penetration (N1)60= CN xN60=0.85x27=22.95
was calculated for the spoon sampler. Determine
(N1)60 (N1)60=23
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 EXAMPLE 5: Correction for overburden
SAND with Silt Solution
Unit weight, γ=16

2m
3m
Ground water kN/m3
Water content, Determine N-value
w=15% (1) N =8+12=20
SAND with gravel and
5m

with Silt
Unit weight, γ=17 kN/ Determine N60
8m

m3 N60= Nx80/60=18x80/60=24
SPT= 2-7-11 Water content,
w=22%
Determine (N1)60
CN=(Pa/σ’o)0.5
Correction for overbudden
Boring logs showed soil lithology σ’o =∑γH- ∑ γwHw= (16x3)+(18x5)-
consist of 3 m of Sand with silt (9.81x6)=(138-58.9)kN/m2=79.1 kN/m2
overlying 8 m thick layer of sand with
gravel and silty. The properties of the CN=(Pa/σ’o)0.5=(100/79.1) 0.5=1.12
soils are as shown on the figure.
Ground was encountered at 2 m below (N1)60= CN xN60=1.12x24=26.98
the ground surface. SPT was taken a
depth of 5 m below the SAND with (N1)60=27
gravel and Silt layer using an Auto
Hammer Rig .The ]blow counts were 2-
8-12 for each 152 mm penetration was
calculated for the spoon sampler.
Determine (N1)60
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 Correlation between N-value Soil properties
SAND with Silt
Unit weight, γ=16

2m
3m
Ground water kN/m3
Water content,
w=15%
SAND with gravel and

5m
with Silt
Unit weight, γ=17 kN/

8m
m3
SPT= 2-7-11 Water content,
w=22%

Determine the friction angle and

density state of the sand deposit.
N =8+12=20
N60= Nx80/60=18x80/60=24
Determine φ
σ’o =79.1 kN/m2
Pa=100 kN/m2
Using Schemertmann Equation, φ= 43°
Per Table 2.8 the soil in has a relative
density of 30-60% approximately 50%

Coarse grained soil the is defined by relative density

while fine grained soil are defined by consistence 23
 Assignment 1: Question 2
Determine the peak effective friction angle (φ’) of sand deposit at 8 m below the ground surface using
(a) Peck, Hanson and Thorburn (1974) correlation and (b) Hatanaka and Uchida (1996) equation
SAND with Silt
Unit weight, γ=16
2m
3m

Ground water kN/m3

Water content,
w=15%
SAND with gravel and
5m

with Silt
Unit weight, γ=17 kN/
8m

m3
SPT= 2-7-11 Water content,
w=22%

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 Soil Boring Logs and logging
 During drilling, soil samples are collected in
SPT spoon
 Blow counts are recorded
 Description of the soil type, density state ,
consistency is recorded
 Soil stratum/ layering is recorded
 For finned grained soil we take pocket
penetrometer test or Torvane Test to define
the unconfined compressive strength in the
field
 Ground water depth measured at the end of
drilling and 24 hrs after drilling ( 24 hrs
ground water depth is the design ground
water depth)
Laboratory Tests that can be performed on
disturbed samples are:
 Gradation: Soil classification
 Atterberg limits : Clay soils
 Direct shear test: Strength for remolded
samples
 Corrosion Testing
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 UNDISTURBED SAMPLING-Shelby Tube Sampling

 When compressible soils/ fine grained soils are

Prior to sealing and shipping the samples, Torvane
encountered where SPT is impossible Shelby
tube sampling may be taken Tests or Pocket Penetrometer Tests can be used to
 Shelby Tube sampling is for compressible soils determine the undrained shear strength of the fine-
(clays and silts) grained soils
 The tube is attached and the end of the rig
and pushed down to the desired depth using
hydraulic jack
 Some torque is provided to shear the soil
 The tube is left in position for 20 minutes and
then pulled out
 Both ends of the tube is sealed with wax to
preserve moisture
 The tube is marked for depth and transported
in an upright manner 26
 Laboratory Test on Undisturbed Samples

Laboratory Tests that can be performed on undisturbed samples are:

 Consolidation test: For estimating consolidation settlement parameters for
fine grained soils
 Unconfined Compressive strength: Determine the undrained shear strength
 Unconsolidated Undrained Test : Short term undrained parameters for fine
grained soils
 Consolidated Undrained Test: Long term undrained parameters for fine
grained soils
 Consolidated Drained Test: Long term drained parameters for clay soils
 Permeability Test: Coefficient of permeability for fine grained soil

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 Rock Coring
• Rotary rock coring is used to obtain
Determining Top of rock during
cylindrical rock samples
subsurface investigation
• Coring by rotary method is accomplished
(a) Depth of spoon refusal: more that 50
using diamond drilling bit and a core
blows with a spoon penetration of less
barrel
than 1 mm. Then follow with
• The core barrel and drill bit are attached
auguring.
to the drill rods attached to the drilling
(b) Depth Auger refusal: No advancement
machine
of the auguring bit
• During drilling the core drilling bit is cooled
using water circulated by the drilling
machine
• At the end of the coring the core barrel is
pulled from the oil and rock sample
extruded.
• The amount of rock recovery is measured (
Ratio of the length of the rock sample to
the penetration depth of core barrel during
coring)
• Rock samples are stored in a core box and
depths partitioned
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 Rock Quality Designate (RQD)
∑ 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 ≥10 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 (%)
RQD=
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙

No recovery/Low recovery of rock could be

either rock pieces being highly weathered
or presence of void in the rock mass 29
 Rock Quality Designate (EXAMPLE 2)

Mechanical break:
Fracture by driller. They
are ignored and the
rock piece is treated as
one piece.

30
Rock Quality Designate(EXAMPLE 3)

31
 Other exploration methods ( Insitu Sounding)
Using special rig, the following i. Vane Shear Test ( fine grained) while
tests can be performed CPT ( for all types of soil)
(a) Vane Shear Test ii. No sample is collected
(b) Cone Penetration Tests iii. Insitu soil strength properties determined
Vane shear Test
• Test used to determine undrained shear strength (Cu)of clay
• The shear vane shear consist of four blades on each end of
the rod
• The heigh H is twice the diameter of the, D.
• Vane can be rectangular of tapered
• The vane is pushed into the soil and a torque applied at a
rate of 0.1°/sec
• This rotation will induce failure in a of the cylindrical
surrounding the vane
• The maximum Torque applied to cause failure is measure.

• T= f (Cu, H and D)
𝑇𝑇
C u=
Vane shear Test 𝐾𝐾
• K= Constant with magnitude depending on the
dimension and shape of the vane D and H in cm
• Cu is in kN/m2.
32
 EXAMPLE( Vane Shear Test)

A vane shear test was conducted in saturated clay. The height and diameter
of the vane were 101.6 mm and 50.8 mm respectively. During the test, the
maximum torque applied was 0.035 kN-m. Determined the undrained shear
strength
𝑇𝑇
𝐶𝐶𝑢𝑢 =
𝐾𝐾

−4 3
K=0. 4.805𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝑚𝑚
𝑇𝑇 0.035𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
C u= = − = 72.8 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚3
𝐾𝐾 4.805𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 4𝑚𝑚3

33
 Cone Penetration Test ( CPT)
CPT
• Known as Dutch cone is used to determine material properties and measure their engineering properties
• CPT can measure. It's fitted with pressure sensor.
(a) Cone Tip Resistance (qt): Measured using earth pressure sensors at the tip ,
(b) Friction resistance ( fr): Measured using earth pressure sensors at the sleeve
(c) Porewater pressure (u): Measured using pore water pressure sensors near the tip

Undrained shear strength of fine grained soil

𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑢 =undrained shear strength
𝑞𝑞𝑡𝑡 − σ𝑣𝑣0
𝑞𝑞𝑡𝑡 = cone tip resistance 𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑢 =
σ𝑣𝑣0 = total overburden pressure 𝑁𝑁𝐾𝐾
𝑁𝑁𝐾𝐾 =cone factor (𝑁𝑁𝐾𝐾 =15 electric cone and
𝑁𝑁𝐾𝐾 =20 mechanical cone)

34
35
36
CPT Profiles

37
 Types of soil from normalized CPT data
Normalized cone tip resistance=
Ratio of the difference between cone

Normalize d cone tip resistance

tip resistance and the total overburden
stress to the effective overburden
stress sleeve friction to the cone tip
resistance

𝑞𝑞𝑡𝑡 − σ𝑣𝑣0
𝑄𝑄𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 =
σ′𝑣𝑣𝑣

σ′𝑣𝑣𝑣 = σ𝑣𝑣𝑣 − 𝑢𝑢

u= pore water pressure

measured during CPT
sounding Friction factor

Friction factor = Ratio of

sleeve friction to the cone
tip resistance

𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑟
𝐹𝐹𝑟𝑟 = 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
𝑞𝑞𝑡𝑡 − σ𝑣𝑣𝑣 38
 Q/A Review SESSION
SAND with Silt
Unit weight, γ=16  Which sampling method can be used in point X to
2m
3m

kN/m3
Ground water
Water content, obtained subsurface investigation
w=15% (i) What's N-value
SAND with gravel and
(ii) What's N60
5m

with Silt
Unit weight, γ=17 kN/
(iii) What's (N1)60
8m

X m3
Water content,
w=22%
Soft Lean Clay
 If the soil is soft in point Y, The spoon sampler
Y Unit weight, γ=12 kN/ penetrated 0.45 m due to weight of hammer
7m

m3
Water content, (i) What sounding methods can be used to obtain
w=45% subsurface information at point Y
(ii) What can parameters can be measured in each of the
Shale bedrock above sounding methods at Point Y
Z (iii) Can samples be collected from the above sounding
methods? If not, what sampling methods can be used to
collected undisturbed samples.
(iv) What two test can be used to determine undrained shear
strength of the disturbed sample in (iii) above
Answer the following (v) What laboratory strength tests can be performed on the
questions questions based undisturbed samples collected in (iii)
on the subsurface profile
given above  What sampling method can be used in point Z
(i) What RQD of the rock
(ii) How is mechanical breaks accounted for?
39