MAKERERE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF NATURAL SCIENCES

SCHOOL OF PHYSICAL SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY

INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

COMPANY: SUGAR CORPORATION OF UGANDA LIMITED
DEPARTMENT: PROCESS

COURSE CODE: ICH2323

TUMUSIIME DENIS
REG. No. 19/U/11645/PS
STUDENT No. 1900711645

SUPERVISOR: DR. DAN EGESA

TRAINING PERIOD: 25TH JANUARY 2022 TO 4TH MARCH 2022

AN INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL

FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE
DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY OF
MAKERERE UNIVERSITY
Declaration
I TUMUSIIME DENIS do declare that this industrial training report is mine and has never been
submitted to any university or institution for higher learning for any academic award.

Signature ……………………………………………. Date ………………………………………

TUMUSIIME DENIS
Approval
This is to certify that TUMUSIIME DENIS a student of Makerere University pursuing a
bachelor of science in industrial chemistry degree has successfully completed his training at
Sugar Corporation of Uganda Limited from 25 th January 2022 to 4 th March 2022 under my close
supervision.

Signature …………………………… Signature………………………………

Date ………………………………… Date…………………………………

DR. DAN EGESA (MAK) Mr. ENEMWA DANIEL(SCOUL)

Dedication
I would like to dedicate this piece of work to my Industrial supervisor Mr. ENEMWA DANIEL
who always loved to share the best of his knowledge to me. He always motivated me to do my
best.
Acknowledgement
This report is based on the industrial training that was undertaken during field attachment at
Sugar Corporation Of Uganda Limited specifically for the sugar production process as done at
this factory for the period of six weeks from the 25 th of January 2022 to 4 th of March 2022 and so
it is based on individual knowledge with the guidance of very many others

I would like to thank my company supervisor Mr. Enemwa Daniel who always spared for me the
little time from his fixed schedule to ensure that I learnt the best skills for the process and
systems in sugar technology within the company. I highly appreciate Dr. Egesa Dan my
university supervisor who spared time for me to come, evaluate and then guide me on my
training at the factory, his time and knowledge is greatly valued.

My sincere appreciation goes to Mr. Adukule Vincent who always looked for me to ensure that I
had something for each day. He gave me mentorship for the world outside school and always
wished me to have hands on while at the factory. I cannot wait to thank Mr. Isooba Derrick, Mr.
John Paul and all other chemical engineers who always loved to see me learn. You always
evaluated me every time you saw me around to see my progress and indeed it always gave me
hope. Your presence always signified the relevance of my program.

In a special way I would like to extend my appreciation to Mr. Luzige a mechanical engineer
who ensured that I learn all the mechanics in the cane yard and milling house, you were so
special not forgetting all the operators, from the cane yard, through mill house, clarification,
boiling house especially Mr. Nyanzi and many others who taught me how to love one’s job up to
the bagging section. You were really loving people.

I acknowledge with gratitude Mr. Obbo Vincent the human resource manager who granted me an
opportunity to have my training at SCOUL and the entire factory for the conducive learning
environment that it always provided me with. I appreciate Madam Betty for her tremendous and
motherly support towards my well-being and my stay at the factory, I will always remember you.
Lastly I would like to appreciate my fellows especially Mr. Baligasima Paul with whom I learnt
the sugar manufacturing process, Mr. Musiime Ivan Bbala and Mr. Mutebe Brian who always
assisted me in the laboratory work and Mr. Akankunda Gerald who always made the training so
active and lively.
Foreword
This piece of work in the report is written based on the knowledge that I obtained from the
industrial training at Sugar Corporation of Uganda Limited. The report begins by looking at the
background of the company to the current state. It looks at the aims and objectives of the
company basing on the vision and mission statements and describes the main activities that is
done at the factory. The report in this chapter also describes the company’s policy to protect the
environment and then the organization’s structure.
The report further looks at the different process that are undertaken to process raw sugarcane to
sugar crystal. It begins by looking at the sugarcane growth and harvesting using of the different
mechanisms. It describes how cane is weighed and the how it acts as a mode of payment of out-
growers. The loading of cane and the cane handling equipment at the cane yard. It further
discusses the ways how cane can reduce quality and the ways to avoid such losses.
It further discusses the procedures followed to extract the juice out of the cane and the way of
cane juice handling by treatment, heating and clarification of the juice. The processes therein to
remove the mud and formation of the mud, concentration of the juice to syrup and then pan
boiling to form the crystals by separation of from the molasses using the centrifugal machines
and then sugar drying to bagging and storage. The report also looks at how the end products of
sugar processing are handled for example bagasse that is used as a fuel in the cogeneration, filter
cake as field manure and molasses to the distillery
The topics in the report further describes the ways for maximizing all the processes to obtain
enough sugars through the different recycle streams. Improving productivity and reducing the
cost of production are important considerations underlying various modifications in the
techniques of manufacture and the technologists engaged in the industry have to master the
fundamental as well as practical aspects of the technology they are working with like steam
economization involved in the evaporation and boiling.
List of acronyms
Pol - polarity
PHE- plate heat exchanger
RDS – refractometer dry substance
PI – preparative index
PPM – parts per million
RPM – revolutions per minute
KW – kilowatt
Ca – calcium
KCC1 – kicker cum chopper 1
HOC – head on chopper
SCOUL – Sugar Corporation of Uganda limited
VCs - vapour cells
FFEs – falling film evaporators
AL- A light molasses
AH- A heavy molasses
BH- B heavy molasses
CL- C light molasses
FD- forced draft
ID- induced draft
R.E- rake elevator
Key definitions
Bagasse: Residue of sugarcane after extracting juice from it.
Bagacillo: The finer particles of residue of sugarcane after extracting juice from it.
Billets. Short pieces of sugar cane
Clarification: Treatment of cane juice for removal of suspended and dissolved impurities.
Calandria: Part of a boiling vessel fitted with tubes or coils in which juices or syrups or thick
liquors are heated by steam or vapour.
Dropping: Transfer of Massecuite from pan to crystallizers
Exhaust steam: Direct wet steam from the boilers
Fiber: Thread like slender parts of sugar cane, insoluble in water.
Filter cake: The insoluble material from treated juice retained on screen or cloth of filter.
Massecuite: Mass of sugar crystals surrounded by sugar containing liquor, obtained in vacuum
pans.
Molasses: Mother liquor separated from sugar crystals contained in Massecuite.
Preparative index: Percentage of brix in raptured cells to brix in whole cane
Pan: Apparatus in which syrup or molasses are boiled so as to obtain sugar crystals of the
desired size.
Graining:
Seed: Mass of fine sugar suspended in syrupy liquid boiled in vacuum pans with sugar bearing
liquids.
Syrup: Concentrated clear juice from evaporator.
Vacuum: State of reduced atmospheric pressure in a vessel.
Vapour bleeding: using same vapours to heat different bodies to economize on steam usage.
Heavy Molasses: Mother liquor obtained by centrifugal separation of sugar crystals from
massecuite with little or no use of water.
Light molasses: Mother liquor obtained during centrifugal operation with application of water,
after separation of heavy molasses from massecuite .
CONTENTS
Declaration ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2
Approval -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 3
Dedication ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 4
Acknowledgement -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5
Foreword-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 7
List of acronyms ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8
Key definitions---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 9
Introduction -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 14
Company background ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 14
Location of SCOUL-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 14
Vision and mission and core values ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 15
Core values ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 15
Objectives of SCOUL ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 15
Raw materials --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 16
Products ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 16
SCOUL layout -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 16
Target market --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 18
The managerial and organizational structure--------------------------------------------------------------------- 18
Manpower strength--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 18
Environmental management system at SCOUL ----------------------------------------------------------------- 20
Purpose of the industrial training. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 20
Safety------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 20
Sugarcane and sugar ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 22
Definition -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 22
Properties of sucrose ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 23
Parts of a sugarcane -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 23
Composition of sugar cane------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 23
Varieties of sugarcane species-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 24
 Propagation and growth --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 24
Harvesting ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 25
Green cane and burnt cane harvesting ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 25

Advantages of burnt cane over green cane ................................................................................ 25

Advantages of green cane over burnt cane ................................................................................ 25
Ways of sugarcane harvesting -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 26
Cane loading ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 26
Cane preparation and juice extraction -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 27
Cane yard. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 27

Cane weighing. ............................................................................................................................ 27

Offloading and feeding ............................................................................................................... 28
Cane preparation ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 28

Feed tables. .................................................................................................................................. 29

Cane carriers/ conveyors............................................................................................................. 29
The fibriser .................................................................................................................................. 30
Milling ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 31

The mills. ..................................................................................................................................... 31

The extraction process. ............................................................................................................... 34
Imbibition. ................................................................................................................................... 34
Juice from mill 3 juice from mill 4------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 35
Flow diagram for milling process. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 35
The rotary screen filter.---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 36
The lubrication system at the mill.--------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 36
The cooling system at the mill.------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 36
Parameters measured at mill (mill performance) ---------------------------------------------------------------- 36

Factors affecting the purity ......................................................................................................... 37

Effect of the preparative index to the mill ................................................................................. 37
Sugar losses at the mill. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 37

Prevention of losses .................................................................................................................... 37

 Mill speed ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 37
Maintenance of the mills -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 38
Clarification of raw juice. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 39

Advantages of heating juice to this temperature ....................................................................... 39

Preheating ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 39

Advantages of PHE ..................................................................................................................... 40

Liming ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 41

Reaction vessel ............................................................................................................................ 42

Reason for heating to 103-1050c ................................................................................................ 42
Flashing ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 43
The clarifier ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 43

The Rapidorr clarifier ................................................................................................................. 44

Factors that influence settling in the clarifier. ........................................................................... 45
Retention time ............................................................................................................................. 45
The filter station ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 45

The rotary vacuum filter ............................................................................................................. 46

Evaporation------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 47

Types of evaporators................................................................................................................... 48
Single effect and multiple effect evaporators ............................................................................ 50
Evaporation process .................................................................................................................... 51
How to start an evaporator.......................................................................................................... 51
Factors affecting the evaporation or boiling .............................................................................. 52
Scaling and evaporator cleaning ................................................................................................ 52
Sulphitation------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 53

The sulphitor reactions. .............................................................................................................. 53

Advantages of sulphitation ......................................................................................................... 54
Pan Boiling and crystallisation ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 55
The batch calandria pans -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 55
Vacuum formation --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 56
 The barometric condenser .......................................................................................................... 56
Operation ..................................................................................................................................... 57
BASIS OF PAN BOILING. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 57
Pan boiling schemes ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 58
A pan boiling---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 59
B pan boiling ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 60
C pan boiling ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 61

Graining methods ........................................................................................................................ 61

Methods of preparing slurry ....................................................................................................... 62
Crystallisation--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 62
Centrifugal separation ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 62

Batch centrifugal machines ........................................................................................................ 63

Operation of the batch centrifugal machines............................................................................. 64
Continuous centrifugal machines ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 65

Single and double purging .......................................................................................................... 65

Drying, bagging and storage ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 67
Drying ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 67

Fluidized bed drier. ..................................................................................................................... 67

Operation of a FBD ..................................................................................................................... 69
Bagging ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 69
Sugar storage ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 70
Loading ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 70
 Chapter one
Introduction
This is to give an overview of the origin of the company, location the visions and mission and
their objectives. It also gives the general picture of what is used in the company as raw materials
and what they produce-the finished products.

Company background
Sugar Corporation of Uganda Limited (SCOUL) is part of the Mehta Group of Companies
owned by the Mehta family and one of the leading producers of mill brown and light brown
sugar in Uganda. It was established in 1924 by then as Uganda Sugar Factory by the late Nanji
Kalidas Mehta. It was then in 1934 made a corporative business to produce sugar for both the
locals and internationals as markets under a limited liability.
During the reign of Idd Amin Dada, the owners were chased away in 1972 leaving Uganda Sugar
Factory in the hands of the government of Uganda by then, which was however run poorly and
almost collapsed. During the reign of Dr. Milton Obote by 1980 the family of Mehta was invited
and handed to back the assets of Uganda Sugar Factory under a joint agreement where all the
assets were to be vested to the new company with the name changing to Sugar Corporation of
Uganda Limited.
The company was then incorporated on the 26 th May 1980 with the government of Uganda
owning the largest shares about 51% and the Mehta family 49%. This came with renovation and
rehabilitation of the plant and the plantations and the work was finished by 1988 and then
inaugurated by H.E. Y. K. Museveni on the liberation day that year.
On the 10th August 2009 the government of Uganda handed over all its shares back to the Mehta
family and currently all shares are owned by the family as International Investment.
Corporation sitting on about 10657.75 hectares of which 9987.28 is under cane cultivation
capable of producing 800000 tons of cane per year. The rest of the land is under forests
buildings, roads and other infrastructure.

Location of SCOUL
The SCOUL manufacturing center is located a few kilometers East of Kampala and 35km west
of Jinja on Kampala-Jinja highway in Lugazi municipality, Buikwe district, Lugazi central
division Kabowa ward. The factory is on plot 14 factory road and the sugarcane gardens are in
the districts of Buikwe, Mukono and Kayunga.
Vision and mission and core values
Vision

To be the best quality sugar producer in Uganda

Mission

To be the best quality sugar in Uganda that satisfies our customers and provide fair returns on the
capital employed through dedicated employees and teamwork.

Core values
Transparency

We support our employees to access information that impacts on their jobs. Our policies are fair
and open to every member of the organisation. The policies are implemented without any bias
towards gender, creed, race or tribe. We strive to complete, accurate and timely communication
with all stakeholders. We treat every stakeholder with respect that alone leads to mental success.
Accountability
We empower our employees to find new opportunities for enhancing ones contribution to the
organisation, exploring and working with new ideas for the benefit of the organisation. We create
a challenging yet collaborative work environment to enable employees to do the right things
through structured teams or informal collaborations, while being consistent with guiding
policies. Tall employees take complete responsibility for the processes, decision and outcomes
within their areas of influence. We seek employees and business partners who fulfil ones
commitment on time.

Objectives of SCOUL
Sugar Corporation of Uganda limited operates this Cali on the objectives that cover the interest
of stakeholders, majority of employees, customers and economic interest of the corporation at
large and these include the following;
To provide fair returns on capital employed.
To ensure total satisfaction and to have the best supply of sugar.
To implement and maintain environmental management system that fulfills the requirements of
ISO
To build dedicated and hardworking team for efficiency
To provide staff development through involvement and training
To provide Fair Work environment with job security and equal opportunities for all
Raw materials
The major material of Sugar Corporation of Uganda limited is sugar cane which is grown on
company fields but however they also get sugar cane from out-growers. The plant has extended
furthermore in two electricity production that is cogeneration and the raw material is bagasse, the
distillery plant that uses molasses and carbon dioxide which is directly obtained from the distiller
The main source of energy at SCOUL is steam however sometimes they use electricity from
hydroelectric power off from the National Grid.

Products
The organization’s major product is commercial light brown and brown sugar that meets the East
African standard (EAS749) and international standard. The sugar is packed in bags of 1kg, 2kg,
5 kg, 25kg and 50kg with brand names as LUGAZI PREMIUM, MR. SWEET and LUGAZI
SUGAR MOVE WITH QUALITY, LUGAZI SUGAR MAKES LIFE SWEET.
Other products include extra neutral alcohol (ENA) and methylated spirit from distillery plant,
SCOUL flowers, and cables from the Cable Corporation.
They also supply electricity generated by use of steam turbines to the National Grid and lastly
the organic NPK compost manure as the filter cake.

SCOUL layout
This gives the general design of SCOUL layout in the block diagram format most especially for
the raw materials and the finished products for the main plant and the subsidiary plants that is the
sugar factory and the cogeneration, distillery and the carbon dioxide plant
 Sugar cane

Sugar factor

Sugar Molasses
Press mud Bagasse

Distillery

ENA Raw CO2 Spent wash

Steam generation
in boilers
CO2 plant Bio digester

Food
grade
CO2 Methane Bio compositing

Burnt in boilers

Electricity
Manure
Steam for in field
distillery
Target market
The market for the products from Sugar Corporation of Uganda limited is mainly the local
market and the international market. The local market includes all countries in East African
community. The sugar is mainly used for home consumption as well as a raw material for other
companies such as those making sweets, biscuits among others whereas the distillery product
such as spirits and alcohols can again be used in the sugar factory and for carbon dioxide it is
used to preserve beverages.

The managerial and organizational structure

C.E

Head Engineering

Head production Secretary

Sr. Mgr. Process Dy. GM. Elect/Inst. Dy. G.M Eng. Sr. Mgr. QA

Mgr. Process Dy. Mgr. Elct/Instr

Mgr. Mgr. Mgr.
Yard Boiler Prev. L.C
Ass. Mgr. Pans
main
Elect. Eng. Instr. Eng.
Mgr. Store
Supt.
Shift main SDMH
Chem. Mgr. Main /BH
Supt. Asst. Eng.
W/Hse L.O
Supt.TC
Dy. Mgr.
Process Cane yard
Chem. Personnel

Asst. Eng. B.H Shift Eng.

Asst. Mgr. Supt. Boiler

Workshop

Boiler Eng.

Boiler officer
Key
C.E – chief executive
Sr. – senior
Mgr. – manager
Dy. – deputy
G.M – general manager
Eng. – engineer
Elect. – Electrical
Inst. – installation
Ass. – Assistant
Chem. – chemist
Instr. – instrumentation
B.H – boiler house
Q.A – quality assurance
Main. – Maintenance
Prev. – preventive
L.C – lab chemist
L.O – lab operator
Supt – superintendent
W/Hse. – Ware house

Manpower strength
SCOUL is one of the leading employers in Uganda, employing people on permanent, contract
and casual terms. The boost of over 6280 employees.
Expatriates about ………………………..61
Managerial staff about ……………….268
Unionized staff about ………………….2416
Contract employees about …………..4000
Total strength is about………………….6745
Environmental management system at SCOUL
Like any other chemical processing industry, Sugar Corporation of Uganda is responsible
towards conserving the environment under the environmental management system which is
prescribed by the National Environment Management Authority of Uganda and the ISO. This
outlines the functions of SCOUL to support the environmental management as determined by the
company’s activities products and services legal requirements and the applicable requirements of
ISO 14001:2004 standard. The system reflects on the company’s environmental policies, projects
and also addresses the specific requirements of ISO. They include the parameters on all
processes, services undertaken by SCOUL as well as the influence on the suppliers of the
products which have the significant impact on the environment. Methane is burnt for example
before releasing it is released into the atmosphere, the spent wash from distillery is treated using
microorganisms and later acts as manure in sugar cane plantations. Likewise the mud is used as
NPK manure in the fields and the ashes from cogeneration is carefully handled and used in the
fields, wastewater is also treated before it is used again.

Purpose of the industrial training.

• To equip students with relevant skills and knowledge demanded for the advancing
technology in the world of work.
• To have student transform the theoretical class knowledge into practice by directly
engaging the processes with hands on the equipment and machines.

• To prepare the learner for real world problems by getting experience on how they are
solved using the class knowledge.
• To develop full understanding of teamwork, management, communication skills, work
ethics, employment demands, responsibilities and opportunities.
• To develop the student’s manual skills associated with scientific and technological
operations and providing background information and experience in the career choices.

Safety
The safety of everyone is a priority at SCOUL, the company puts in mind that the life or health
of all the individuals counts. For that matter therefore the company has put in place protective
measures and safety guidelines to prevent the occurrence of accidents and if at all these fail,
measures to lessen the extent of damage and destruction. These can be categorized under the
following;
• Maintaining an organized and orderly facility by
✓ Keeping the work area clean and uncluttered mostly at SCOUL there is a saying your
work is incomplete unless your work area is clean.
✓ Never to play or joke around any equipment, valves switches among others without
instruction.
✓ Use of adequate PPE’s which include the overall, safety footwear, hard hat, reflector
jackets to ease visibility in the night, eye goggles for dusty areas, while welding and
earplugs for noisy environments and then gloves to handle some corrosive or very rough
materials.
✓ Reporting any chemical spills with immediate effect from the time it is seen.
✓ Keeping all walk ways or paths free from any materials that may hider movements of the
operators or visitors
• Communicating hazards in the factor.
The factory has put warning signs and labels for hazardous conditions to avoid accidents
and alert the operators.
Always report any leakages or chemical spills in the factory to avoid adverse effects.

• While working on elevated heights, use support ropes with support from the guard rails
and ladders.

• In case of fire, fire extinguishers are well established with guidelines on how to use them,
in addition, sand buckets filled with sand can also be used.
• A well-established alarm system should be used in case of an accidents to alert the
concerned individuals. When the alarm is hard all work should be left and then take off.

• Use of proper walk ways while in the factory to avoid getting in contact with moving
parts of the machines however, most of the moving parts have been covered.
• Use properly established emergency exit routes. At SCOUL a PFD of the plant is drawn
showing all the emergency exits from the factory.
• Always do not start up any machine unless instructed by an operator or an engineer who
has the knowledge.

• Do not always attack any leakages before knowing exactly what caused or where the
leakage or fire is coming from. Always first establish the source of the leakages.
• Always walk in gazetted spaces. Avoid walking anyhow in the factory to avoid
unintended tempering of machines and instruments.
• Never leave any machine unattended. In case of shifts never leave work without ensuring
that you hand over a machine to someone else.
 Chapter 2
Sugarcane and sugar
Definition
Sugarcane is a perennial tropical grass grown on different fields of land. It’s a complex of
species with the main botanical name as saccharum officinarum. It is propagated vegetatively
using the stalk. New growth starts from the nodes. Cane is not propagated every time after
harvesting, cane regrows into new plants for about 2 times.
After harvesting, sugar cane should be processed and this is to recover the sugar which is
chemically known as sucrose. Sucrose is a disaccharide consisting of glucose known as dexstrose
and fructose also known as levulose as monomers. The two monosaccharide combine under
condensation reaction to form sucrose as follows
Glucose + Fructose sucrose + water
C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 C12H22O11 + H2O
Glucose and fructose are hexose sugars with the same molecular formula however, glucose has
an aldo group whereas fructose has a keto group. They usually exist in ringed structures as can
be seen below.

When we are talking about sugar in the factory, we mainly refer to sucrose and this sucrose is
mostly found in the parenchyma cells of the sugarcane plant compared to the sclerenchyma cells.
It is also found in the internodes as compared to the nodes due to presence of such cells.
Properties of sucrose
Physical
• It has a molecular weight of 342g/mol
•
Has density of 26% solution at 20 0c as 1.1082g/cm3

• Sucrose has a melting point of 1880c where it decomposes

• It is soluble in water and ethanol; at 20 0c solution is 67.09%saturated

• Sucrose crystals are monoclinic prisms with density of 1.588

Chemical
• At very high temperatures like 200 0c sucrose forms a brown substance known as caramel

• It forms oxalic acid on treatment with nitric acid

• Sulphuric acid charres sucrose with evolution of carbon oxide and sulphur dioxide gases

• Sucrose forms sucrates with group(ii) hydroxides

Parts of a sugarcane
Sugarcane like any other plants consists of a fibrous root system, a clean stalk which is normally
cut and brought to the factory and then the tops or parallel-veined leaves.
This can be seen as below.

Composition of sugar cane

Sugar cane typically consists of;
Water: this is about 70% of the total mass of the sugarcane and it dissolves our sugar.
Dissolved solids: these consists of sucrose, glucose, fructose, mineral salts among others which
are often measured using an RDS as Brix. This constitutes 15% of the total weight of the sugar
cane.
Extraneous matter: this includes the fiber, roots, leaves and trash and they also contribute to
about 15% of the total weight.
Other components of sugarcane are;
Organic polymers such as gums, which constitute about 6 monosaccharaides
Organic acids and nitrogenous compounds and this gives the juice its acidic nature.
Inorganic compounds which include the colouring compounds such as flavonoids, phenolics,
melanoids and HADP’s
Lipids etc.

Varieties of sugarcane species

There are quite a number of surgane varieties grown on different fields and these include;
CO495, CO91010, CoS 1230, CO0238 and each has a different gestation period before its
harvested.
However, at SCOUL the main variety of sugarcane grown is CO495 because of a number of
advantages which include;
• It has a high sucrose content

• It is less affected by pests and diseases

• It is had hence less edible by the humans also.
The main challenge of this cane variety is that it takes quite long time between 15-18 months to
mature depending on the season.

Propagation and growth

Sugarcane well sprouts on a well-drained loamy soil of a neutral PH. It requires adequate
nutrients especially nitrogen, phosphates, potassium and other trace mineral elements such as
iron, and chlorides.
The soils should be loose and friable with minimum tillage of about 45cm without causing
leaching since it is a heavy feeder.
Commercial cane fields are prepared by use of tractors to attain such a rough tillage required by
the sugarcane. After preparation, the field maybe fertilized using the bio-composting from the
sugar factory if it’s a fresh field or at weeding for the rejuvenating ones.
After the cane stalks are manually planted with three quarters of the seed buried in the soil.
Within a few weeks, the new buds will grow from internodes, this is vegetative propagation as
earlier said. Depending on the acne variety, the sugarcane can take about 12-18 months to reach
maturity.

Harvesting
Averagely mature cane is harvested because young cane contains a lot of water and less sucrose
whereas very old cane contains mostly lignin, pectin and cellulose compounds which are not
required in the factory.

Green cane and burnt cane harvesting

Depending on the requirements of the factory cane harvested can be either green cane or burnt
cane. Green cane is where cane is cut with their leaves and trash on and taken to the factory
whereas some cane fields are first burnt before the cane is harvested from the field.

Advantages of burnt cane over green cane

✓ Burnt cane lowers the amount of trash that is being brought to the factory. Trash absorbs
the juice instead since it is dry.
✓ It eases mechanical harvesting of cane

Disadvantages of burnt cane harvesting

✓ It causes pollution of air and may result into burning of immature cane.
✓ Burnt cane is prone to inversion and microbial attack

Advantages of green cane over burnt cane

• Green cane upon cutting down takes longer without serious destruction.

Disadvantages of green cane harvesting

• It affects visibility

• It is hard to gather and feed

• It is prone to billet losses

• There are high operational costs

• Has too much extraneous matter.
Ways of sugarcane harvesting
Sugar cane can be harvested manually or mechanically, normally out growers harvest their cane
manually and mechanically by the company.
In manual harvesting, individuals cut sugarcane stalk from region near the ground and the tops
removed. The sugarcane stalks are then piled in bundles ready for loading. This form of
harvesting is normally referred to as whole stalk harvesting.
In mechanical harvesting, choppers are normally used. The sugarcane is laid down as it is being
chopped into 150-300mm long billets and these are deposited on to wagons. This form of
harvesting is known as chopper harvesting.

Cane loading
This is the collection and feeding of cut sugarcane stalks on to Lorries, trailers and tractors. As it
is for harvesting, even loading is both manual and mechanical however most of the loading is
still done manually because it is more advantageous that is to say;
➢ It results into proper loading in bundles
➢ It also eliminates a lot of trash and mud
Some field especially company fields have employed used of cane stackers which pick the cane
and load it on the company tractors. Mechanical loading has a lot of challenges as sugarcane is
loaded with a lot of mud and trash.
 Chapter 3
Cane preparation and juice extraction
Sugarcane being perishable, it is always prone to deterioration. It is therefore upon the supplier
to ensure that all the harvested cane is available for processing in the shortest time possible.
Delays lead to sugarcane staling which results into reduction the recoverable sugars.
A number of factors determine the quality of the sugarcane being delivered to the cane yard and
these include the following;
o Time lag between cutting and crushing
o Extraneous matter accompanying the cane
Other factors that lead to such deterioration may include;
o Temperature and humidity
o Type of cane especially burnt cane
o Mode of harvesting especially chopping

Cane yard.
This is an area where cane handling, weighing and feeding and then cane preparation takes place
after the fields. It is always an open to air space located at the beginning of the sugar pant.

Cane weighing.
This is essential because it serves as means by which payments to the growers are made. Each
farmer is paid according to the weight of the sugarcane brought.

Steps in weighing
Trucks from the fields are brought via the weighbridge to measure the weight of the cane.
The gross weight for both cane and truck is recorded.
After offloading the weight of the empty truck or tractor is taken as the tire weight
The net weight of the sugarcane is obtained by the difference between the gross weight and the
tire weight.
From each truck that comes into the factory, random sugarcane samples are taken for the
laboratory quantitative and qualitative analysis

Quantitative analysis procedures

⚫ Sampled cane is weighed with trash to get the first weight W1
⚫ The trash is removed and cane is weighed again to get second weight W2
⚫ In case of seeds, they are removed and the third weight attained W3
The weight of trash is then obtained by W1-W2 whereas the weight of seeds attained as W2-W3
Some sugarcane stalks are crush in a small mill and the juice taken to the lab for analysis of the
juice composition.

Offloading and feeding

Cane while at the cane yard is offloaded using a number of machines and equipment and this is
fully mechanized and these include;
Overhead crane off-loaders. These are powered by a motor and engine, ropes tying cane is
hooked on to the crane sling bar and then lifted and fed to the feeder tables.
The hydraulic off loaders. These derive their force from hydraulic pressure which they use to
unload the tractors specifically by lifting the movable bar with chains holding the cane.
Gantry crane off loaders. These are forked and grasp the cane from the ground on the feed tables.
Cane stackers. These are fork like tractors which are used to offload the cane from tracks to the
ground. It also collects the scattered cane in the cane yard and feeds it on the feeder table.

The picture above is a typical cane yard, it shows the off loaders, the cranes, feeder tables,
carriers and the choppers positions.

Cane preparation
This is another important activity that takes place at the cane yard. It starts from when the cane is
fed on to the tables and then the carriers through the different sets of choppers. It is therefore the
cutting or chopping of the sugarcane into small pieces and then crushing theme ready for juice
extraction in the mill house

Feed tables.
Cane from trucks is fed on to feeder tables which have a flat slanting surface. They have solid
decks with a chain system that can drag and discharge the cane on to the cane carriers. The chain
system is driven by an electrically powered motor and a gear.
The feed tables have a kicker or tumbler at the head shaft to regulate the level of cane falling on
the cane carrier.
Depending on the season, most times the cane fed on the tables is normally washed and so at the
top of the feeder table is a pipe with nozzles that splash water on to the cane to regulate the
quantity of mud in the cane.
At SCOUL there are four feeder tables two on either sides. One side feeds from the tractors and
the other from the trucks and trailers.

Cane carriers/ conveyors

This is a moving apron that moves the cane from one point to another. It also gets its drive from
a motor and gear to regulate the speed of revolutions. At the end of each cane carrier is a chopper
with a section of knives to cut the cane and facilitate disintegration and extraction through
revolving. These knives are fitted hexagonally on to a shaft mounted by a bearing with two
blades each and directly connected to a motor. The choppers rotate at the speed of a motor of
capacity 261kW power and 590RPM shaft and cut the cane into sizable pieces.
At SCOUL there are five choppers and about four carriers for the cane labelled with different
names as follows;
From Cane carrier A, sugarcane moves to Kicker Cum Chopper A which has about 36 knives cut
and then to the Head-on Chopper A which has about 56 knives.
Chopped cane from feed table set 1 falls on to Cane Carrier B1 where cane from feed tables set 2
is fed through Kicker Cum Chopper B having 72 knives. The cane is chopped and then moved
through the Head-on Chopper B having about 58 knives.
From the HOCB cane falls on to Cane carrier B2 and carried to the Leveler. The major role of
the leveler is to even out the distribution of cane on the carrier to the fibriser but it has now been
modified and fixed with about 72 knives to further cut the cane finer fiber so it evens as it cuts.
Note:
▪ Cane carriers are elevated at an angle from one carrier to another to ease the transfer of
cane than it would be when the belts were at the same level.
▪ The more the number of knives the finer the chopping and therefore the PI increases from
carrier A through B to the fibriser.
The prepared cane is carried to the pusher drum that rotates slowly and gives directs the fiber to
the fibriser beneath it. The fibriser is also driven by a motor and a gear box.

The fibriser
This is a heavy equipment used for shredding sugarcane into fiber and open the sucrose cells to
enable the prepared cane to be crushed by the roller of the mill to extract the juice.
The fibriser consists of a rotating drum of about 2 tons. The drum has 8 rows each fit with 19
hammers, of about 20kg each that hit the prepared cane to fiber.
It has an anvil and grid plates on to which hammers open the sucrose cells of the fiber as the
rotate around.
Due to this heavy weight and activities, the fibriser is run by two electrically powered motors of
capacity 1000kW with shaft rotating at about 780RPM.
When the cane has attained the desired level of prepare that is a PI between 84-85%, it falls and
is conveyed by the Fibrised Cane Rake elevator to the Cane Belt Conveyor 1.
The CBC1 has an equalizer which evens out the distribution of cane and levels the amount of
fiber layer on the conveyor to going to the mill, the equalizer is designed like a kicker with a
shaft fixed with arms and as it revolves, excess fiber falls back and a desired amount is allowed
to pass. The advantage of the equalizer is to prevent t much fiber that may chock the mills
leading to poor extraction.
Along the CBC1 if a fixed strong, powerful and very sensitive Iron separator. This is an
electromagnet set to trap all metals that come along with the fiber. The iron separator attracts and
holds firmly the metals to about half a ton and then this can be removed.
When metals are not removed they tend to destroy the grooves of the roll shells hence poor
extraction of the juice at the mills.
From the CBC1 cane falls on to the CBC2 which also has an equalizer and this conveys the fiber
directly to the first mill. Each belt and equalizer is driven by a motor and a gear. The fiber then
falls to the mills via the Donnelly chute to the first mill.
Block diagram for cane preparation.

Sugarcane cane carrier

Feeder table 1 Kicker cum Head On chopper
chopper B

Feeder
table 2
Kicker cum
Chopper B

Head on
Chopper B
Fibrised cane rake elevator

CBC 2 CBC1
Mill house
Iron Equalizer
Fibriser
separator

Milling
Milling is the process through which cane fiber is squeezed to extract the juice out of it. It takes
place in the mill house and done using mills.

The mills.
There are four mill units at Sugar Corporation of Uganda Limited and altogether they form their
tandem. These mills are run by electrically powered motors which convert the electrical energy
to the mechanical kinetic energy.
A single unit of mill consists of four rollers that is the top, feed, under feed and the discharge
rolls.
There is a trash beam where the trash plate sits. The trash plate provides support to the rolls and
has teeth to aid the movement of the top roller. It also prevents the fiber from falling into the
juice tray.
The most important of the rolls is the top roll which drives the other rollers using energy from
the motors of 750kW capacity. Therefore the rollers get their drive from the motors however the
rolls rotate at a less speed compared to the mills. To regulate this speed, there is a planetary gear
box installed in between. The gear is connected to the rollers by a shaft through a system of rope
or polyester ring coupling and then the drive is transmitted to the top roller.

The roller normally consists of steel shaft on to which a shrunk of cast iron is fit. The roll also
has a bearing for rotation called bush bearing or gun metal of brass alloy and this is on either
sides of the shaft sitting on the journal.

The bearing is often lubricated using grease and not oil because;
✓ Grease leads to low maintenance costs
✓ It withstands much het being generated
So the bearing has holes which are connected to the tubes from the lubrication system with each
wall having two lines. Heat from the bearing liner is removed by conduction to the outside
casing with grooves supplied with cold water by the cooling system.
It has a ring liner which acts as a barrier to prevent juice from getting into the journal to distort
the lubrication system. The pitch of grooves differs for example for mill 1 and 2 it is 50mm and
40mm for mill 3 and 4. The smaller the pitch the finer the extraction. All rolls at the same mill
have the same pitch to allow scrubber effectively work.

The type of rolls used at SCOUL are non-conversional rolls because of their advantages. They
have perforations to allow juice enter the shell after extraction and later out through the side
holes. This avoids the flooding of juice in the mills compared to the traditional type of rolls.
There are mainly four rolls and these include;
The top roller
This is the main driving roll, it consumes half of the total mill torque and is subjected to bending
against the reaction of the feed roll, trash plate and the discharge roll. It attains its drive directly
from the motor via coupling with the gearbox. As the roll rotates in ant-clockwise direction, the
teeth of its pinion pushes the feed roll downwards and the discharge upwards in the clockwise
direction. It has rough grooves which proves a large surface area to volume ration for maximum
juice extraction
The feed roller
This is adjustable sideways and directs the feed/ crushed fiber to be squeezed between with the
top roll to extract the juice. It is slightly smaller than the top roll and it attains its drive force
from the top roll via the crown pinions.
The discharge roll.
This is also adjustable sideways and provides an interface for extraction with the top roller. It
directs the squeezed fiber to the rake elevator the second mill.
The underfeed roller
This is often added to the existing three roll mill to redirect the cane and assist the feeding when
falling from the Donnelly chute. It works like a pusher drum on the fibriser to guide the fiber
flow. Unlike the feed and discharge rolls, the underfeed roll is driven by the top roll with power
from a motor and gear from the opposite sited, so the pinions are connected from the other side.
Each roller has a scrapper to remove the fiber attached on the roll to reduce on the levels of
chocking. There also a trash plate to direct the fiber from feed opening where it has been
compressed with some juice extraction to discharge opening for further milling.

The extraction process.

The extraction of juice by the mill rolls is by the help of the hydraulic system. This system
provides an opposing force to the rolls and hence extraction.
The hydraulic system consists of oil tanks, pumps, accumulator and oil caps. The pump pumps
oil from the oil tank first to the nitrogen accumulators containing nitrogen gas at a a very high
pressure about 180kg/cm2 which in turn exerts this pressure to the hydraulic caps.
The hydraulic oil caps have a piston inside which when pressed they exert a force on to the top
roller that counteracts the force exerted by the fiber being entering and then compressed between
the two rollers hence extracting juice out of fiber.
The juice from mill 1 collects in the juice tray and then flows to the storage tank via the gutter
made of stainless steel to prevent corrosion due to the acidic nature of juice. Innocin biocide is
added to kill the microorganisms that may cause inversion of the sucrose in the juice.
From the storage tank, the juice is pumped to the rotary screen filter which sieves out the finer
bagasse which it then pours to the rake elevator to the second mill.
The fiber from mill 1 is wetted using juice from mill 3 and then elevated to mill 2 that extracts
the juice into the storage tanks which is also pumped to the rotary screen filter for screening.
Fiber leaving mill 2 is wetted by the juice from mill 4 and then elevated to mill 3 where
extraction takes place and then juice pumped to fiber from mill 1.

Imbibition.
This is addition of water or juice to the fiber leaving one mill as it goes to the other and its
absorption by that fiber to aid further extraction. There a number of imbibition types and these
can be categorized as follows;
✓ Hot and cold imbibition
✓ Simple and compound imbibition
✓ Maceration/ counter current
Advantages of hot over cold imbibition
 ▪ Hot water increase solubility of sucrose thus more extraction.
▪ It also kills some microorganisms in the juice.
Advantages of compound imbibition of simple imbibition.
▪ Compound imbibition helps in proper mixing of the juice.
The fiber from mill 3 is imbibed with water at temperatures between 65 to 70 0c because of the
advantages described above and elevated to the fourth mill. The juice is extracted and stored in
the tank from where it is pumped to the fiber leaving mill 2.
The fiber from mill 4 is considered to contain minimal sucrose with brix between 1.25 and 1.5
and this conveyed for cogeneration and is now considered ad bagasse.
The process of mixing the juices from mill 3 with fiber from mill 1 and juice from mill 4 with
fiber from mill two is called compound imbibition.
The screened juice from the rotary screen filter flow by gravity to the sand catcher tank to
sediment excess sand. The juice then overflows to the screened juice tank from where it pumped
to process.

Mill 1 R. E Mill 2 R. E Mill 3 R. E Mill 4

2Bagasse

Juice from mill 3 juice from mill 4

Storage Storage Storage

Primary tank tank tank
juice
tank

Rotary screen
filter

Hot Imbibition
water tank

Sand Catcher
tank
Screened
To process
juice tank
Flow diagram for milling process.
The rotary screen filter.
This is consists of a round cylindrical long drum made of stainless steel screens with tiny
perforations to allow passage of juice. The drum has an open end and the other end closed and
with a large pinion that is connected to the small gear with a chain. The small gear attains its
drive from a motor and gearbox whose shaft is connected to the small gear with a chain.
The mode of filtration of small fiber from the juice is by centrifugal force as juice enters via the
inlet, the rotating drum separates the fiber from the juice. The drum is inclined at an angle to
allow the fiber fall back to the elevators as the juice passes through the perforations to the
storage tank.
The rotary screen filter has an overhead pipe with about 60 nozzles over the entire length, this
splash hot water of about 800c at a high pressure on to the drum to open up the screen
perforations of the drum to reduce chocking. This is done after a given time interval.

The lubrication system at the mill.

Due to the activities of the rollers and revolutions, machines are subjected to tear and wear and
this regulated by the lubrication system. It is mainly grease for the roll bearing and oil for the
gears. It consists of grease/oil tanks, pumps and transmission lines to the required areas. The
temperature and pressures of the system is always monitored to ensure proper working and the
lubricants are always supplied at intervals.

The cooling system at the mill.

Due to friction, a lot of heat is generated at the mill rolls and the gears. This heat is removed by
using water as a coolant.
Fresh water is pumped from the cold water storage tank to supply the different mills at either
side of the rolls that is the crown side and the offside and the same is done for the oil system of
the gear box which is cooled by conduction.
The warm water is discharged back, cooled and recirculated again.

Parameters measured at mill (mill performance)

Brix. This is the amount of dissolved solids in the sucrose solution as the sugar content. A
sample of juice is taken to the lab and brix attained using a refractometer.
Polarity (pol). This is the concentration of a solution of pure sucrose. It is also attained in the lab
using a polarimeter. It is measured in percentages.
Purity. This the ratio of pol and brix. It also describes the concentration of sugar in a given
sample.
Factors affecting the purity
These mainly affect the polarity and they include;
➢ Age of cane
➢ Microbial effect
➢ Cane type
➢ Cleanliness of cane

Effect of the preparative index to the mill

The PI should generally range between 84 and 85%
PI beyond 85% is high and results into finer fiber which would chock the mill and the rotary
screen filter
PI below 84% would mean less sucrose cell exposure and bigger fiber leading to less extraction
and poor mill performance.

Sugar losses at the mill.

➢ Physical losses such as poor house keeping
➢ Chemical losses like;
✓ Low PH conversions
✓ Enzymatic destruction such as invertase
✓ Microbial attack especially the Leuconostocs

Prevention of losses
⚫ Use of biocides such as Innocin
⚫ Reducing on the retention time in storage tanks

Mill speed
This is the number of revolutions per minute made by the mill rolls. Mills should be kept at an
average RPM of about 4.5 to attain maximum extraction. This is to tap into the advantages of
both low and high speeds and avoiding the disadvantages which include;
o Higher outputs
o Low torques on the gears, coupling and mill roles
o Allow better feeding
o To ease the drainage
o Higher effective pressure and maximum extraction
Maintenance of the mills
This can be done in a number of ways;
❖ Replacing won out mill roles with new shells
❖ Ensure proper lubrication and cooling
❖ Avoid exposure to metals
❖ Use of right motor capacities and gears.
❖ Doing planned maintenance either quarterly, half a year or yearly
 Chapter 4
Clarification of raw juice.
The process of clarification herein is mainly referred to as defecation which is a reaction of lime
with raw cane juice to form calcium phosphates as flocs in the reaction vessel. This is the process
of obtaining a clear juice by its separation from mud using flocculants.
A number of ways can be used to do the clarification for example liming, phosphitation,
carbonation and sulphitation, however, liming has remained the best mode of separation because
of its advantages such as;
▪ PH regulation
▪ Ease to eliminate the ions
▪ Being cheaper way of clarification
For clarification to occur, the main prerequisite is a temperature of about 75 and 700c and at least
juice should have this temperature for proper separation.

Advantages of heating juice to this temperature

▪ It aids lime reaction with juice as the activation energy for the reaction
▪ It coagulates proteins in the juice
▪ It kills some microbes
▪ It regulates the action of Leuconostoc mesenteroid

Preheating
Raw juice from the screened juice tank in the mill house is pumped to the clarification process
and it comes at a temperature range between 33 and 35 0c.
The juice is then passed through the vapour line heaters which contain the vapours from the last
body of the evaporators. The vapour in the lines will rise the juice temperature to about 50 oc.
Note:
This temperature is obtained when juice is heated with the vapors from the last body of the
multiple effect evaporators going to the condensers. These vapour line heaters are shell and tube
heat exchangers.
The advantage of vapour line heating is that it lowers the energy consumption where the vapour
going to the condenser will be at lower temperature and hence ease the condensation.
Also rising the temperature of the juice to 50 0c will save energy required to rise the temperature
of the juice to the desired 650c.
The preheated juice flows to the raw juice plate heat exchangers and these will rise the juice
temperature to about 60 0c using second vapours.

Advantages of PHE
• They have a large surface area to volume ratio for heat exchange
• They have a high durability

• They occupy a small space due to their small size

• They have an overall high efficiency.
Disadvantages of the PHE
• They only work best with liquids

• They do not work with viscous fluids or suspensions due to their size
• They are expensive to buy and maintain
The juice then flows to the raw juice heaters which are shell and tube using the 2nd vapours from
the FFEs and these rise the temperature to 75 or 70oc ready for liming.
Shell and tube heaters
Streams enter the vessel, on the steam side where it swirls around the tubes condenses on the
cooler surface of the tubes and releases heat to the juice. The pipes are supported by the top and
bottom plates as seen below.

The top tube plate and the bottom tube plate

The heater has pressure vents at the top to always regulate the pressures while heating. It has
drain nipples at the bottom to discharge juice in any case which can later be pumped to the juice
tanks. Like any other vessel, it has noxious vent pipes while let them out any water pipes for
testing the leakages after cleaning. Whereas the condensates exit through a steam a trap on the
opposite of the vessel.

Liming
A good quality lime should be used. It should contain less of magnesium and iron ions, sand or
unburnt materials as these would be deposited on the tubes in evaporators. At SCOUL hydrated
lime Ca(OH)2 is preferred to anhydrous lime CaO with purity about 66% and beyond. This can
be measured using a Baume.
The lime is first dissolved in cold water rather than directly adding the solid lime to the juice as
this would like to uneven liming. The concept of dissolving lime in cold water is called cold
liming. Cold liming is preferred to hot liming because it minimizes the risks of sucrose inversion
since the juice is neutralized before the heating process is done. Lime is also soluble in cold juice
than it does in hot juice.
There are two lime tanks one for mixing and one for discharge of lime to the reaction tower. In
the mixing time, 0.5-0.8kg of lime is mixed with 1 liter of water and then continuously agitated
to dissolve the lime a solution which is transferred to the discharge tank from where it is pumped
and slowly flows to the reaction tower.
Moderate ratios of lime to juice should be used to avoid excess liming that would rise the PH of
the juice and to ensure good clarification.
The heated raw juice flows to the reaction tower where it’s mixed with a milky solution of lime
and the filtrate with phosphoric acid from the filter station and then this flows by gravity to the
reaction vessel.

Reaction vessel
The lime solution contains calcium ions and hydroxide ions. The calcium ions here react with the
phosphate ions in the juice to form the Tri-calcium phosphate as below,
Ca2+(aq) + PO 43-(aq) Ca3(PO4)2(s)
This is relatively insoluble with a higher molecular weight and forms a basis for sedimentation
by attracting different impurity particles due to the hydrostatic forces that bind them to form
flocs.
The phosphates in the raw juice is always of low concentration of about 300ppm which is
however altered by the liming process making the PH to shoot high and this is always balanced
by addition of phosphoric acid in the filtrate.
This helps to balance the calcium ions by formation of the phosphates that complexes the
impurities. Therefore excess Calcium ions are removed by addition of phosphoric acid.
From the reaction vessel, juice flows by gravity to the treated juice tank. All these processes
occur with loss of heat so before the clarification, the treated juice is pumped to the treated juice
shell and tube heaters using the first vapours or exhaust steam which rise its temperature to about
103 or 1050c

Reason for heating to 103-1050c

This temperature aids sedimentation as denser mad settles down clear juice on top.
It also aids the flashing process.
Flashing
This process enables elimination of air bubbles on to which some impurities of light bagasse and
mud particles might be attached. This is done in the flash tank. A flash tank is a cylindrical tank
with a flue opening on top and a conical bottom.
Heated treated juice flows to the flash tank and enters tangentially via a pipe on the sides where
it enters spirally along the inside surfaces with guidance of the conical shape of the tank. This
then changes the flow from turbulent to lamina. This is so because;
Lamina flow aids settling and easy flashing bubbles uniformly from the juice.

The clarifier
From the flash tank, juice overflows to the clarifier, along which there is addition of Poly Acryl
Amide a flocculant of a high molecular weight. In the clarifier, this polymer binds on the flocs
formed by the tri-calcium phosphate increasing the density and hence settling down as mud.
A continuous clarifier or subsider is a vessel into which the juice to be settled is fed uniformly
and continuously, and which is large enough to reduce the velocity of flow and of circulation of
the juice to such a low value that it allows settling to take place. The clear juice obtained is
similarly withdrawn from the upper part of the subsider in an equally uniform and continuous
manner, as also are the muds from the lower portion.
Clarifiers are generally of different types but have the same working, the commonest type being
the Rapidorr 444.
The Rapidorr clarifier

It is has central hollow shaft, rotating very slowly with scrapers of sheet metal which slowly
brush the bottom of each of the four compartments. The juice to be clarified enters tangentially
at the top, into a compartment half the diameter of the main clarifier; this is termed the feed
compartment or flocculation chamber.
Each compartment of the clarifier is fed separately by a rotating central tube by means of
openings situated in the upper part of the compartment. The entering juice encounters baf fle
plates designed to ensure good distribution of the juice. It flows radially towards the outer wall.
Each compartment has 4 mud pipes which help to check the mud levels in the vessel.
Settling of the mud proceeds simultaneously, and the muds deposited on the bottom plate are
moved by scrapers mounted on arms connected to the central tube and pushed towards the
centre; there they settle into a mud tray from which they are extracted by diaphragm pumps at
controllable rates; the mud from the various trays is pumped to a mud tank, from which it goes to
the filter section.
The clear juice is withdrawn from each compartment by an internal pipe with several openings
which withdraw the juice close to the roof of the compartment. The juice then passes through an
overflow box, by vertical pipes fitted with sliding sleeves which permit regulation of the rate and
overflow level.
Factors that influence settling in the clarifier.
Density difference between material to settle and liquid in which it is dissolved
Type of flow of the mixture
The viscosity of the solution

Retention time
The retention time of the juice in the clarifier should be reduced to about 30 minutes to ensure
low inversion rates with proper settling. The more time the juice takes the faster the sucrose loss
rates as a result of inversion due to the favorable conditions.

The filter station

This is where filter cake is formed by separation of the mud from the filtrate of juice. This is
done by use of a rotary vacuum filter.
Muddy juice from the clarifier is tapped off into the mud juice tank. This tank is always
maintained at three quarters full to avoid overflow. An Innoquant biocide is added to the mud
juice to kill all the microorganisms that might be in. From the tank, the mud juice is pumped to
the mud-Bagacillo mixer where they are mixed in the ratios of 4:3 respectively.
Bagacillo is added to the mud juice in order to increase the porosity of the filter cake being
formed and also aid its adherence on to the screens. The mixer has an agitator to proportional
mixing.
The rotary vacuum filter
The filter is composed of a hollow drum rotating about a horizontal axis and part ly submerged
in the liquid to be filtered. The periphery of the drum serves as the filtering surface . The
whole units comprise of;
A rotating drum which attains its drive from an electrically powered motor and speed regulated
using a gearbox. The horizontal cylindrical drum that has grids on to which perforated screens
are built.
The perforated screen outer surface is directly connected to the inner surface linked to the spider
tubes. The screen provides an attachment for the cake and the tubes absorb the filtrated from the
mud by use of vacuum. The tubes join together in different sections to separate pipes for the
heavy and lighter pipes with a valve to control the floor. The solid-liquid mixture to be separated
collects in a trough fixed with an agitator to prevent solids from settling down.
The principle behind the separation is use of suction pressure or vacuum which is created using a
suction pump via tubes connected to two different valves one that distributes the high vacuum
and the one for the low vacuum. The vacuum is differently distributed in the three main regions;
(a) One without connection to the vacuum, but connected to the atmosphere
(b) The second with a chamber where a low vacuum is maintained
(c) The third connecting to a chamber where a higher vacuum is maintained

Operation
As the filter drum rotates, the section which first enters the mixture is immediately connected
with the low vacuum. This sucks the liquid, which passes through the fine perforations.
However, the screen perforations become coated with pieces of fine bagasse and suspended
matter. The first juice which passes through is badly filtered and very turbid; it is called a
cloudy/heavy filtrate and is directed to a special receiver tank.
The coated layer which forms the beginning of the filter cake, then passes to the valve sector
connecting to the higher vacuum. The juice which now passes through is more effectively
filtered by its own impurities and by the fine bagasse which it contains, which thus
themselves form the necessary filtering that collects on the surface of the drum until it emerges
out of the mixture trough.
The rotating drum then passes under an overhead pipe that sprinkles hot water on to the cake and
another with dripping water to avoid drying a process known as washing the cake for sufficient
time to dissolve any remaining sugar and then the solution is drawn by the high vacuum. This
now constitutes clear filtrate which is taken to another receiver. The cake builds up and
hardening continues in the high vacuum region as it dries.
Just before the section re-enters the mixture in the trough, it arrives at a scraper formed by a rigid
strip of rubber belting which bears lightly on the copper screen. When the filter section is about to reach
the scraper, the distributor valve breaks the vacuum which has held the cake against the filter surface.
Then the slightest contact of the scraper detaches the cake and it drops into a screw or belt conveyor
which removes it outside and it is dropped into a truck which, as soon as it is filled, is taken for
spreading in the fields, and the truck is immediately replaced by another.
The filtrates from each receiver tank mix in the filtrate tank into which phosphoric acid is added and from
where it is pumped to reaction tower.
Flow diagram for juice clarification process
Raw juice
33-350c 500c 600c 750c
Vapor line PHE Raw juice Reaction
0 Treated
heater 115 c heater tower
juice tank

Filtrate Lime
Treated juice
heater
Filter cake to 103-1050c
Evaporators Clear juice
Clear
heater Clarifier
juice Flash
0
110-115 c tank tank
Mud

Filter cake to cane fields Rotary vacuum Mud

Bagacillo Mud
filter juice tank
mixer

Evaporation
This is the process of concentrating the juice by removal of water or evaporation. The clear juice
from the clarifier contains much of water and Brix about 15 0 and it is always concentrated in
which most of this water has to be removed for sucrose crystallization to about 640 Brix to obtain
a syrup. A sugar evaporator consists essentially of a tubular calandria serving as a heat
exchanger: the heating steam surrounds the outside of the tubes and the juice to be
evaporated circulates inside the tubes.

Types of evaporators.
Robert evaporators
Kestners
Semi-Kestners
Falling film and rising film evaporators

The semi Kestners

These are vertical tube calandria evaporators with longer tubes about 1.5 to 3m and diameter of
about 38mm. They are aligned vertically and held in position up and down by plates. The vapour
coming in circulates in the shell all over the tubes.

The top tube plate the tubes

The calandria has a down take for the juice in the centre to act as a juice outlet. At the top of
evaporator are entrainment separators made of denser material to condense some vapour
escaping with juice to avoid the loss. The vapour from the juice are now sent next evaporator.

The falling film evaporators

These can be both tubular and plate evaporators. They comprise of long tubes of about 10-12
meters with a heating surface area of 2800m2. The heating units consists of steam jacketed tubes
run aligned vertically in the middle of the evaporator. The feed inlet is at the bottom from where
juice is taken to the recirculation pump that pumps the juice to the top and from the top
compartment it is distributed to the drop cups which slowly allows the juice to flow down the
tubes from where it is heated by the swirling steam around the tubes and by the time it flows to
the outlet, it has attained the desired temperature. This can be illustrated as below:

Illustration of the falling film evaporator

At SCOUL there are mainly two types of evaporators that is the semi-Kestners and the falling
film. There are specifically five evaporator bodies which perform the evaporation process. The
first are semi-Kestners vapour cells. The two form the first body with the second body being of a
falling film evaporator. The VCs and the FFEs are single effect evaporators. The other bodies are
in three sets of triple effect evaporators with each set having body iii, iv and v.
Single effect and multiple effect evaporators
This is based on the use of vapour of boiling juice for evaporating further the same juice in
another body. This way 2, 3, 4, or 5 vessels are joined together with the first one heated with
steam. The pressure in each vessel in the series goes on gradually decreasing, whereby the
boiling point of juice is also diminishing progressively as we pass from first vessel to the last one
which has its vapour space connected to the vacuum system. Thus if the first vessel in the effect
is heated by steam of about 120°C, the vapors at about 100 - 103°C from this will be connected
to the heating space of the second vessel which will have no or less vacuum, in the same way the
vapour of the second vessel boiling will be led to heat 3rd body with more vacuum while the last
body will be boiling at low temperature and the highest vacuum about 600mmHg. In this case
the first body is under single effect because it’s directly supplied by the exhaust steam whereas
the other vessels are under multiple effect.

Advantages of multiple effect evaporation

(i) Steam economy since one kg of steam is utilized for evaporating about 4-5 kg of water from
this system.
(ii) Exposure of juice to high temperatures for longer duration is avoided, thereby reducing
sucrose destruction by heat.
(iii) Vapour from any vessel can be robbed for heating of juice or pans, operation thereby
reducing the steam load in the process known as vapour bleeding.
Evaporation process
The clear juice from the juice heaters at 110-1150c enters the vapour cell and some water is
evaporated off by use of exhaust steam at about 120 0c from the boilers. The first body which
consists of two bodies of heating area 2000m 2 and 920m2. The vapors of the boiling juice are
sent to the falling film evaporator are referred to as the first vapors whereas the first condensate
is sent back to the boilers.
Vapors from the VCs at about 1180c heat juice in the second body the FFE of heating area
2800m2. The second vapors at about 860c are then sent to the third bodies of each set and this at a
temperature about 95oc or for heating the raw juice. The condensate from the FFE flows to the
first compartment of the Cigar via a siphon to prevent creation of the vacuum.
The condensate of the third body is sent to the second compartment of the cigar and the third
vapors to heat the contents of the fourth body whose condensate flows to the third compartment
of cigar and vapour for heating the syrup in the last body.
The temperatures of the vapor heating the last bodies is very low and insufficient to cause
evaporation a reason vacuum is used. The condensate from the last bodies pass via the vapour
line juice heaters to pre heat the raw juice from the mill house and the condensate to the last
compartment of the cigar. The syrup obtained is either pumped to the sulphitor for bleaching in
case of white sugar or directly to pan boilers for crystallisation.

How to start an evaporator

Close steam valves and vapour valves on top of the vapour cell and the first body of a set and
open the vapour valves on top of the vapour cell. Close the wash out valves for all bodies.
Close all the suction and delivery valves of all condensate and syrup extraction pumps. Also
close the valves for the vacuum equalizer lines and cut over valves connected to the evaporator.
Caustic soda venting valves should also be closed.
Open the water valves to the condenser and start the injection water pump. This will ensure
vacuum is created in the last bodies of evaporator sets to about 25”Hg.
The vacuum is then introduced to the next body by opening the cut over and ammonia valve for
the last body and this is continued for the other bodies and this is maintained as follows;

Body ii body iii body iv body v

0-0.2” Hg 5-8”Hg 12-18”Hg 22-25”Hg
At this point the set is ready to be run.
After the clear juice is introduced to the vapour cell by opening the inlet valve. The juice is filled
to first glass.
Open the FFE body inlet and run the juice transfer pump until the juice reaches level 1 glass.
Then open the cutover valve to body iii until the juice reaches the tube level. Continue opening
the cut over valves until the juice is at tube level for body iv and v.
Steam is introduced to the VCs and the FFE opening steam valve connected to these bodies. The
suction and delivery valves of the condensate, pumps connected to the VCs and the FFE. When
the condensate has filled the receiver bottle half way, condensate pumps are started. This is done
for the rest of the bodies.
When the boiling is steady in all bodies, the brix is checked for the syrup leaving the last body
which should be maintained at 50-650.
The delivery and suction valves of the syrup are opened as well as valve for vacuum equalizing
line to the sulphitor and then the pump run.
The levels of the juice in the bodies just to splash on the 1 st glass of each body by setting the cut
over valves correctly.

Factors affecting the evaporation or boiling

The types of steam.
Steam pressure
Scale formation
Juice composition and clarity
Tube material

Scaling and evaporator cleaning

Scaling is the formation of a layer of scale like material on the inner surface of the tubes mainly
as a result of inorganic acid precipitation. The scales increase the resistance to heat flow and
hence less transmission affecting the evaporation process. After the process of cleaning the
evaporators should be checked for leakages before they are put to use.

How to clean evaporators

After the juice flow to the evaporator is stopped, each body is drained and water passed through
each body subsequently. In case there was sulphitation both acid and alkali boiling are practiced,
followed by mechanical scraping and brushing .
The chemical cleaning involves use of caustic soda at relatively low concentration less than
20g/100g of solution and boiled for sufficient time to about 3days. Sometimes there is use of
soda ash followed by industrial salt also in small concentration. High concentration makes
boiling hard by rising the boiling point of the solution. The caustic soda solution is prepared in a
special soda storage tank constructed below the evaporator floor and soda circulated through the
evaporator calandria which are heated by steam. The soda from the evaporator bodies is stored in
the tank which is connected to a pump for circulation of soda. The chemical weakens the bond
between the scale and the tube thus removing it.
Boiling with caustic soda may be proceeded with acid cleaning mainly sulphurous acid about 1-
2% concentration. High temperatures are required to soften the scales and ease the cleaning.
Mechanical cleaning. Mechanical cleaning is effected with the aid of an electric descaler or tube
brush. This consist of a small frame carrying an electric motor. This motor has a flexible shaft of
6 m in length, enclosed in a protective sheath, and terminating in a tool with serrated rollers
which it drives at high speed. These rollers are loose on their axes so that centrifugal force
presses them against the wall of the tube, which permits a given tool to clean tubes of slightly
differing diameters by removing the scales.
Evaporators should be thoroughly checked to ensure no scales remain in tubes for effective
evaporation. Cleaning can be done monthly or less depending on the performance of the
evaporators.

Sulphitation
This is the process of purification of syrup by a bleaching agent mostly sulphur dioxide to
produce light brown sugar. It also serves as a sink for the removal of calcium ions in solution
introduced during the liming process. It is done using as sulphitor vessel.

The sulphitor reactions.

The sulphur is introduced into the furnace with trays sliding in guides which contain quick lime
to dry the gas. The air passes to the upper plate with sulphur baffles to contact with the quick
lime. The gas then rises near the sulphur outlet and by the way of sublimation chamber which is
jacketed with water cooled flue, this water cools the furnace to reduce heat corrosion.
This also condenses the melted sulphur and then cool the gas to about 750c as rises due to its less
density to react with the juice which is flowing from top as counter current system.
The air reacts with sulphur in the ratio of 4:1 to yield about 12-16% of sulphur dioxide gas that is
required to react with the juice.

When sulphur is heated in air it first melts and at about 363°C burns with blue flame producing
S02 and traces of SO3.
S(s) + 02(g) SO2(g)
It combines with water to form sulphurous acid.
H20(l) + S02(g) H2S03(aq)
Sulphurous acid or sulphur dioxide in solution possesses reducing action and acts as electron
donor in conjunction with water as follows when it ionizes
S032-(aq) + H20(l) S042-(aq) + 2H+(aq) + 2e
Brown colour of iron compound is removed by reducing ferric salts to ferrous as follows
Fe3+(aq) + e Fe2+(aq)
Advantages of sulphitation
• Results into rapid settling
• It reduces the viscosity of the syrup

• It results into better crystallisation

 Chapter 5
Pan Boiling and crystallisation
The boiling of syrup is the heart of the sugar manufacturing process, it involves further brixing
of the syrup from the evaporators from 640 to about 980. The syrup slowly loses its fluidity to a
semi solid state called a Massecuite. In simple terms pan boiling is the process of initiation and
formation of sucrose sugar crystals. When juice is concentrated, its viscosity rises rapidly with
brix and, when it is about 80 0 crystals begin to appear and the nature of the material changes.

Boiling results in formation of mainly three sugars that’s A sugar, B sugar, and C sugar
depending on the crystal sizes with the later having the smallest crystal size. Boiling takes place
in vacuum controlled pan and it involves use of second vapours from the FFEs which is at a
lower temperature as;
▪ It economises steam usage
▪ To control crystal growth and formation because at high temperatures, the crystals being
formed would easily melt and zero net crystallisation.

There are mainly two types of pans;

The calandria vertical batch pans and the horizontal continuous pans. Packaged sugar it is of no
doubt formed from the batch pans because;
▪ The sugar being formed should be pure
▪ It is easy to control a batch process

The batch calandria pans

Like an evaporator body a calandria pan has tubular calandria where by the tubes are of larger
diameter and shorter length and also a larger down take to facilitate circulation of high brix
material which is the basis for the design in comparison with the evaporators due to the
difference in the properties of the materials being handled.
The pans are fitted with the following for its functionality.
• A condenser connected to vapour pipe.
• Catchall at the top before the vapour pipe to prevent entrainment.
• A vacuum breaking valve to be used before dropping a strike.
• Sight glasses on the front.
• Manhole door.
• Large discharge valve.
• Pan washing arrangement.
• Inlet valves for, steam, feed materials, hot water.
• Outlet valves for the condensates, noxious gases.
Vacuum formation
The formation of the vacuum in the pans is primarily in the condenser and as a results of air
displacement from the condenser by high pressure cold water. The main type of condenser is the
barometric condenser.

The barometric condenser

This consists of mainly three inlets; for the cold water and hot vapours, exit of hot water or a tail
pipe with a barometric length opening to the ejection tower. The cold water inlet pipe is extends
to an inlet valve, injection pump drawing cold water from the cooling tower. The end of the cold
water inlet is connected to spray nozzles which sprinkle water all over the condenser. Cold water
comes at temperature around 330c and hot water exits at about 500c. The inlet pipe for the
vapours extend to the pan boilers.
Operation
Initially the inlet valves for vapour and cold water are closed and the condenser contains air
molecules.
The inlet valve for the cold water is opened and the injection pump started. Water is pumped into
the condenser at a very high pressure which displaces the air molecules as they find their way out
of the condenser through the open tail. This creates a no air zone with a negative pressure known
as vacuum. This is the primary vacuum with a value of around 500mmHg.
The exhaust steam or vapours (from the FFEs) inlet is opened and the vapours from the pan
boilers at relatively high temperatures and low pressure encounters with the cold water, which
results into loss of energy.
The temperature of the vapours will decrease causing it to condense however, the liquid occupies
a smaller volume compared to the one occupied by the vapours due to contraction and since
temperature is directly proportional to pressure, there is a drop in overall pressure.
More vapours will be condensed and eventually the vacuum will rise higher as if finds its way to
the boiler from where the vacuum valves will be adjusted to balance the vacuum in the pans.

BASIS OF PAN BOILING.

The basis of pan boiling is based on saturation of the syrup being boiled which is very important
factor in process of crystallization or in growth of crystals in vacuum pans and crystallisers. The
solution is said to be saturated when it has dissolved all the solute it can possibly hold. In other
words, a saturated solution is one in which an added crystal of the solute neither dissolve nor
causes crystallization. One of the main factors affecting crystallisation is temperature. If the
temperature of saturated solution is lowered the solution will become supersaturated and will
tend to throw out the excess of sugar above the saturation point until the sugar solution reaches
to new saturation point. However, if the temperature of saturated sugar solution is raised the
solution becomes un-saturated and will dissolve additional sugar until it becomes saturated
again. If then certain amount of water is removed from a saturated sugar solution by evaporation
the solution is then become supersaturated and excess sugar above the saturation point will
crystallise at the same conditions of temperature. In pan boiling, the evaporation of water from
syrup or molasses converts them from unsaturated zone to supersaturated zone. The crystal
growth takes place in super saturation zone.
The sugar crystals growth in super saturated sugar solution takes place as a result of following
two processes;
• Transfer of sucrose molecules from the bulk of solution to supersaturated solution.
• Surface of crystal. Incorporation of these molecules in the crystal lattice.
For the sucrose crystal suspended in a supersaturated sugar solution, sucrose molecule from the
bulk of solution will be transported to the crystal face by diffusion, as the film near the crystal
will be thin with a lower degree of saturation than the bulk solution, the sucrose molecules get
deposited in crystal lattice due to reduction in concentration of solute as also due to the effect of
heat of crystallization.

Other factors affecting crystallisation

➢ Concentration
➢ Impurities
➢ Agitation
➢ Nature of the crystallisation

Pan boiling schemes

In most cases the pan system is a three-set system for A, B and C sugar and these pans require
different feed depending on the type of sugar they are to produce. For high purity sugar in A
pans, pure feed is required and in most cases syrup which is the main feed and the seed for
initiation of crystal formation and then other materials depending on the type of sugar, A light
molasses and melt may be fed into the pans.
For pans in set B and C, A heavy molasses and the B grain, B heavy molasses or C light
molasses and C grain are the feed respectively. These are quite low purity materials but however
there are recycle streams for the sugar that maybe lost in molasses and they aid formation of the
purest sugar.
 Syrup

A pans B pans C pans

AH

C crystallisers

AL A crystallisers B crystallisers
BH
C-fore FM

Machines
A B
centrifugals centrifugals
C sugar

Raw juice C afterwork

B sugar
Machines
A Sugar for bagging
B Seed Magma C sugar
tank
Melter
Melt for A pan

A pan boiling
Pan is washed carefully either with exhaust steam or vapors. After attaining 80-900C
temperature, the discharge valve and vacuum break valve is closed tightly. The injection water
valves are opened, if closed earlier. Then vacuum established to 25” of Hg. If vacuum is low,
again the discharge valve and vacuum break valve are opened and closed tightly.
After vacuum reaches to 25” Hg, a mixture of syrup and melt is introduced into the pan about 6-
10” above calandria level. During feed intake steam/vapour valve is opened. If melt is at higher
brix %, then pan material is checked for presence of fine crystals. If crystals are present, these
crystals are to be melted either by lowering the brix or decreasing the vacuum. Decreasing the
vacuum, results in increasing the temperature of pan content and helps for dissolution of crystals
by melting them. The B seed which is stored separately, is melted in the pan with syrup while
starting the pan. This is done to have higher purity material at the time of pan starting. The pan
material is concentrated up to 75-780 Bx. Once pan material reaches this concentration, pan
footing material, B-seed magma is introduced into the pan through cut over line up to required
level. The volume of this footing is checked either with number of crystals on glass or volume
reduced in seed crystallisers.
After footing operation completes, next step is to wash fine grains. This is done by slightly
lowering the brix of pan content to 73-75 by introduction of movement water. This operation will
take generally 10-15 minutes. This operation is done to dissolve all the false grains and seeds
that the massecuite meets in pipes. The false grains are removed as they may lead to formation of
powdered crystals.
After washing operation is finished then smaller drinks are given to the pan, a number of times
until the pan material reaches to highest allowable height in pan. The drinks are either syrup or
melt at this stage.
If the strike type is 2A then half of the pan material is transferred to other A massecuite pan by
using cut over line. For the transfer of material of one pan to adjacent pan, the vacuum of the pan
is reduced. This creates the difference in pressure in both the pan and pan material is transferred
in other pan. This operation generally known as cutting. After cutting the pan material will have
number of crystals sufficient to only one pan. Now this pan is filled with syrup first and last few
drinks with AL molasses. During whole this operation the brix of pan material is maintained at
around 870 brix.
When level of massecuite reaches to maximum allowable limit syrup/melt/AL drinks stopped
and massecuite brixed to about 900. And this is observed manually by getting a material and
rolling it between the palms and observing its ability to form a solid ball. When it forms, then the
A massecuite becomes ready to drop in crystallisers.

For dropping the massecuite in crystallisers, injection water valve of condenser is closed and
vacuum break valve of pan is opened. Exhaust/live steam valve going to pan body is opened to
break vacuum. This help to reduce air intake in pan and for next cycle the vacuum creation is
becomes easier. After reaching the pan vacuum to 0” Hg, pan discharge valve is opened and
through massecuite gutter, massecuite channeled to flow towards desired crystalliser.
Similar operation is repeated for other half strike.

B pan boiling
Like the A pan boiling, the same procedures of cleaning, vacuum introduction are followed for
the operation of B pans except for the feed. Formation of B massecuite involves use of both
batch and continuous pans. The batch pans are for formation of grains a process known as
graining whereas the continuous pans are used for formation of the final B massecuite.
After vacuum reaches to 25” Hg, graining material generally AH molasses is introduced in pan
about 1½ glasses above calandria level. Graining material is checked for presence of crystals. If
crystals are present, then all these crystals melted either by lowering the brix by introduction of
hot water or by rising the temperature by breaking the vacuum slightly. At last, the graining
material is assured crystal free. Otherwise as this graining material will reach in intermediate
zone will start formation of new crystal without slurry introduction. This will give rise to
different kinds of crystals, which are not desirable. All the required graining material quantity
should be taken in pan in one step to save time and steam used. The crystal free graining material
is concentrated to 86-870 brix. The slurry dose is fed in one step in the pan without introducing
any cold air. Cold air entry is restricted due to as cold air enters inside the graining material
forms low temperature pockets. Due to this the super saturation status at these pockets may jump
to labile zone and these pockets will give rise to new crystals, which are not originated from
slurry. Slurry is prepared for about 24hours agitation.
After introduction of slurry, one has to remain alert for watching crystals by checking using the
side proof cork and a glass. Generally, when slurry crystal grows to a required size, they may be
located or observed visually. One has to check these sugar crystals continuously till sufficient
crystals appear on the glass. As soon as sufficient grain appears, hot water condensate valve is
opened suddenly and brix of graining material reduced to 82 0. This introduction of water for
controlling the numbers of grain is called as movement water and it is aimed at hardening the
grains. At the end of grain hardening crystal edges becomes hard and if crystal taken between
two fingers the crystal edges found hard. This is continued until a desired material is obtained.

After reaching to allowable height the pan is cut to vacuum crystalliser from where the grains
are pumped to the B continuous pan. In this pan the material will have number of crystals
sufficient to only one pan which is filled with only A heavy molasses. The pan has 10
compartments and the grain is fed to the first compartment, when material has attained a desired
brix, it flows to the next compartment where more drinks of A heavy molasses are fed until the
8th compartment. In the last compartments, more brixing is done to about 960 brix and this is
ready massecuite for dropping in the crystallisers, previous only the open air crystallisers but
with recent modification a vertical crystalliser is used.

C pan boiling
The C massecuite boiling procedure is exactly similar to B massecuite boiling procedure. Only
difference is in C massecuite boiling pan feed materials are B heavy and C light molasses.
The graining material is mainly AH and CL molasses when the purity is about 62 0 below this
purity, only CL molasses are used and this is fed into the pan to about 2 glasses.

Sufficient time is taken for proper grains in a vacuum pan maintained between 23”-25” Hg. This
graining as it was in B takes place in a batch pan after which it is stored in a vacuum crystalliser.
From the vacuum crystallisers, the grains are pumped to the C continuous pan of ten
compartments with each compartment acting as a single pan boiler.
After cutting, only B heavy molasses used to fill C massecuite pan. The brix of pan material is
kept 98 or as high as possible, when the massecuite is too hard, hot water is added to improve on
the flow properties and then continuously drop to the crystallisers similar to those of B
massecuite.

Graining methods
There are a number of seeding methods used and these include;
• Waiting method
• Shock seeding method
• True seeding method
However, one of the most efficient methods is the true seeding. In this method no nuclei
formation in graining material but introduction of fine sugar nuclei in the form of slurry is
practiced. The weight of sugar in slurry to be fed is decided depending on slurry crystal size,
final massecuite crystal size, crystal % in the massecuites and massecuite quantity. The graining
material is concentrated to the desired saturation from slurry introduction and then further nuclei
growth slows down by introduction of hot condensate water in pan. The grain is further hardened
as usual.

Methods of preparing slurry

Slurry is prepared from icing sugar and spirit.
About 3-5kg of icing sugar is directly added to the ball mill.
Rectified spirit about 5-8litres is added into the ball mill and then covered tightly.
The ball mill is started and stirred for about 20-24hours as the crystal size uniformity is
monitored before adding to the pan for graining.

Crystallisation
The massecuites boiled in pans are discharged into open mild steel vessels, fitted with agitators,
known as crystallisers. In the pans maximum crystal development is accomplished by
concentration of the mother liquor to high supersaturation levels. In the second part
crystallisation occurs by further desugarisation of mother liquor surrounding the sugar crystals
by cooling in the crystallisers because supersaturation of sugar solution increases on cooling.
The massecuites dropped from pans at 70-75°C, are cooled to temperatures about 40° to 55°C.
Gradual lowering of temperature results in reduction in the solubility of sucrose in the mother
liquor with consequent deposition of sucrose on the existing crystals.

The massecuite flows by gravity through the gutters to the air-cooled U-shaped crystallisers
below the pan, however, as the cooling takes place, the viscosity of the massecuite increases and
so a pumping system is introduced to move the massecuite to the centrifugal pug mills.

In the three massecuite system, the A massecuite, is directly pumped to the pug mills whereas for
the B and C massecuite is to the continuous vertical crystallisers from where it is again pumped
to the respective pug mills. These continuous vertical crystallisers consist of;
(i) cylindrical vertical tank,
(ii) two sets of fixed cooling coils for circulation of cold and hot water,
(iii) Stirrer running throughout the vertical axis of the vessel consisting of paddles fitted to
central shaft.
(iv) massecuite inlet and outlet troughs,
(v) Motor drive through a gear mounted on top of the tank.

Centrifugal separation
After the completion of the crystallisation process, the different grades of massecuites are
pumped to the centrifugal machines for separation of the sugar crystals from the molasses. This
process is known as curing or purging. The whole process takes place at the centrifugal station.
The entire centrifugal station comprises besides the centrifugal machines—
✓ Pugmills for receiving massecuite from crystalliser or magma from mixers,
✓ Magma mixers wherein the sugar from purging massecuite is dropped.
✓ Hoppers for sugar
✓ Conveyors for the sugar
 ✓ Molasses receiving tanks
✓ Control panels, air-compressor, and water-heater.
✓ Pumps for magma and molasses with necessary piping as major units.

There are mainly two types of centrifugal machines those are the batch machines for separation
of sugar in A massecuite and continuous centrifugal machines for separation of B and C
massecuite.

Batch centrifugal machines

A batch centrifugal machine consists of a basket which is a cylindrical drum with perforations,
supported on a heavy vertical shaft with drive arrangement at the top. The basket is open at the
top as well as at the bottom and normally the bottom is closed by a cone at the time of taking the
massecuite charge, the top is kept open while charging. The perforated basket is lined with
wiregauze and a perforated brass liner for allowing the separated molasses to flow out called
screens while retaining the sugar crystals.
The basket is surrounded by a fixed casing know as monitor casing which is open at the top and
is provided with sliding covers for closing the machine while running.
In the baskets of centrifugals particularly for curing of high-grade A massecuites, are suspended
water and steam pipes fitted with nozzles, vertically through the top of casing for washing the
sugar and it is this washing the A heavy and light molasses are obtained.

Illustration
 How separation occurs
The process of separation of sugar crystals from the massecuite is brought about by the
centrifugal force. The revolution of the shaft at high speed exerts the centrifugal force on the
mass consisting of sugar crystals surrounded by viscous liquor and this brings about the
separation of mother liquor from the sugar-crystals. The mother liquor passes through the
perforations of screen and the basket while the sugar crystals are retained on the wall of the
basket lining. The centrifugal force is directly proportional to the mass and speed of rotation, so
the higher the speed and mass of massecuite, the bigger the centrifugal force exerted and the
faster the separation.

Operation of the batch centrifugal machines.

The operation of centrifugal separation in purging of massecuite involves following steps;
Charging: After start of machine, the valve of the pugmill is opened and the massecuite charged
when the machine is running at low speed of 200-300 rpm. The pugmill valve is closed after the
basket is filled to the desired amount of the massecuite. During this stage the massecuite moves
up the screen wall due to centrifugal force.

Intermediate speed rotation. The machine speed is raised to about 700-750 rpm and it is run at
this speed for short period before it is accelerated to the highest speed to prevent packing of
sugar in basket. Towards the end of this phase, hot water washing is started and completed at
maximum rotation, this helps to remove the A heavy molasses.

Running at maximum rotation. After the intermediate speed the centrifugal is run at its maximum
speed. In the case of machines and for 'A' massecuite curing the machines are run at 1450-1500
rpm. Maximum separation of molasses from sugar is ensured after which the machine speed is
brought down to about 50 rpm at the end of spinning. At this stage the second washing is done to
remove the A light molasses.

Ploughing: At about 50 rpm, the sugar is scraped off the inside wall of the basket screen, an
operation termed as ploughing when the bottom cover of centrifugal basked is lifted and sugar
discharged onto the hopper.

After the ploughing stage one complete cycle of operation is over and machine ready for
restarting.
The timing of each phase as well as the sequence of operation is set on a timer and controlled
according to time-setting automatically.

Continuous centrifugal machines

There are a number of such machines like the pusher type and the conical basket, vertical and
continuous centrifugal machines.
The conical basket of vertical continuous machine is perforated and lined with screens with
either 0.06 mm or 0.09 mm holes for C and B sugar respectively. The inclination of the conical
basket for fore-work massecuite curing differs from that of the after-work massecuite in C
separation.
The top of the machine is open while the bottom shaped like cylinder is closed. The basket
rotates at 1500-2000 rpm. Wash water pipe is suspended in the basket with suitable nozzles,
along the wall.
Like it is in the batch machines, the centrifugal force causes the massecuite feed at the bottom
rises upwards the screen of the conical basket. As it moves, the separation of molasses and sugar
takes place, the molasses passing through the perforations of the screen to the curb. Washing of
sugar is effected continuously and sugar is discharged over the top rim into surrounding annular
compartment. In most cases, wash water is applied at the point of entry of feed into the machine
is preferred for reducing massecuite viscosity before it moves up the screen surface for both the
B and C massecuite.

Single and double purging

Low grade massecuites especially C massecuite have to be purged twice for obtaining high
purity sugar at each stage. In double purging, the massecuite, is cured without use of wash water
and the sugar is melted into magma in mixer by continuous addition of C fore sugar with some
massecuite or water. The molasses are stored in the storage in the tank as final molasses which is
later pumped to the distillery. This magma is pumped into pugmill of afterworkers and repurged
to obtain C light molasses which are taken back to the process for B pan boiling and the C
afterwork sugar taken to the melter, melted and pumped back to the process for A pan boiling as
melt.
Single purging which is specific for A high grade and B intermediate grade massecuite involves
careful separation of A sugar which is taken for bagging and removal of A heavy molasses
which are recycled back for B pan boiling and A light molasses for A sugar boiling due to its
high purity. The B massecuite which is thoroughly separated to attain B sugar that is melted into
the B seed in the mixer and taken for A pan boiling and the B heavy molasses for C pan boiling.

Factors affecting the performance of centrifugals

➢ Uniformity of the sizes of crystals. Small size of crystals brought about by false grains
and conglomerates will chock the screens affecting the passage of the molasses.
➢ Viscosity of the massecuite. High viscosity affects the flow of the massecuite of the
screens hence lower the separation.

Control parameters of the different materials at pan boiling and separation

Material Brix Purity

A massecuite 90-93 81-86
B massecuite 92-95 65-70
C massecuite 96-100 48-52
A heavy molasses 63-70
A light molasses >78
B heavy molasses 45-50
C light molasses 58-62
Final molasses 85-90 <31
 Chapter 6
Drying, bagging and storage

Drying
The commercial sugar leaving the A-centrifugals and which is to be packed for sale or export,
generally has a moisture content of about 0.5-2.0%. Moisture is very disastrous as it alters the
qualities of the sugar when it exceeds a certain level and particularly when it rises above 1.0%.
The moisture content of sugar crystals is divided into surface moisture and inherent moisture;
however the surface moisture proves its bad effects.
The deterioration of sugar is retarded and the loss in test is reduced if the moisture content of the
sugar is reduced. The moisture content of sugar must be reduced for two main reasons;
1) Moist sugar is not suitable for bagging because the sugar crystal forms linkage with each
other and leads to lumps formation.
2) The higher the moisture content sugar, higher the growth of microbial organisms
leading to deterioration of sugar
Sugar from the A centrifugal machines falls on to the hoppers which accelerates it to the sugar
conveyor in such a manner that sugar clumps are brought on top as it goes to the driers.
Types of driers
There various sugar driers for example Vertical dryers with superimposed plates, fluidized-bed
dryers and the Rotating-drum dryers. With time the fluidized bed drier has proven its efficiency
and has been opted by many sugar processing plants SCOUL inclusive.

Fluidized bed drier.

Fluid bed dryers work on the principle of fluidisation, a process where a material is converted
from a static solid-like state to a dynamic fluid-like state. In this process, hot gas or air is
introduced through a perforated distribution plate into the area holding the material. The plates
are tilted at an angle about 45 0 which keeps the sugar moving forward.

Other equipment working along the FBD

➢ FD fan
➢ Radiators
➢ ID fan
➢ Venturi
➢ Scrubber tank

This can be shown below:

The front view of the FBR

Operation of a FBD
Sugar is hopped on to a conveyor belt fitted with strong magnets at both the ends which remove
any sort of metallic pieces that may try to escape with the sugar. Sugar is hopped to partially
blow some air to dry it and to bring the sugar clumps on top. The conveyor carries the sugar to
the sugar elevator. The moist sugar from the elevator enters the lower part of the bed body which
is fixed with a rotor brush-like that evenly spreads the sugar in the bed drier. In this chamber the
sugar gets into contact with hot air from the forced draft fan header line above the distribution
plate but at different temperatures with the first compartment at about 75 0c and the second at
about 650c.

The FD fan sucks air from the atmosphere, passed via air filters and distributes the air to the air
header line forcing some air to radiators connected to the first chamber of the FBD with one
radiator on the 1st and 2nd compartments of the fluidized bed drier. The radiators are supplied
with heat from high pressure exhaust steam which is later condensed and the condensate
withdrawn without getting into contact with the sugar. The hot air at high pressure enters the bed
and suspends the sugar crystals in the air flow making them attain the fluidized state.
The sugar and the hot air exchange heat and the sugar is dried in the process in the drying
chamber of the bed drier which then moves to the cooling chamber. The cooling chamber is
supplied with coolers in which the sugar is moved in a current of whirling air from the header of
the FD fan, this air is water cooled from the intake of the feed to the discharge end.

The dusty air is drawn from the drier by the induced draft fan via the Venturi which decreases on
the velocity of the dusty air. The Venturi supplied with cold water nozzles which sprinkles the
water to dissolve the sugar dust and which then settles in the scrubber tank and the air
discharged to the atmosphere being less dense via the vent.

The sugar is passed over a series of magnets which attract a number of metallic pieces that wear
off the machines.
From the bed drier the sugar falls on the screens where fine crystals pass through and the solid
clamps pass via the Rodi-breakers where the clumps are crushed into crystals and then elevated
to the temporary sugar storage bin.

Bagging
The process of bagging involves feeding, weighing and dumping into the bag which is clamped
on a pneumatic holder. Sugar from the sugar bin is automatically weighed by the weighing
machine in quantities of 25kg and 50kg and then packed in sacks depending on the sugar colour,
the light brown and brown sugar all have different packaging materials.

Random samples of bagged sugar are selected at random and weighed on manual scales to
estimate the accuracy of the automatic weighing scale. In vase of excess weights or less weights
the sugar is put aside and the issue rectified and weighed to the desired quantity.
Samples of the sugar being bagged are often taken to the laboratory to check for the moisture
content in the sugar.
Factors that may cause wrong measurements include;
✓ Less sugar in the sugar bin
 ✓ Faulty machines
✓ Dryness of the sugar.
After, the sugar bags are sealed by stitching machines from where it is manually carried to the
store or to the Lorries for sale.
Some sugar is specifically set aside and packed in well branded polythene packs in weights of
1kg, 2kg and 5kg and then packed in boxes which are well branded with the company name and
logo.

Sugar storage
This is the temporary keeping of the bagged sugar in the store rooms before it is sold to
consumers, retailers, and wholesalers among others. The sure store should be of specific quality
which should not be altering all the time but rather resistant to changes.

Properties of a storage house

Sugar should be stored in a large spacious rooms which are;
• Cool and dry
• Properly aerated
• Well illuminated
• Leak proof roof
• Floor raised above the ground
• Extremely clean and free from dust
• Next to the bagging section
• Next to the loading area
The main reason why the storage house should bear the above properties is to prevent moisture
from affecting the bagged sugar.
While in the sugar can attain moisture which affects the quality hence should be well handled.
Often samples of sugar in the storage house are taken to determine the moisture content to ensure
that they are at desired levels before it can be sold to customers.

Sales and loading

As earlier said the products of SCOUL have both local and international markets, it is of no
doubt that even the sugar after production both local and international orders are made for its
quality depending on the specifications for the different customers. Therefore sales for both
brown and light brown sugar are made at the factory.
However this follows a certain protocol before sugar is sold to anyone and that is mainly through
the sales department. All orders and negotiations are made through this department and then the
payments made through the finance department until the products are well procured. The sales
made always correlate with the extent of production made by the factory.

Loading
After procuring the desired sugar type and quantity of the sugar, Lorries, trucks and trailers are
brought to be loaded with the sugar.
Sugar from the stores is loaded manually on to the conveyors which is carried to the vehicles to
be loaded and then manually piled into them.
After loading, it still remains mandatory for the sugar to be protected from harsh weather such as
sunshine, rainfall to keep its quality until the final consumer.

Anything leaving the factory is well branded and has a seal for the factory on the outside of the
packaging material whether sacks or other polythene packs.
 Chapter 7
Maintenance, utilities, support equipment and machinery
Maintenance
As the factory remains operating, it is of no doubt that its performance lowers and so the
efficiency which then may not reach the set production target by the plant for a specific period of
time.
The factory often has shutdowns in form of maintenance and these are periodical, mostly
monthly and annually besides the daily maintenance that is done to solve issues to have the
process run on a normal routine.

Monthly
Often the company announce a single- or two-day monthly shutdown of the plant for
maintenance. This however as earlier said it depends on the performance of the machinery. The
plant stops from the first process where cane feeding is stopped to allow choppers and mills
handle the feed already in until the last batch of raw sugar and then different machines are
checked for mechanical, electrical and many other issues. Machines are always cleaned and
thereafter the whole plant is run again.

Annual shutdown
This is the major shut down that occurs in the plant. It usually lasts for about 30days when there
is no production. The company first ensures that there is enough produce for the customers in all
the days of shutdown.
This kind of shutdown involves even installation of new parts or machinery and equipment to
replace the old worn out. There always thorough cleaning of the whole plant, new setups and
plans for the smooth running of the factory. However, all the plans are aimed at increasing the
efficiency and production.

Utilities
All processing plants run on the basis of two cycles that is the power cycle and the refrigeration
cycle and for these to be achieved, certain utilities must be available in the plant. The power
cycle mainly involves use of electricity to do work and whereas work is being done heat is
generated and its effects cannot be ignored and hence the employment of water for the
refrigeration or cooling cycle.
Normally the electricity used in the factory is produced within the premises through the
cogeneration process. The bagasse from the sugar factory is burnt in the furnace and this
generates steam from water in the boilers. The steam then runs the turbines which convert the
mechanical energy to electrical energy which then runs the rest of the factory. Part of the exhaust
steam is used in the sugar for heating and evaporation processes. The electricity is produced in
excess that some is exported to the national grid.
Advantages of using steam as energy source
Steam can hold energy for a good time
Steam is easy to control
Energy conserved in steam can be transferred easily
Water from the industry after cooling the machines is ejected to the ejection tower and then to
the cooling tower. When the water has attained the lowest desired temperature, it is pumped and
recirculated back to the industry for cooling or refrigeration purposes.
Advantages of using water for cooling
It is readily available
Water is easily to transport or handle
Water can be easily treated
Water has a high specific heat capacity
The latent heat for water is also high

Support equipment
A number of equipment are employed in the factory to aid the production process among which
include;

Pumps
These are mechanical devices that transfer or increase the transfer of fluids from one location to
another. The vast majority of pumps in the sugar factory are centrifugal pumps, with direct
coupled electric motors.
The centrifugal pumps are mainly of two forms that is the horizontal and vertical pumps. The
horizontal centrifugal pumps have their shaft placed horizontally between the bearing and
likewise the later placed vertically. They consist of an impeller connected to the shaft generating
its drive from the electric motor which draws the fluid using a centrifugal force. They are mainly
used for pumping water around the plant

There other pumps used to perform different duties in the factory and these include;
The rotary pumps which are employed in pumping highly viscous materials such as the
massecuite from crystallisers to the pugmills.
The screw pumps in which the volume displaced during a rotation corresponds to the free
space between two threads of a screw. These pumps are utilised for molasses.
Piping and fluid flow
In the factory, we are concerned mainly with the following fluids: water, juice, syrup, molasses
(intermediate and final), and steam, air and flue gases. As it can be noticed, most of these fluids
are viscous and so their flows is greatly influenced, special means in piping should be employed
to enable the flow to take place. There likely to be higher tendencies of pressure drops and
destruction of pumps with such fluids most of which are a result of bends (particularly elbows),
valves, and changes of cross section
A number of factors are considered before using any pipe for any purpose, normally for very
extreme viscous fluids larger pipes with less bending and over a short distance are employed for
the operation.
The main control of fluid flow is by use of valves which help in regulating on how much of a
fluid should flow when and why and so a number of valves are employed for different purposes.

Types of valves
They are of various types but the most common ones include;
Gate valves: this opens by lifting the barrier out of the fluid passage and can be easily identified
by looking at the design. They are mainly used in controlling viscous fluids.
Ball valves: this is a valve that has a rotating ball which when open directly through the fluid
path and then rotates to close again, they are used to control steam flow.
Butterfly valves. This isolates and regulates the flow of the fluid using disk as a closing
mechanism which rotates like butterfly wings. They are normally used in the control of heavy
fluid flows.
Diaphragm valves. This has a diagram which relaxes to open and stretches to close and so
regulates the flow. They can be employed in water flow systems.
Other types of valves used include the plug valves and globe valves
Double beat valve. This is a special category of a gate valve with two gates one for the inlet and
the other as the outlet but both being controlled by one spindle when it open, both are open and
when closed all are closed

The flash cigar

This is a uniquely designed horizontal flash vessel consisting of mainly four chambers for
recovering the various condensate streams where all the chambers are operating at different sets
of pressure conditions. It has the chamber capacities decreasing form the first to the last.
The first chamber receives vapours from the falling film evaporators (second condensates), the
second from the third body and the last from the fifth body of the evaporator set.
The condensates are mix up when one chamber is full by overflow. These condensates are heated
up and the water pumped to an overhead tank which serves the pan boilers, centrifugal machines
and the imbibition water for the mills.
Automation
It is of no doubt on how hectic it maybe to have full manual control of over all the processes.
Moving from one point to another to check for the parameters may consume most of the time
than production itself and to avoid such machinery for automation have been put in place to
minimise on time and energy consumption.
As earlier said the main parameters controlled in factory include, temperature, pressure, flow
rates, brix and levels. They are the main determinant of the extent of production. For process
optimization, these parameters should be kept in the desired ranges which makes the heart of
automation. Therefore, automation is the application of new technologies of sensors to instantly
detect the desired parameter any time.
Automatic valves, pressure and temperature gauges have been established within the different
units to easily monitor the process.

The whole plant can easily be monitored in the control room and the problems easily identified
and troubleshot before they become very serious. Different plants set different parameters that
enable them optimize the processes depending on the type of machinery they have.
Conclusion, recommendation and references
Conclusion
In general sugar production is such a long and complex process because of the many stages
involved from when the sugarcane is grown to the time it is harvested and brought to the
processing plant until juice is extracted and then the raw sugar as the product, the equipment and
machinery and the working environment consisting of a lot of risks and uncertainties but a
unique especially when safety guidelines, instructions and others are followed. The beauty about
sugar process it almost tackles all the unit operations that may require anywhere else with some
unit processes of course.
Like any other company increased production is always aimed at no matter the situation, new
ideas blended with the existing ones always aid the process optimization. When the process
parameter are maintained, most likely the best output will be achieved.
It does not only stop at optimization but a combination of very many other factors such enough
materials, availability of utilities, proper and efficient equipment and machinery aid to increased
production.
Proper coordination amongst the different teams with the zeal to have increased production and
better working conditions greatly contribute to the factory.
Sugar production is very essential that even the bi products of the process are still very useful
raw materials for other products. There is no wastage of anything from the factory. Bagasse is
used to generate electricity, mud as organic manure and molasses for distillery.

Recommendations
To the company
The factory needs to expand on the bagging and storage space and insufficient such that there
always no stoppages in case of increased production because the storage space is small.
Due to excessive noise in some particular areas, ear protective gears should be provided to the
workers and employees in such areas.
Bagasse is produced in excess yet it storage space is not enough, I would also recommend that
there should be more storage for the excess bagasse.
More aeration in the factory and insulation of the different heating bodies should be done to
regulate on the excessive heat inside the plant for better working conditions.
New means of scrapping off the filter cake from the screens should be though about to reduce on
the regular chocking of the screens.

To the university
Students should always be guided on the right places for where they can very well relate their
class content with what is in the field and no anywhere.
Supervision should be made more than once to assess and guide the students on what actually
they are supposed to look at and not anything.
At least more each placement should have two students from each school to enable them guide
each other after the training.
References
[1] Factory, laboratory and process chemists by 2022
[2] D.P. Kulkarni “Cane sugar manufacture in India”
[3] Rein Peter (2007) “Cane sugar engineering” first edition
[4] E. Hugot (1986) “Handbook of sugarcane engineering,” third edition, volume 7