Module in Introduction To Linguistics-Presley de Vera

Pangasinan State University
Graduate School
Urdaneta City
CERTIFICATION
This is to certify that this instructional material prepared by Ms. Presley V. de

Vera, has been accepted and approved for classroom use in the graduate school.
This is a very important reference for the students taking up Bachelor of

Secondary Education major in English this second semester, school year 2014- 2015 for
them to be able to have a comprehensive learning material designed to help them better
communicate their thoughts and feelings to others.
This certification is issued to support the documents of Ms. De Vera for the NBC
7th Cycle Evaluation.
Signed this 4th day of November 2014 at the office of the Campus Executive
Director, Pangasinan State University, Lingayen Campus, Lingayen, Pangasinan.
NELIA C. RESULTAY, Ed. D.

Campus Executive Director
Module in Linguistics
by Presley V. De Vera Page 1
Republic of the Philippines
PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Graduate School
Urdaneta City
COURSE SYLLABUS
I. Course Code: CAE 211

Course Title: Linguistics
No. of Lecture Hours a Week: 3
No. of Units: 3
The University Vision
A dynamic, self-reliant, and productivity-driven institution of higher learning

recognized as a center of excellence in professional studies and technical training with
distinctive competence and leadership in research and community service.
The University Mission
The Pangasinan State University will provide better service in professional and
technical training in the arts, sciences, humanities and technology in the conduct of
scientific research and technological studies and community service.
PD 1497
The Goals of the College
To provide substance and directions to its mission, the College shall pursue the
following goals:
1. Promote quality and relevant education designed to fully exploit individual

potentials commensurate to the needs of the industry, economy and global
competitiveness;
2. Evolve and design relevant and responsive science and technology-based
curricular programs that develop intellectual competence, civic and moral responsibility,
cultural integrity, economic acuity, and scientific perspective;
3. Enhance and strengthen faculty and staff capability building and development
in a continuing basis;
4. Protect and promote the welfare and interest of faculty members and
administrative staff in terms of a continuing program for salary increments and other
pecuniary benefits, social welfare and tenure;
5. Expand the conduct of research that generate new perspectives and insights and
new technologies and processes appropriate to the needs and aspirations of a developing
society and those which the community enjoys distinctive and comparative advantage.
6. Expand educational opportunities to poor but exceptional talented students
through various scholarship grants and financial tenure;
7. Provide a conducive learning atmosphere through the provision of various
development services;
8. Expand and establish network of linkages with other institutions both public
and private to generate and complement resources support, intensify impact and
strengthen academe-industry relations; and
9. Develop, test, evaluate, and rationalize institutional structures and management
systems and processes to enhance the efficiency, cost-effectiveness and responsive of the
college’s programs and projects.
II. Course Description
This course is an introduction to the study of language. It investigates the nature

of language and considers the methods by which it is and has been studied. The structure
of language is examined at the level of sounds (phonology), grammar (morphology and
syntax) and meaning (semantics and pragmatics).
III. Course Objectives
General Objectives
Exposure to the course, the students will be able to:
 express their views on the importance of language and linguistics;

 learn the basic concepts in areas that include phonology, morphology;
syntax, semantics and pragmatics, and
 appreciate the various components of language.
Specific Objectives
Exposure to the course, the students will be able to:
 explain some definitions of language;

 give an extended definition of language;
 discuss the nature of language;
 identify the theories about the nature of language;
 elucidate the various functions of language;
 identify the functions of language;
 differentiate among the branches of linguistics;
 prepare a diagram/sketch for the different branches of linguistics;
 identify the distinctive features of the consonant sounds of English;
 describe the consonant sounds according to their characteristic
features;
 read and write using the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) phonemic
symbols for the consonant sounds;
 distinguish the distinctive features of the vowel sounds of English;
 describe the vowel sounds according to their characteristics features;
symbols for the vowel sounds;
 demonstrate an understanding of the uses of the more common intonation
patterns;
 use the correct intonation patterns for the sentences;
 demonstrate an understanding of some general principles regarding the
correct placement of stress when there are changes in form class and when
dealing with compounds;
 appreciate the importance of stress in distinguishing meaning;
 mark off thought groups using slant lines;
 identify the primary sentence stress in normal, ordinary sentences;
 show the ability to make meaning clear by skillful shifting of the primary
sentence stress;
 demonstrate skill in using stress for emphasis;
 distinguish the different juncture patterns;
 mark off sentence using appropriate juncture marks;
 examine the various types of meaning;
 discuss the different types of meaning and how these are signaled;
 consider the different types of morphemes;
 draw a diagram for the different types of morphemes and cite examples for
each of them;
 cite examples for the different tests of constituents;
 indicate the types of phrases available in the sentences;
 identify the types of syntactic structures of the given statements;
 identify the semantic relations present in statements;
 explain semantic ambiguities in sentences;
 paraphrase structurally or lexically ambiguous sentences;
 write homonyms based on the given meanings of words;
 identify words as gradable or non-gradable;
 identify deictic expressions in statements;
 recognize statements from a short conversation as relevant explanations;
 write presuppositions based from the given statements, and
 analyze statements and identify whether they imply the truth of other
statements.
IV. Course Requirements
a. Regular attendance
b. Active participation in class discussion
c. Passing quizzes, midterm and final examinations
d. Satisfactory delivery of assigned oral and written presentations
V. Course Content Time Allotment
Unit I. Language and Linguistics 10 hours

Lesson 1. Definitions of Language
Lesson 2. Theories about the Nature of Language
Lesson 3. Functions of Language
Lesson 4. Linguistics and its Branches
Unit II. Phonology 16 hours

Lesson 1. Segmental Phonemes
A. Consonant Sounds
B. Vowel Sounds
Lesson 2. Suprasegmental Phonemes
A. Intonation
B. Stress
C. Juncture
Unit III. Morphology 10 hours

Lesson 1. Types of Meaning
A. Intonational Meaning
B. Morphological Meaning
C. Lexical Meaning
D. Syntactical Meaning
E. Denotative Meaning
F. Connotative Meaning
Lesson 2. Types of Morphemes
A. Bound Morphemes
B. Free Morphemes
Unit IV. Syntax 8 hours

Lesson 1. Test of Constituents
A. Proform Test
B. Question Test
C. Movement Test
D. Coordination Test
E. Though Test
Lesson 2. Types of Phrases
A. Noun Phrase
B. Verb Phrase
C. Prepositional Phrase
D. Adjective Phrase
E. Adverb Phrase
Lesson 3. Syntactic Structures
A. Structure of Predication
B. Structure of Complementation
C. Structure of Modification
D. Structure of Coordination
Unit V. Semantics 5 hours

Lesson 1. Sense Relations
A. Synonymy
B. Ambiguity
C. Antonymy
D. Meronymy
E. Hyponymy
Unit VI. Pragmatics 5 hours

Lesson 1. Types of Deixis
A. Spatial Deixis
B. Temporal Deixis
C. Personal Deixis
D. Social Deixis
E. Textual Deixis
Lesson 2. Implicature (Conversational Maxims)
A. Maxim of Quality
B. Maxim of Quantity
C. Maxim of Relevance
D. Maxim of Manner
Lesson 3. Presuppositions
Lesson 4. Entailment
VI. Learning/Enrichment Activities
a. Lectures
b. Class Discussions
c. Discussion Papers
d. Powerpoint Presentations
VII. Bases for Evaluation
a. Final Examination………………......……………………….. 30%

b. Discussion…………………………………………………… 30%
c. Discussion Paper……………...………………………………30%
d. Attendance………….……………………………………….. 10%
VIII. Utilization of Instructional Materials
a. textbooks
b. powerpoint presentations
c. e-books
IX. References
Books
Cabbab, Julita A. and Fred Anthony Cabbab. Speech Communication Manual and
Skills Development. Makati: Bookmark Inc., 1994.
Clark, Virginia P. et al. Language: Introductory Readings. 3rd edition. New York: Saint
Martin’s Press, 1981.
Concepcion, Proceso G. et al. Speech Communication for Filipinos. Quezon City: Rex
Printing Company, Inc., 1994.
Flores, Carmelita S. and Evelyn B. Lopez. Effective Speech Communication. Quezon

City: National Book Store, Inc., 1990.
Fromkin, Victoria. An Introduction to Language. USA: Holt, Rinehart and

Winston.,1998.
Gleason, H.A. An Introduction to Descriptive Linguistics. New York: Holt, Rinehart

and Winston, 1955.
Mara, Lourdes S. and Isabel S. Soriano. English Pronunciation for the Filipino College
Students. 3rd edition. Quezon City: KEN Inc., 1998.
Ortiz, Ma. Aurora R. et al. Towards More Effective Speech Communication. Quezon
City: JMC Pres, Inc., 1981.
Tayao, Ma. Lourdes G. et al. Applied Linguistics for Communication Arts. Diliman,
Quezon City: Office of the Academic Support and Instructional Services
University of the Philippines Open University, 1997.
Ursua, Leticia B. et al. Speech Trends and Practices. Books on Wheels Enterprises,
1995.
E-Books
Aarts, Bas and April McMahon. (2006). The Handbook of English Linguistics. USA:
Blackwell Publishing.
Fromkin, Victoria et al. (2003). An Introduction to Language. USA: Wadsworth,

Thomson and Thomson.
Meyer, Charles F. (2009). Introducing English Linguistics. New York: Cambridge

University Press.
Trask, R.L. (2007). Language and Linguistics. New York: Routledge.
Electronic Sources
“Diachronic Linguistics.” http://grammar.about.com/od/d/g/Diachronic-Linguistics.htm.
“Emphasis.” http://grove.ufl.edu/~klili/pron/emp/.
“Historical Linguistics.” http://grammar.about.com/od/fh/g/historicallinguisticsterm.htm.
“Intonation.” http:// grove.ufl.edu/~klii/pron/emp/.
“Intonation.” http://www.americanaccent.com/inonation.html#newinfo.
“International Phonetic Alphabet,” http://www.ic.Arizona.edu/~Isp/IPA.htm.
“IPA Transcription.” http//www.ic.Arizona.edu/~Isp/ExerciseIndex.htm/Phonology.
“Linguistics.” http://grammar.about.com/od/grammarfaq/a/What-Is-Linguistics.htm.
McIntyre, Andrew. “Introduction to English Linguistics (Lecture Notes)”. September 17,

2010.
“Morphology.” http://www-rohan.sdsu.edu/~ling354/morphology.html.
“Morphology.”www.palgrave.com/language/.../Words/.../Words09Kindsofmorphemes.pp
t-morphemes powerpoint.
“Phonetics.” http://allegro.sbs.emass.edu/berthiere/Articphonetics.html.
“Phonetics and Phonology.”http://www.education/eedac.uk/~edu/inted/icu/langmath.htm.
“Phonology.” http://grammar.about.com/od/pq/g/phonologyterm.htm.
“Phrasal Stress.” http://grove.ufl.edu/~klili/pron/ws/.
“Rules for Sentence Stress in English.” http://pronunciaiton.

englishclub.com/sentence~stress-rules.htm.
Prepared by:
PRESLEY V. DE VERA, Ed. D.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Unit I. Language and Linguistics 12

Lesson 1. Definitions of Language 12
Lesson 2. Theories about the Nature of Language 15
Lesson 3. Functions of Language 18
Lesson 4. Linguistics and its Branches 20
Unit II. Phonology 27

Lesson 1. Segmental Phonemes 27
A. Consonant Sounds 27
B. Vowel Sounds 40
Lesson 2. Suprasegmental Phonemes 49
A. Intonation 49
B. Stress 53
C. Juncture 69
Unit III. Morphology 73

Lesson 1. Types of Meaning 73
A. Intonational Meaning 73
B. Morphological Meaning 73
C. Lexical Meaning 73
D. Syntactical Meaning 73
E. Denotative Meaning 74
F. Connotative Meaning 74
Lesson 2. Types of Morphemes 76
A. Bound Morphemes 76
B. Free Morphemes 77
Unit IV. Syntax 80

Lesson 1. Test of Constituents 81
A. Proform Test 81
B. Question Test 81
C. Movement Test 82
D. Coordination Test 82
E. Though Test 82
Lesson 2. Types of Phrases 84
A. Noun Phrase 84
B. Verb Phrase 84
C. Prepositional Phrase 84
D. Adjective Phrase 84
E. Adverb Phrase 84
Lesson 3. Syntactic Structures 86
A. Structure of Predication 86
B. Structure of Complementation 86
C. Structure of Modification 86
D. Structure of Coordination 87
Unit V. Semantics 89
Lesson 1. Sense Relations
A. Synonymy 89
B. Ambiguity 89
C. Antonymy 90
D. Meronymy 91
E. Hyponymy 91
Unit VI. Pragmatics 94
Lesson 1. Types of Deixis 95
A. Spatial Deixis 95
B. Temporal Deixis 95
C. Personal Deixis 95
D. Social Deixis 95
E. Textual Deixis 95
Lesson 2. Implicature (Conversational Maxims) 97
A. Maxim of Quality 97
B. Maxim of Quantity 97
C. Maxim of Relevance 97
D. Maxim of Manner 97
Lesson 3. Presuppositions 100
Lesson 4. Entailment 102
References 104
UNIT I- LANGUAGE AND LINGUISTICS
Lesson 1 Definitions of Language
Objectives
After studying this lesson, you should be able to:
 explain some definitions of language and,
 give an extended definition of language.
The following are the definitions of language that linguists, people who study
language, have come up with:
1. Language is speech. Speech is language. The written record is but a
secondary representation of the language. (Charles Fries)
2. Language is a system of signals conforming to the rules which constitutes its
grammar. It is a set of culturally transmitted behavior patterns shared by a
group of individuals. (Joseph Greenberg)
3. Language is a code: a set of elements…forms composed of sounds, letters,
their combinations into words, sentences etc. used fro communication
between individuals who share the same rules. (Roger Bell)
4. Language is a system which relates meanings to substance. It is a mental
phenomenon that is innate. All children all the world over acquire a mother
language. (Noam Chomsky)
5. When we use language, we are not just saying something. We are doing
something as well, like promising, asking information, etc. (Searle and
Austin)
6. Language has two elements. One is cognitive, active which comprises the
linguistic features of the language. The other is emotive or affective. (Oller)
7. Meaning does not reside in the words per se but in the context of the situation.
(Malinowski)
8. For communication to take place, the sender and receiver of the message
should have shared presuppositions. (Widdowson)
9. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human
communication. (Wardhaugh)
10. Language is a system of arbitrary, vocal symbols which permit all people in a
given culture, or other people who have learned the system of that culture to
communicate or to interact. (Finocchiaro)
11. Language has two elements. One is cognitive, active which comprises the
linguistic features of the language. The other is emotive or affective. (Oller)
12. Meaning does not reside in the words per se but in the context of the situation.
(Malinowski)
13. For communication to take place, the sender and receiver of the message
should have shared presuppositions. (Widdowson)
14. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human
communication. (Wardhaugh)
15. Language is a system of arbitrary, vocal symbols which permit all people in a
given culture, or other people who have learned the system of that culture to
communicate or to interact. (Finocchiaro)
Exercise 1 Language Definitions
Explain the following concepts as regards the meaning of language. Give an extended
definitions too for each.
1. Speech is language.
2. Language is a code.
3. Language is a system which relates meanings to substance.
4. Language has two elements: cognitive and affective.
5. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols.
Lesson 2Theories about the Nature of Language
Objectives
 discuss the nature of language and,
 identify the theories about the nature of language.
Language Theories
I. Behaviorist/Empiricist Theory Leonard Bloomfiled, B.F. Skinner and Charles
Fries
A. Language is a set of arbitrary symbols.
B. Language is a system of habits.
C. Language is acquired behaviour through conditioning and reinforcement.
D. Language is surface structure.
II. Rationalist/Cognitivist/Mentalistic Theory Noam Chomsky
A. Language is a mental process a creative construction process.
B. Language is rulegoverned behaviour.
C. The speakerhearer has internalized the rules of the language.
D. There is a universal grammar universals in language. At a highly abstract
level, all languages must share key characteristics.
E. A language has a deep structure and a surface structure.
III. Nativist Theory Eric Lenneberg
A. Language is an innate or inborn capacity of man.
B. Man has LAD Language Acquisition Device.
C. Language is speciespecific.
IV. Sociolinguistic Theory Dell Hymes, Michael A.K. Halliday
A. Communication Theory
Input Output
Encoding ------------- Code Language ---------------- Decoding
Speaker/Writer Sounds/Graphemes Listener/Reader
B. Language is not only a set of rules of information (linguistic competence) but
also a set of rules for the use of language.
V. Pragmatic Theory John Oller
A. Participants in a conversation should have shared knowledge or
presupposition.
B. Language has two elements:
1. Factive or cognitive element which refers to the use of language
through words, phrases, and sentences.
2. Emotive or affective attitudinal element which is man’s outlook about
others and his non-verbal communication.
Exercise 2 Language Theories
A. Discuss the following theories about the nature of language:
1) Rationalist; 2) Nativist, and 3) Pragmatic.
B. Identify the theories of language where the following characteristics fall:
_______1. Language is an innate or inborn capacity of man.
_______2. Language is not only a set of rules of information (linguistic
competence) but also a set of rules for the use of language.
_______3. Language is a system of habits.
_______4. Language is rulegoverned behaviour.
_______5. Language is speciespecific.
_______6. Language is surface structure.
_______7. Participants in a conversation should have shared knowledge or
presupposition.
_______8. The speakerhearer has internalized the rules of the language.
_______9. Man has LAD Language Acquisition Device.
_______10. Language is a mental process a creative construction process.
Lesson 3Functions of Language
Objectives
 elucidate the various functions of language and,
 identify the functions of language.
Language Functions
1. Instrumental
Language allows speakers to get things done. It allows them to manipulate the
environment. People can ask for things and cause things to be done and happen
through the use of words alone. This is sometimes known as the “I want”
function of language. Some of the microfunctions included are naming,
pronouncing, betting, suggesting, demanding, persuading, ordering, directing, and
commanding.
2. Regulatory
Language is used to control events once they happen. Those events may involve
self or others language regulates encounters among people; it helps to mark
roles, provides devices for regulating encounters, and affords a vocabulary for
approving and disapproving. It is this function of language which allows people
to exercise deliberate control over events that happen. This is sometimes called
the “Do as I tell you” function of language. Some of the microfunctions of
language included are approving, disapproving, answering the phone, and setting
rules for playing and addressing the action.
3. Representational
Language is used to communicate knowledge about the world, to report events,
make statements, give accounts, explain relationships, relay messages and others.
An exchange of information occurs. Certain rules exist to regulate language
behaviour when an exchange of information is involved. This is also known as
the “I’ve got something to tell you” function of language. Some of the
microfunctions included are reporting, giving accounts, explaining, relaying
messages, informing/misinforming, telling lies, and making statements.
4. Interactional
Language is used to ensure social maintenance. In a wider sense, this function
refers to all uses of language which help to define and maintain groups: teenage
slang, family jokes, professional jargon, ritualistic exchanges, social and regional
dialects. People must learn a wide variety of such different kinds of language
usage if they are to interact comfortably with many others. This is sometimes
known as the “You and Me” function of language. Some of the microfunctions
included are greetings, leave-takings, joking, teasing, inviting, parting, and
accepting .
5. Personal
Language is used to express the individual’s personality. Individuals have a
“voice” in what happens to them. They are also free to speak or not to speak, to
say as much or as little as they wish, and to choose how to say what they say.
Some of the microfunctions included are exclaiming, endorsement, cursing,
expressing anger, and apologizing.
6. Heuristic
Language is used as an instrument itself in order to acquire knowledge and
understanding. Language may be used to learn things about the world. Questions
can lead to answers, argumentation to conclusions, hypothesis testing to new
discoveries. Language allows people to ask questions about the nature of the
world in which they live and to construct possible answers. Sometimes it is
known as the “Tell me why” function of language. Some of the microfunctions
included are questioning, probing, answering, arguing, concluding, defining,
hypothesizing, analysing, testing, and experimenting.
7. Imaginative
Sometimes known as the “Let’s Pretend” function of language. Language is used
to create imagining systems whether these are literary works, philosophical
systems, or utopian visions, on the one hand, or daydreams and idle musings on
the other. The imaginative function is prized when it leads to artistic creation.
Michael A.K. Halliday
Exercise 3 Language Functions
A. Explain the following: 1) “Do as I tell you” function of language; 2) “Tell me
why” function of language, and 3) “I want” function of language.
B. Identify what general function of language is being referred to in each of the
following items.
________1. It is used to persuade and influence others through commands and
entreaties.
________2. It is the let’s pretend function of language.
________3. It is language used to express the individual’s personality.
________4. It is language used to communicate about the world.
________5. It is language used to control events as they happen.
________6. It is indulging in language for its own sake.
________7. It is language used to clear up difficulties about intentions, words,
and meanings.
________8. It is language used to establish communion with others.
________9. It is language used to get things done.
________10. It is using language to mark or express the social role of people
when speaking.
________11. It is language used when joking, rhyming, and making up nonsense words.
________12. It is using language for literary creation.
________13. It is language used to convey messages.
________14. It is language used to learn things about the world.
________15. It is language used for social maintenance.
Lesson 4 Linguistics and its Branches
Objectives
 differentiate among the branches of linguistics and,
 prepare a diagram/sketch for the different branches of linguistics.
Linguistics is the branch of learning which studies the language of any and all
human societies; how such a language is constructed; how it varies through space and
changes through time; how it is related to other languages; how it is used by its speakers.
William G. Moulton
Branches
A. Theoretical Linguistics
It is concerned with the nature of language and its components.
1. Synchronic Studies
A synchronic study of language is a comparison of languages or dialects-
various spoken differences of the same language--used within some defined
spatial region and during the same period of time. Determining the regions of the
United States in which people currently say 'pop' rather than 'soda' and 'idea'
rather than 'idear' are examples of the types of inquiries pertinent to a synchronic
study.
Such study may either be:
a. Descriptive Linguistics
This may focus on the following components of one particular
language at a given point in time.
a.1 Phonology
Phonology is not only about phonemes and allophones. Phonology
also concerns itself with the principles governing the phoneme systems--
that is, with what sounds languages 'like' to have, which sets of sounds are
most common (and why) and which are rare (and also why). It turns out
that there are prototype-based explanations for why the phoneme system
of the languages of the world have the sounds that they do, with
physiological/acoustic/perceptual explanations for the preference for some
sounds over others.
a.2 Morphology
Morphology concerns the words and meaningful subwords
constructed out of the phonological elements--that Fideau is a noun,
naming some mongrel, that chase is a verb signifying a specific action
which calls for both a chaser and a chasee, that -ed is a suffix indicating
past action, and so on.
a.3 Syntax
Syntax is the study of the principles and processes by which
sentences are constructed in particular languages. Syntactic investigation
of a given language has as its goal the construction of a grammar that can
be viewed as a device of some sort for producing the sentences of the
language under analysis.
a.4 Discourse
b. Comparative Linguistics
This may compare two or more languages using contrastive analysis to find
out points of similarities and differences between them.
2. Diachronic Studies
Diachronic literally means across-time, and it describes any work which
maps the shifts and fractures and mutations of languages over the centuries. In
gross outline, it is similar to evolutionary biology, which maps the shifts and
transformations of rocks.
Such a study is:
a. Historical Linguistics
Historical linguistics studies the nature and causes of language change.
The causes of language change find their roots in the physiological and
cognitive makeup of human beings. Sound changes usually involve
articulatory simplification as in the most common type, assimilation. Analogy
and reanalysis are particularly important factors in morphological change.
Language contact resulting in borrowing is another important source of
language change. All components of the grammar, from phonology to
semantics, are subject to change over time. A change can simultaneously
affect all instances of a particular sound or form, or it can spread through the
language word by word by means of lexical diffusion. Sociological factors can
play an important role in determining whether or not a linguistic innovation is
ultimately adopted by the linguistic community at large. Since language
change is systemic, it is possible, by identifying the changes that a particular
language or dialect has undergone, to reconstruct linguistic history and
thereby posit the earlier forms from which later forms have evolved.
B. Applied Linguistics
It has to do with language use, how it is learned and acquired, and how it may be
taught.
Exercise 4 Branches of Linguistics
A. Give the differences of the following: 1) Theoretical Linguistics v. Applied
Linguistics, and 2) Descriptive Linguistics v. Comparative Linguistics.
B. Put in a diagram the different Branches of Linguistics.
UNIT II PHONOLOGY
Lesson 1 Segmental Phonemes
A. Consonant Sounds
Objectives
 identify the distinctive features of the consonant sounds of English;
 describe the consonant sounds according to their characteristic
features, and
symbols for the consonant sounds.
If the air, once out of glottis, is obstructed, partially or totally, in one or more
places, the sound is consonant.
The distinction between place of articulation and manner of articulation is
particularly important for the classification of consonant sounds.
The place of articulation is the point where the airstream is obstructed. In general,
the place of articulation is simply that point on the palate where the tongue is placed to
block the stream of air.
The place of articulation can be any of the following:
 the lips (labials and bilabials),
 the teeth (dentals),
 the lips and teeth (labio-dentals-here the tongue is not directly involved),
 the alveolar ridge (that part of the gums behind the upper front teeth-
alveolar articulations),
 the hard palate (given its large size, one can distinguish between palato-
alveolar, palatal and palato-velars),
 the soft palate (or velum-velar articulations),
 the uvula (uvulars),
 the pharynx (pharyngeals),
 the glottis (glottals)
The manner of articulation is defined by a number of factors:
 whether there is vibration of the vocal cords ( voiced vs. voiceless),
 whether there is obstruction of the airstream at any point above the glottis
(consonant vs. vowel),
 whether the airstream passes through the nasal cavity in addition to the
oral cavity (nasal vs. oral),
 whether the airstream passes through the middle of the oral cavity or along
the side(s) (non-lateral vs. lateral).
Distinguishing Consonant Sounds
Consonant sounds can be differentiated in any language by reference to three
parameters: place of articulation, manner of articulation, and voicing. Other parameters
will also be relevant in some languages. We will apply this principle here to the
description and differentiation of English consonant sounds.
A. Place of Articulation
The place of articulation for the consonant sound is the point in the vocal tract where
the constriction for that consonant is formed. For each of the places of articulation
listed below, consider what other consonant sounds there might be (other than those
used as examples below) that use the same places of articulation.
1. Bilabial
A bilabial place of articulation is used for the first sound in words like pin
and bin. Notice that in saying these words, you begin by bringing your lips
together.
2. Labiodental
Words like fin begin with a labiodental articulation in which the upper
teeth contact or approach the lower lip.
3. Dental
Dental articulations are those like the first consonant sound in thin that
involves the tongue touching or approaching the back of the teeth.
4. Alveolar
The front of the tongue touches or approaches the alveolar ridge in
forming consonant sounds such as those at the beginning of tin and den.
5. Palatal
Notice that the first sounds in chump and jump also involve the front of the
tongue touching the roof of the mouth, but a bit further back than with the
alveolar examples above. This more back point of contact is the hard palate.
Though most palatal sounds use the front of the tongue, there is one in English
that uses the back of the tongue; this is the first sound in yet.
6. Velar
In the first sounds in cow and goat, the back of the tongue rises high
enough to touch the velum, making a closure there.
7. Glottal
Sometimes the vocal folds are drawn close enough together to produce a
slight hissing or whispering sound. This is called a glottal place of articulation
and occurs in the first sound of words like how and who in English.
Exercise 1 Place of Articulation
In this exercise, you are presented with sets of words. In each set, you are to
check “Y” for each word that has a consonant sound with the place of articulation for that
set, and “N” for each word that does not have a consonant sound with the place of
articulation for that set.

altruism Bless God pray weary
Bilabial  Y  Y  Y  Y  Y
 N  N  N  N  N
discreet Haven phoenix tough versatile

Labiodental  Y  Y  Y  Y  Y
 N  N  N  N  N
blithe Catharsis Faith tribulation worthy

Dental  Y  Y  Y  Y  Y
 N  N  N  N  N
beliefs Dynamic Song trust yearn

Alveolar  Y  Y  Y  Y  Y
 N  N  N  N  N
Palatal attaché Baffle choice gauge peace

 Y  Y  Y  Y  Y
 N  N  N  N  N
Velar charisma Eager heaven sterling wish

 Y  Y  Y  Y  Y
 N  N  N  N  N
Glottal coherence Heart knight love rose

 Y  Y  Y  Y  Y
 N  N  N  N  N
B. Manner of Articulation
Obviously, there must be some further way to differentiate consonant sounds
because in English there are two or more consonant sounds that are produced at each of
the place of articulation (except for glottals). The next basic distinction has to do with
how much the flow of air is constricted in the vocal tract. Tack and sack both begin with
alveolar sounds, but they are not identical. What distinguishes them is the extent to which
a constriction is made at the alveolar ridge in these two cases.
1. Stop
Tack begins what is known as a stop consonant sound. Stop consonant sounds are
those where there is a momentary complete closure of the vocal tract. Notice that
while making the first sound in tack you cannot hum or breathe. If you were to start to
say tack very slowly and a little loudly (as though you were trying very hard to be
clear in a noisy environment), and you then were to freeze at the moment when the
tongue touches the alveolar ridge, your vocal tract will be completely closed, with no
air able to enter or leave through your mouth or nose. You cannot hum through stop
consonant sound because humming requires moving air through the vocal folds,
which you cannot do when the vocal tract is completely blocked higher up. Such a
complete blockage is characteristic of consonant sounds that have the stop manner of
articulation. The constriction that characterizes the consonant sound is made by
briefly completely stopping the flow of air. In normal fast speech, however, this
interruption of the flow of air can be extremely brief, sometimes only a few
milliseconds (thousands of a sound).
2. Fricative
Another way to interrupt the flow of air out of the mouth occurs in the first
sound in sack. Here the tongue approaches the alveolar ridge, but allows a small
channel to form between the tongue and the roof of the mouth. Air rushing through
this small channel becomes very turbulent and produces the hissing sound that is
characteristics of this sort of consonant of this sort of consonant sound. Notice that
the first sound in sack can be sustained. You can take a deep breath and make the s in
ssssssssssack lasts as long as your air holds out.
3. Affricate
Affricates combine the stop and fricative manners of articulation into a
single new type. In words like chat, the first sound begins with a palatal stop, but then
very quickly moves into a fricative at the same point of articulation.
4. Nasal
The first in Macintosh is a nasal, a sound where the flow of air is blocked
in the mouth but allowed to flow freely through the nasal cavity. Nasals involve an
articulation inside the oral cavity that corresponds to some stop. Thus, the first sounds
in Mack and back are both stop consonant sounds in so far as the activity of the lips is
concerned (closing off the airstream altogether). However, you will notice that you
can hum through the first sound in Mack, but not the first sound in back. The reason
for this is that we produce nasals by lowering the velum to allow air to pass from the
pharynx into the nasal cavity and out of the nose.
5. Liquids
Liquids are somewhat vowel-like articulations that allow quite free
passage of air around an obstruction. The air may flow freely around the sides of the
tongue, as in the first sound in lake, or it may flow over a curled back tongue, as in
the first sound in rake.
6. Glide
The first in we and yes are called glides, which are the most vowel-like of
the consonant sounds. In these sounds, the air flow is quite free. Notice that the first
sound in we is very similar to the first sound in oops, and the first sound in yes is
quite similar to the first sound in eat.
Exercise 2 Manner of Articulation
check “Y” for each word that has a consonant sound with the manner of articulation for
that set “N” for each word that does not have a consonant sound with the manner of
articulation for that set.
candlelight Oblivion Regal serve woman
Stop  Y  Y  Y  Y  Y
 N  N  N  N  N
champagne Façade genre hyacinth limousine

Fricative  Y  Y  Y  Y  Y
 N  N  N  N  N
actual Chastise harbinger thought youth

Affricate  Y  Y  Y  Y  Y
 N  N  N  N  N
benign camouflage epitome meringue righteous

Nasal  Y  Y  Y  Y  Y
 N  N  N  N  N
cello Chamber chateau lichen whet

Liquid  Y  Y  Y  Y  Y
 N  N  N  N  N
chalet Gendarme lawyer rendezvous winsome

Glide  Y  Y  Y  Y  Y
 N  N  N  N  N
C. Voicing
Overlaid on top of the two dimensions of place of articulation and manner of
articulation there is a third dimension, that of voicing. As we will see, there are pairs of
consonant sounds that have the same place and manner of articulation, but different
voicing properties.
If you were to watch a slow motion video of someone saying sap and zap, it
would be difficult to impossible to tell which was which without the sound because the
motions in the mouth for these consonant sounds are identical. Nevertheless, you cannot
only hear but also feel a difference between these two. To make the difference clear,
place your fingers on your adam’s apple and produce a long hissing sound that alternates
between being an s or z sound, like this: sssszzzzsssszzzzzsssszzzzz. You should feel a
slight buzzing sensation in your fingers on the z sounds (but not on the s sounds). The
source of this buzzing sensation is vibration of the vocal folds. During the z articulation,
the vocal folds are drawn close together and air is forced between them, which causes
them to vibrate. During the s articulation, the folds are held apart and air flows freely
through the glottis (the opening between the vocal folds). Thus, we say that zap begins
with a voiced consonant sound while sap begins with a voiceless consonant sound.
The contrast is used widely in English. In each of the following pairs, there are
two consonant sounds of the same place of articulation that are distinguished in terms of
voicing: pat and bat, fat and vat, thin and then, and cot and got.
Exercise 3 Voicing
Write vd if the underlined consonant sounds are voiced and vl if they are
voiceless in the phrases below.
__________1. ambitious rival __________2. better example
__________3. clothe her in gold __________4. composure tension
__________5. converse in English __________6. familiar poem
__________7. gloomy clouds __________8. intelligent question
__________9. intellectual hypocrite __________10. modern attire
__________11. pleasant conversation __________12. student’s antagonism
__________13. teach the consonants __________14. theme song of the team
__________15. when you wish
Chart of the Consonant Sounds
The various ways of distinguishing consonant sounds that we have discussed are
used in the chart shown below. The chart illustrates how the consonant sounds of English
can be distinguished by several parameters: place of articulation, manner of articulation,
and voicing. An International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) symbol is given for each sound in
the table, along with a common English word that uses the sound.
Place of Articulation
Manner of
Bilabial Labiodental Dental Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
Articulation
Stops vl p(pat) t(tack) k(cat)
vd b(bat) d(dig) g(get)
Fricatives vl f(fat) θ(thin) s(sat) š(fish) h(hat)
vd v(bat) ð(then) z(zap) ž(azure)
Affricates vl č(church)
vd j(judge)
Nasals vd m(mat) n(not) ŋ(sing)
Liquids vd l(late) r(rate)
Others vd w(win) y(yet)
Legend: vl-voiceless; v-voiced
Exercise 4 Consonant Sounds
Below is a list of key words for the twenty-four (24) consonant sounds. Write the
corresponding phonetic symbol of the underlined consonant sound opposite each word.
Refer to the chart if you cannot remember the symbol. (I hope you do not have to do
this).
Symbol Key word Symbol Key word
__________ 1. bathing __________ 2. behavior
__________ 3. chameleon __________ 4. character
__________ 5. chastity __________ 6. chemise
__________ 7. country __________ 8. criticism
__________ 9. emblem __________ 10. fraternity
__________ 11. lychee __________ 12. mythology
__________ 13. phonology __________ 14. pharaoh
__________ 15. prayer __________ 16. president
__________ 17. promise __________ 18. singer
__________ 19. slogan __________ 20. today
__________ 21. von voyage __________ 22. vulnerable
__________ 23. world __________ 24. yet
B. Vowel Sounds
Objectives

 distinguish the distinctive features of the vowel sounds of English;
 describe the vowel sounds according to their characteristics features, and
symbols for the vowel sounds.
If the air, once out of glottis, is allowed to pass freely through the resonators, the
sound is a vowel.
Vowel sounds are voiced and vowel articulations that involved constriction in the
vocal tract. Thus, vowel sounds are distinguished by way of different timbres or qualities
in the sound that are produced by giving the inside of the mouth different shapes. You
may have noticed that if you speak or sing into a large barrel or a length of large-diameter
pipe, your voice suddenly sounds very different. In fact, it will sound noticeably different
in diameters and lengths of pipe. The vocal tract takes advantage of the same acoustical
principles that produce these differences to produce the acoustical qualities of different
vowels. This is achieved largely by shifting the tongue into different postures. By raising
the tongue high into forward part of the mouth (and enlarging the spaces at the back of
the mouth), we produce the vowel quality in words like bee and key. By pulling the
tongue down and somewhat back toward the back wall of the pharynx, we produce
sounds like the vowels in cot and pot. The vowel in loot and coot are produced by raising
the back of the tongue toward the velum, but not getting it close enough to produce any
constriction or noise.
Distinguishing Vowel Sounds
The vowel sounds are described in terms of the following physical dimensions:
A. Tongue Height
For any articulation corresponding to one of these vowel sounds, the
tongue is either relatively high in the mouth (/i, I, u, υ /) mid (/e, ε, ٨, ∂, o/) or low
(/æ, a, ∂ /). Compare see /si/ (high) and say /se/ (mid).
B. Frontness
tongue is either relatively front ( i, I, e, ε, æ/) or back (/ ٨, ∂, a, u, υ, o, ‫ כ‬/).
Compare see /si/ (front) and sue /su/ (back).
C. Lip Rounding
tongue is either relatively round (/ u, υ , o, ‫ כ‬/) or spread (/ i, I, e, ε, æ, ٨, ‫ כ‬, a /).
Compare so /so/ (round) and say /se/ (spread).
D. Tenseness
vowel musculature is either relatively tense (/ I, e, u, o, ‫ כ‬/) or lax (/ I, ε, æ, ٨, ∂ ,
a, υ /). Compare aid /ed/ (tense) and Ed /εd/ (lax).
Exercise 5 Physical Dimensions of the Vowel Sounds
check “Y” for each word that has a vowel sound that matches the feature for that set and
”N” for each word that does not have a vowel sound that matches the feature for that set.
beau English gourmet speech student
High  Y  Y  Y  Y  Y
 N  N  N  N  N
chaos Flaw Pope truth wink
Mid  Y  Y  Y  Y  Y
 N  N  N  N  N
chasm Feast hop map school
Low  Y  Y  Y  Y  Y
 N  N  N  N  N
accent Friend maze mood silly
Front  Y  Y  Y  Y  Y
 N  N  N  N  N
bliss Bond cruise owe warm
Back  Y  Y  Y  Y  Y
 N  N  N  N  N
alias Impact meant orchard rude
Round  Y  Y  Y  Y  Y
 N  N  N  N  N
bread Cause instant locket reach
Spread  Y  Y  Y  Y  Y
 N  N  N  N  N
degree Flash group probe villa
Tense  Y  Y  Y  Y  Y
 N  N  N  N  N
crook Deal echo torn ultra
Lax  Y  Y  Y  Y  Y
 N  N  N  N  N
Chart of the Vowel Sounds
The various ways of distinguishing vowel sounds that we have discussed are used
in the chart shown below. The chart illustrates how the vowel sounds of English can be
distinguished by several physical dimensions: tongue height, frontness, lip rounding, and
tenseness. An International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) symbol is given for each sound in
the table, along with a common English word that uses the sound.
Front Back
Tense i seat u suit
Lax I sit υ soot

e say o sewed
High ٨
suds
ε said
∂ soda
Mid s ‫כ‬ought
æ sad a sod
Low Spread Round
Exercise 6 Vowel Transcription
A. In this exercise, you are presented with ten English words. Choose the
transcription that best represents the word in each number. Write the letters of your
answers on the blanks provided for each number.
___________ 1. beat a. / bIt / b. / bit / c. / bet /
___________ 2. get a. / gεt / b. / get / c. / g∂t /
___________ 3. coach a. / kot / b. / koach / c. / koat /
___________ 4. lack a. / lak / b. / læk / c. / lok /
___________ 5. monkey a. / m٨nkI / b. / moŋki / c. / m٨ŋki /
___________ 6. pain a. / pæn / b. / paIn / c. / pen /
___________ 7. shop a. / šap / b. / šop / c. / shap /
___________ 8. through a. / θrou / b. / ðru / c. / θru /
___________ 9. tough a. / tuf / b. / t٨f / c. / tš٨f /
___________ 10. wrote a. / r‫כ‬t / b. / wrot / c. / rot /
B. In this exercise, you are presented with ten English words. For each word, you
will see a transcription of the word. Choose English spelling that best represents the word
as transcribed. Write the letters of your answers on the blanks provided for each number.
___________ 1. / bed / a. bayed b. bead c. bed
___________ 2. / bυk / a. back b. book c. buck
___________ 3. / not / a. naught b. note c. not
___________ 4. / kast / a. cased b. cast c. cost
___________ 5. / ren / a. ran b. rain c. wren
___________ 6. / rum / a. roam b. Rome c. room
___________ 7. / šip / a. chip b. sheep c. ship
___________ 8. / tæk / a. tack b. take c. tech
___________ 9. / taIm / a. tame b. team c. time
___________ 10./tšIld / a. child b. chilled c. shiel
Complete Vowel Sounds – Diphthongs
The eleven vowel sounds in the chart which have been presented to you are all
simple vowels; that is, they retain their basic quality throughout their articulation. Simple
vowels contrast with diphthongs, which are complex vowel sounds that begin at one
phonetic point and end at another. Diphthongs are combinations of two vowel sounds,
which is why we represent them with a sequence of two symbols, the first representing
the approximate phonetic quality of the beginning of the sound, the second representing
the approximate ending quality.
There are three regular diphthongs: that of my and sigh, that of now and out and
that of hoist and void. The phonetic symbol for the diphthong of my is /ay/, which
indicates an /a/ beginning element and a /y/ ending element. If you begin with /a/ and
glide immediately into /y/, you will approximate the vowel of my. Similarly, if you begin
with /a/ and glide into /w/, you will approximate the diphthong of now and out. We can
now see the sense of calling /y/ and /w/ glides. The diphthongs of hoist and void is
symbolized /oy/, indicating that this vowel begins with an /o/ like sound and glides to /y/.
Notice that these three diphthongs are all rising diphthongs; they glide from a low onset
(called a nucleus) toward a high position-high front in the case of /oy/ and /ay/, and high
back in the case of /aw/.
Exercise 7 Diphthongs
Place the words below into the appropriate column in the chart. Pay particular
attention on the underlined complex vowel sounds.
adroit boisterous clown
demise endowment indict
mountain nullify piety
poignant seismograph scoundrel
royal vow voyage
/ay/ /aw/ /oy/
Lesson 2Suprasegmental Phonemes
A. Intonation
Objectives
 demonstrate an understanding of the uses of the more common intonation
patterns, and
 use the correct intonation patterns for the sentences.

Intonation refers to the tone or pitch of the voice. In English, there are four pitch
levels: extra-high, high, mid (or normal), and low. Extra-high intonation which reflects
surprise, excitement or intense feeling on the part of the speaker is used in exclamations.
It is often used in ordinary conversations.
One pitch level lower than extra-high but a pitch level higher than normal is high.
It is usually found in the stressed syllable of a word or in the word receiving primary
stress in a compound word, a phrase, or a sentence. The normal tone or pitch level is
referred to as mid while a drop from the normal to fade out as what usually occurs at the
end of a sentence is called low. These last three pitch levels-high, mid, and low- are
arranged in a sequence to describe the intonation patterns used in a sentence.
A rising intonation pattern would therefore be described as a mid-high pattern, a
final rising-falling intonation down to fade out would be a mid-high-low intonation
pattern; and a non-final intonation rising-falling intonation back to normal would be a
mid-high-mid intonation pattern.
Intonation Patterns
Rising Intonation
A. Final
1. At the end of yes-no questions Is he sick?
Is he absent?
2. At the end of tag questions seeking He isn’t here,is he?
information
B. Non-final
1. All the words in a series except the last one I’ll have beef, chicken and fish.
which is given a rising-falling intonation
2. In nominatives of address Rosa, come here.
3. In alternatives except the last option Do we have to leave now or later?
4. Conditionals in sentence initial position may If you’re sick, you’d better go home.
take a non-final rising or a non-final rising.
falling intonation.
Rising-falling intonation
A. Final
1. At the end of statements It’s time to go.
I’ll leave tomorrow.
2. At the end of wh questions Who’s to blame?
3. At the end of tag questions seeking You’ll come, won’t you?
confirmation
B Non-final
At the end of breath groups except for patterns He won’t come unless you invite him.
that require the use of non-final rising intonation.
Extra-high intonation
To show surprise, excitement or intense “Fire!” shouted the captain.
feeling etc.
Exercise 1 Intonation Patterns
Show the intonation patterns of these sentences by drawing lines.
1. Look!
2. Is that a giant bird or a plane?
3. It could be an eagle, a hawk, or a vulture.
4. Can you see it, Joan?
5. It’s not an owl, is it?
6. What could it be?
7. If it comes closer, I’ll be able to tell.
8. Is it an endangered specie?
9. I really don’t know.
10. It’s carnivorous, isn’t it?
B. Stress
Objectives
 demonstrate an understanding of some general principles regarding the
correct placement of stress when there are changes in form class and when
dealing with compounds;
 appreciate the importance of stress in distinguishing meaning;
 mark off thought groups using slant lines;
 identify the primary sentence stress in normal, ordinary sentences;
 show the ability to make meaning clear by skillful shifting of the primary
sentence stress, and
 demonstrate skill in using stress for emphasis.
In English, we do not say each syllable with the same force or strength. In one
word, we accentuate one syllable. We say one syllable loudly (big, strong, important) and
all the other syllables quietly.
Let us take three words: photograph, photographer, and photographic. These
words do not sound the same when spoken. Because we accentuate one syllable in each
word. And it is not always the same syllable. So the shape of each word is different.
Photograph has the stressed syllable on the first, photographer on the second syllable and
photographic on the third syllable.
The same thing happens in all words with two or more syllables: above, China,
conversation, demand, Japan, important, interesting etc. The syllables that are not
stressed are “weak” or “small” or “quiet.” Native speakers of English listen for the
stressed syllables, not the weak syllables. If you used word stress in your speech, you
will instantly and automatically improve your pronunciation and your comprehension.
Try to hear the stress in individual words each time you listen to English-on the
radio, or in the films for example. Your first step is to hear and recognize it. After that,
you can use it.
Word Stress
In every word in English, there is one main emphasized syllable. The vowel
sound in this syllable sounds higher in pitch, longer and louder and this is called stress.
This helps create the rhythm of the language and knowing how to recognize the stressed
syllable will help you with comprehension. Placing the stress where it should be when
you are speaking helps native speakers understand you better as well.
Patterns
English word stress is not always on the same syllable, like in some languages.
Many times, though, it is one of the last three syllables in the word. Here are some
examples of stress in different syllables of the word:
computer languages pronunciation
Sometimes you can predict the stress placement because of the type of word or
ending you put on it. Here are some general rules:
Word Type Where is the Stress? Examples

Two syllables Nouns on the first syllable center, flower, object
Verbs on the last syllable admit, arrange, release
Compound Nouns on the first part bookshelf, desktop,

(N+N) greenhouse
(Adj.+N.)
Adjectives on the last part old-fashioned, hard-

(Adj.+P.P.) (the verb part) headed, well-meant
Verbs outperform, overlook,

(prep.+verb) understand
Phrasal Verbs on the particle buckle up, hand out,

turn off
Words with -tion, -cian, - cohesion, graduation,
added ending sion technician
-phy, -gy, -try, - the third from the last biology, geometry,
cy, -fy, -al syllable photography
-meter barometer, parameter,

thermometer
Exercise 2 Word Stress
Underline the syllable you think is the stressed syllable in each of the words
below.
1. associate 2. attaché
3. ballet 4. brochure
5. classroom 6. count on
7. department store 8. hand in
9. flexibility 10. fundamental
11. honorable 12. impression
13. magnetic 14. magnify
15. overtake 16. pedagogy
17. perimeter 18. philosophy
19. pronunciation 20. sentimental
21. shortsighted 22. spectacular
23. stand for 24. starry-eyed
25. underwrite
Phrasal Stress
In written English, we use pronunciation to show where the pauses in the
sentences should be. When we speak English, our listeners do not see the punctuation but
we do not generally run all the words together in a stream of equally-emphasized words
either; we group words by their meaning and pause between them. This allows us to
speak in phrases or thought groups and to pause just after important information that we
emphasize.
If we are speaking slower and clearer, the phrases are shorter but if we are
speaking fast, the phrases are longer and we do not emphasize as many word. Phrasal
Stress, indeed, is an important part of the rhythm of English. It is a term that refers to the
most stressed word in each phrase (thought group) in a sentence. Each sentence that has
more than one phrase in it has its most stressed word in the last phrase.
Patterns
When we read a sentence normally (without giving any word extra emphasis),
each thought group (phrase) in a sentence has one word that is most stressed. This word
is the last content word in that phrase. The last content word in the last phrase of the
sentence is said to be the most stressed in the sentence.
The two sentences below have been divided into thought groups. In every
thought group, the last content word which is set in boldface is stressed. And the content
word towards the end of the sentence is the most stressed.
The noisy car/ has been parked / in the garAGE.
Many people / often read / the business section / of the NEWSpaper.
“Business section” and “newspaper” are compound nouns – when they are said
more rapidly, there will be fewer pauses and less stress on the content words.
Thought groups (phrases) are generally formed by the grammar. Here are some
examples:
Noun Phrases Amy and Peter
the obsolete software
Short subject and verb Mary walked
The boy smiled
Verb Phrases jogged joyfully
seemed correct
Prepositional Phrases in speech laboratory
to the mall
Relative Clauses …book that I read, is…
…woman who wore glasses, was…
Parenthetical Remarks phrases (or thought groups) are…
this is, in fact, an example
Between each thought group, the speaker needs to pause. There are some pauses
that are longer and more important than others. These would be marked with commas “,”
colons “:” and periods “.” in writing and will almost always be pauses, no matter how
fast the person is speaking. The other pauses will be there if is slower speech but might
not be if it is faster speech.
Sometimes if you can imagine the pronunciation that would be there in writing, it
helps you know where to pause for a breath.
Exercise 3 Phrasal Stress
Underline the word that should be given primary stress in each thought group.
1. I believe in the Supreme Being / who commands the turn of events / and guides
the future of men.
2. For if the power of prayer / is again released / and used in the lives / of common
men and women / if the spirit declares its aims / clearly and boldly / there is yet
hope / that our prayers for a better world / will be answered.
3. For I was hungered / and you gave me meat; // I was thirsty / and you gave me
drink; // I was a stranger / and you took me in.
Sentence Stress
Sentence stress is the music spoken English. Like word stress, sentence stress can
help you understand spoken English, especially when spoken fast.
Sentence stress is what gives English its rhythm or ‘beat”.
You remember that word stress is accent on one syllable within a word.
Sentence stress is accent on certain words within a sentence.
Most sentences have two types of word: content words and structure words.
Content words are the key words of a sentence. They are the important words that
carry the meaning or sense.
Structure words are not very important words. They are small, simple words that
make the sentences correct grammatically. They give the sentence its correct form or
“structure.”
If you remove the structure words from a sentence, you will probably still
understand the sentence.
If you remove the content words from a sentence, you will not understand the
sentence. The sentence has no sense or meaning.
Imagine that you receive this telegram:
Will you sell me car because I am gone to France
This sentence is not complete. It is not “grammatically correct” sentence. But
you probably understand it. The four words, set in bold letters, communicate very well.
Somebody wants to sell their car for them because they have gone to France. We can add
a few words:
Will you sell my car because I have gone to France
The new words do not really add any more information. But they make the
message more correct grammatically. We can add even more words to make one
complete, grammatically correct sentence. But the information is the same.
Content Words
Will you sell my car because I have gone to France.
Structure Words
In our sentence, the four key words (sell, car, gone, France) are accentuated or
stressed.
Why is this important for pronunciation? It is important because it adds “music”
to the language. It is the rhythm of English language. The time between each stressed
word is the same.
In our sentence, there is one syllable between sell and car and three syllables
between car and gone. But the time (t) between sell and car and between car and gone is
the same. We maintain a constant beat on the stressed words. To do this, we say “my”
more slowly, and “because I have” more quickly. We change the speed of the small
structure words so that the rhythm of the key content words stay the same.
syllables
2 1 3 1
Will you sell my car because I have gone to France
beat tl beat tl beat tl beat
Rules for Sentence Stress in English
Basic rules of sentence stress are: 1) content words are stressed, 2) structure
words are unstressed, and 3) the time between stressed words is always the same.
The following tables can help you decide which words are content words and
which are structure words.
Content Words
Words carrying the meaning Examples
main verbs employ, give, sell
Nouns car, Mary, music
Adjectives big, interesting, red
Adverbs loudly, never, quickly
negative auxiliaries aren’t, can’t, don’t
Structure Words
Words for correct grammar Examples
Pronouns he, we, they
Prepositions at, into, on
Articles a, an, the
Conjunctions and, because, but
auxiliary verbs be, can, do, have, must
Exceptions
The above rules are for what is called “neutral” or normal stress.
But sometimes we can stress a word that would normally be only a structure word, for
example to correct information.
Look at the following dialogue:
“Have you seen it?”
“No I have not, but he has.”
Exercise 4 Sentence Stress
Read the following conversation first, then decide where to put the primary stress
in the sentences. Remember that if the sentence is long, you will have to divide it first
into thought groups.
Ana: I witnessed a quaint wedding practice the other day.
Ellen: Do tell. I’m always interested in such practices.
Ana: Well, right after the wedding, there was a scuffle between bride and groom.
Ellen: This is getting exciting. Go ahead.
Ana: Each one was trying to step on the other’s shoes. The bride won, of course.
Ellen: But whatever for?
Ana: They apparently subscribe to the superstitious belief that whoever steps on the
partner’s shoes first, right after the wedding, will be the boss of the family.
Emphasis
Emphasis is used to show extra emotion in our speech. By giving extra stress to
different words in an English sentence, we can actually change the meaning of the
sentence. To do this, we give them emphasis with an even higher tone, a longer stressed
syllable and a louder sound than a normally-stressed word.
Patterns
By raising the tone even more, making the stressed syllable even together and
increasing the volume, we can show strong emotion with emphasis.
How do you like the art exhibit? – I loved it!
We can change the meaning with emphasis by comparing the emphasized word
(set in italics) with its opposite (set in bold letters) either within the sentence or not there.
I am going to the store. (Regular stress on the last content word of the
phrase/sentence)
I am going to the store. (Not you, but me!)
I am going to the store. (You are not going to the store. – I am!)
I am going to the store. (Have you ever gone to the store? – No, I am
going to the store.)
I am going to the store. (not coming from it)
I am going to the store. (The store-favorite or only store, known to both
speaker and listener.)
I am going to the store. (not the mall)
We also use emphasis to change the focus of the conversation like the example
given below so old information is not emphasized. Please note that regular stress is
underlined and emphasis is marked in capitals. Notice how none of the repeated words
are emphasized unless they are part of a compound that makes a different word.
Andy: I am going to the store.
Kris: What are you going to BUY?
Andy: A book.
Kris: Oh, so you are going to the BOOKstore.
Andy: Yeah.
Kris: What KIND of book are you getting?
Andy: A COOKbook.
Kris: What do you want to cook?
Andy: I am going to cook a pot roast.
Kris: Do you HAVE a pot roast?
Andy: No, I will have to go to the store top GET one.
When you ask a question using emphasis on only one part of the question phrase,
such as “What KIND of book?”, think abut what answer you want when you chose which
word to emphasize.
Another example is “How MANY books?-THREE books.” (By the way, if you
say “HOW many books?” this is after you have heard the answer and did not believe it so
you want to hear it again.)
Another use of emphasis is focusing on structure words instead of content words.
Again, this can be comparing something to its opposite or near opposite and old
information is not emphasized. It can also be showing strong agreement.
With emphasis As a statement alone, you would hear:
Do you want pizza or spaghetti?-I want I want pizza and spaghetti
pizza AND spaghetti!
You do not know how to swim, do you?-I I know how to swim.
DO know how to swim.
THAT was a good movie.-That WAS a That was a good movie.
good movie.
Exercise 5 Emphasis
Be guided by what is enclosed within the parenthesis as you stress the appropriate
word in the following sentences.
A. 1. Mark’s shirt was green. (Normal statement)
2. Mark’s shirt was green. (Perhaps there was a question before, but now we know
it’s definitely green)
3. Mark’s shirt was green. (Not his sweater or tie)
4. Mark’s shirt was green. (Not max or Mike)
B. 5. This is a good book. (Normal statement)
6. This is a good book. (Not a poor one)
7. This is a good book. (There is no question but that it is good; perhaps I wasn’t
sure before but now I agree with you as so its merits.)
8. This is a good book. (Not the only good book in the world, but one good book)
C. 9. Could you lend me ten pesos? (Normal question)
10. Could you lend me ten pesos? (Not five or twenty)
11. Could you lend me ten pesos? (Not Peter or anybody else)
12. Could you lend me ten pesos? (I don’t want you to give it to me.)
13. Could you lend me ten pesos? (I’ve probably tried to ask elsewhere in the group,
and want you to know whether you can do it.)
14. Could you lend me ten pesos? (Do you have that much, so that you could lend it
to me? Is it possible for you?)
C. Juncture
Objectives
 distinguish the different juncture patterns, and
 mark off sentence using appropriate juncture marks.
Juncture is an interruption or break in the continuous flow of speech. Junctures
are classified as close, open, terminal, and falling terminal.
Close Juncture is the usual transition from one sound to the other.
Open Juncture or the Plus Juncture (+) is made by break or pause between two
successive sounds or words.
Terminal Juncture is done by pausing at varying lengths to mark off parts or ends
of utterances.
Falling Terminal Juncture or double cross juncture (#) is described by a drop in
pitch and a fading off of the voice in silence.
Close Juncture is normal transition from one sound to the other.
Open Juncture identifies meaning and accentual patterns in particular cases. Thus,
recycle or re+cycle, reconstruct or re+construct.
Terminal Juncture is either single bar juncture or double bar juncture.
a. Sustained Terminal Juncture or single bar juncture (/) is characterized by level
or a light rise in the pitch in these instances:
Nouns of Mr. Cruz / please print these on the bulletin board.
address We understand your intention / Jenny / but we cannot afford it.
Mr. Fernandez / the director / is on leave.
Appositives Sharon Cuneta / the megastar / sings love songs.
The secretary said / “ The president is out./”
Direct Arnold said / “I love you, Malou. /”
Quotation
Suspended If you wish…/
remarks or Would you…/
unfinished
utterances
Parenthetical His books / he has thousands / came from different donors.
remarks set The rector / I believe / is delivering his inaugural speech.
off by
commas in
writing
b. Rising Terminal Juncture or double bar juncture (//) is made by a rise in pitch
(higher than sustained terminal juncture) and is no longer than the single bar
juncture.
Questions answerable Have you analyzed the results? //
by yes or no Will you be my tourist guide? //
Alternatives or choices Would you like cash // or house and lot? //
Would you prefer either fruits // or fruit juices? //
Numbers/Items in a The package contains stickers // leaflets // and
series posters? //
One // two // three // go! //
Questions in the form The building is still on fire. //
of echo statements The election goes on. //
Falling Terminal Juncture is described by a drop in pitch and a fading off of the voice
in silence.
Statements The entertainers were applauded. #
There is an increase number of dropouts. #
Fact Questions How long was the campaign period? #
How many OCW’s were repatriated? #
The student escapade # didn’t he? #
Confirmation(Tag The delinquent students failed # didn’t they? #
Questions)
Imperative Sentences Please print the books now. #
Stop the pushers now. #
Long enumeration as in Check these equipment: # intercom // computers // two way
items in a series radio // telephone // xerox copier // and a camera. #
Parenthetical comment These report # and you agree with me # should be flashed
marked by dashes in on television. #
writing
Exercise 6 Juncture
Divide the following sentences into thought groups using juncture marking.
1. Do you trust God?
2. How many were absent yesterday?
3. Mrs. Beltran, the executive producer, conducts the meeting.
4. Please pray for me.
5. Randy, I can’t believe you can do this to me.
6. Retype all the papers on the top of my table.
7. The teacher said, “ The final examination is on Monday.”
8. True friends never fail, don’t they?
9. Would you like a tea or coffee?
10. Your best friend, I think, is in love with you.
UNIT III MORPHOLOGY
Lesson 1 Types of Meaning
Objectives
 examine the various types of meaning, and
 discuss the different types of meaning and how these are signaled.
A. Intonational Meaning
It is the intonation that signals the change in meaning.
e.g. 1) Really! 2) Really!
Which one expresses a surprise? Which one shows that the speaker does not put
too much importance on what was said?
B. Morphological Meaning
It refers to the added meaning given by affixes to a root word.
e.g. student + s = students (more than one student)
check + ed = checked (I ate it sometime in the past)
C. Lexical Meaning
It refers to the meaning of the root word or word base.
e.g. Ana finally got the chair. (The chair may refer to an electric chair, a
professorial chair or a piece of furniture depending on the situation.)
D. Syntactical Meaning
It is signaled by the order or position of the words in a sentence.
e.g. The hunter killed the lion.
The lion killed the hunter.
(In the first sentence, it is the lion who died and the hunter who killed it. In the
second sentence, however, it is the hunter who died and the lion was the one that killed
him.)
E. Denotative Meaning
It is the meaning of words given in the dictionary.
e.g. dove it is a bird that makes a cooing sound and is usually white.
F. Connotative Meaning
It is the associated meaning/s of a word.
e.g. dove stands for love and peace
Exercise 1 Different Types of Meaning
Discuss the types of meaning clearly shown by the following and how these are signaled
also.
1. Some stage plays run for several seasons.
2. Lea’s face was white as a sheet.
3. George was voted by the judges Athlete of the year.
4. James stood all day selling newspapers.
5. Curfew is an order establishing a time in the evening after which no unauthorized
persons may be outdoors.
6. Zen’s friends turned green with envy when the former received an award.
7. The writer writes funny short stories.
8. Is that so?
9. Yen was considered a heroine after saving a blind child from the hands of a
murderer in a dark corner of New Street.
10. Jargon is a vocabulary peculiar to a particular profession.
Lesson 2 Types of Morphemes
Objectives
 consider the different types of morphemes, and
 draw a diagram for the different types of morphemes and cite examples
for each of them.
A. Bound Morphemes
They cannot occur in isolation.
1. Inflectional
They create “variant forms of a word to conform to the different functional
roles of the word in a sentence.” On nouns and pronouns, they mark
grammatical functions like case (hehimhis) or semantic notions like
number (pluralmarking morphss, en, unmarked or 0 morph). On verbs, they
usually mark tense (past tense marking affixfinal ed and the progressive
marking affix ing). On adjectives, they serve to mark degree (er to indicate the
comparative degree and est to signal the superlative degree).
2. Derivational
They change the form class or part of speech of the words to which they are
affixed. The meaning remains basically the same but the part of speech or
form class of the word changes. Thus, a word act becomes an adjective with
the addition of –ive as in active and another noun activity with the addition of
–ity to the adjective. When, however, the affix –ly is added to the adjective,
the resulting word actively, becomes an adverb. The word act becomes a
verb, enact when the prefix en- is attached to the root word. Thus, there are
four kinds of derivational morphemes, namely: noun-marking, verb-marking,
adjective-marking, and adverb-marking morphemes.
The other kind of derivational bound morpheme is the meaning-bearing
morpheme which changes the meaning of the word to which it is attached
without altering its syntactic function: nouns would remain nouns, verbs stay
as verbs, adjectives as adjectives, and adverbs as adverbs. Examples of this
kind of derivational affix are negative-marking affixes (appear-disappear),
gender-marking affixes (aviator-aviatrix), and diminutive-size-marking affixes
(river-rivulet).
B. Free Morphemes
They can occur in isolation.
1. Words that indicate grammatical relations
a. Function words
Examples of these words are the auxiliaries like is, has, can, etc. which
mark verbs; articles, namely: a, an, the which mark nouns, and
intensifiers such as very and truly which mark modifiers.
Interrogatives or question words like what, who, when, etc. are also
function words since they mark the utterance as wh questions. Also
included as function words are prepositions such as of, in to, etc.
which show the relationship between two nouns, and conjunctions,
namely: and, but, for etc. which connect parallel items. Other linguists
would consider interjections like Oh! and Really! as function words.
b. Substitute words
These would include noun substitutes or pronouns like he, she, it etc.
as well as verbal and even phrasal and clausal substitutes, as in the
sentence, “I know the answer but he doesn’t.”
c. Expression that signal presence/absence of negatives
The paired expressions that signal the presence or absence of a
negative are some-any, yet-already, too or also-either as in the
following examples: 1) I have some but he doesn’t have any. 2) I have
yet to know, but he already does. 3) I know it and he does too. 40 I
don’t know it and he doesn’t either.
2. Words that refer to items in the world
a. Nouns
b. Verbs
c. Adjectives
d. Adverbs
Exercise 2 Different Types of Morphemes
Sketch a diagram showing the types of morphemes. Then give five examples for each
kind.
UNIT IV SYNTAX
Lesson 1Syntax
Objectives
 cite examples for the different tests of constituents;
 indicate the types of phrases available in the sentences, and
 identify the types of syntactic structures of the given statements.
Syntax concerns the arrangement of those morphological elements into phrases
and sentences.
Syntactic categories (Parts of Speech)
a. noun N John, London, computer, city, stupidity, event
b. verb V hear, think, kill, shorten, eavesdrop, exist
c. adjective A good, obscene, demented, lovely, schoolmasterly
d. preposition P by, in, with, from, to, at, inside, despite
e. adverb Adv slowly, often, now, mostly
f. determiner D Det a, the, this, those
Constituent Structure
Sentences are formed by combining words with other words to form larger
groups of words (constituents). Constituents combine with other constituents to form
bigger constituents, until we have sentences.
e.g. That man likes that woman.
S ® D+N+V+D+N
Lesson 1Tests for Constituents
1. Proform test
If you can replace a string with a proform, the string is a constituent.
Proforms stand for constituents already mentioned. Examples are pronouns which replace
NPs; she/him/they etc).
e.g. a. The lady running the group handed in her resignation at noon.
b. She handed in her resignation. [The lady running the group is a
constituent]
c. The lady running it handed in her resignation. [the group is a
constituent]
d. The lady running the group did so at noon. [handed in her resignation is
a constituent]
e. The lady running the group handed in her resignation then. [at noon is a
constituent]
2. Question test
A string is a constituent if you can ask about it using a wh-expression (e.g.
where/how/when/why/what/who(m); with whom?, at what time?, in whose house?). The
answer to the question is also a constituent.
e.g. a: What did the lady running the group hand in at noon?
b: Her resignation.
a: Who handed in her resignation at noon?
b: The lady running the group
3. Movement test
If a string can be moved to some other position in the sentence, it is very likely to
be a constituent
e.g. a. Allan was reading a thick book about formal logic on the balcony on
Sunday.
b. On Sunday, Allan was reading a thick book about formal logic on the
balcony.
4. Coordination test
If you can coordinate two strings, the strings are constituents.
e.g. a. I went to the post office to post a letter.
b. I went to the post office to post a letter and did the shopping.
5. Though test
If though means although, it forces an inversion of word order where though is
preceded by a constituent:
e.g. a. Although they are annoyed at their son...  Annoyed at their son though
they are...
b. Although he worked hard...  Work hard though he did...
Exercise 1 Tests for Constituents
Give an example for each of the tests for constituents. Explain your specific example for
each kind of test.
Lesson 2Types of Phrases
Each word-level category has a corresponding phrase containing the word level
category itself and material adding additional information to it or dependent on it.
1. Noun Phrase (NP)
e.g. the woman; a (big) tree; (this) coffee, (our) existence
a (famous) diva (of exceptional talent) (who got run over by a
truck)
2. Verb Phrase (VP)
e.g. read a book
sings many songs
3. Prepositional Phrase (PP)
e.g. near the fireplace
towards the building
4. Adjective Phrase (AP)
e.g. very angry
devoid of content
5. Adverb Phrase (AdvP)
e.g. very slowly
extremely well
Exercise 2 Types of Phrases
Indicate the type of phrases of the following group of words enclosed in brackets.
1. [ Maria] likes [ England].
2. Her mother [read a book] and [did a crossword puzzle].
3. I went [ into [ the building]] [ with [ the other people]].
4. [A person [very angry about the situation]] shouted at him.
5. [ [ Mary] [ [ very quickly] memorised [the material] [ perfectly]]].
6. She walked [right out of the house].
7. [The people] became [very angry].
8. [[ [The] [ [An old] man] [ [ in] [ the] [ café]]]] [ [ often] reads [ books by
French authors] [ on Saturday nights]]].
9. They found [a big tree] and sat under it.
10. He went [upwards] and [over the hill].
Lesson 3 Syntactic Structures
1. Structure of Predication
It is concerned with the two main parts of any sentence: the subject and the
predicate.
e.g. John often comes late to class.
Before giving a test, the teacher should make sure that the students are
well-prepared.
2. Structure of Modification
It is made up of two components: a head or main word and a modifier which
serves to “qualify, broaden, specify or in some way affect the meaning of the head.”
e.g. The young girl with the long black hair fell from her bike yesterday in
heavy rain.
Sitting in a tree at the bottom of the garden was a huge black bird with
long blue tail feathers.
3. Structure of Complementation
This refers to the different complements that linking and transitive predicate verbs
may take to complete the comment that they make about the subject.
e.g. Today can be whatever you want it to be.
He knows nothing.
4. Structure of Coordination
This consists of two or more syntactically equivalent units joined by connectors to
form a structure which acts as a single unit.
e.g. Either you do this or you are fired.
He is intelligent as well as good natured.
Exercise 3 Syntactic Structures
Write before each number the kind of syntactic structures evidently shown in the
following statements.
________1. You can write on paper, or you can use a computer.
_________2. A tree fell onto the school roof in a storm, but none of the students was
injured, although many of them were in classrooms at the top of the building.
_________3. Lying on the sofa watching old films is my favourite hobby.
_________4. At the back of the line in the cafeteria yesterday was a large brown dog
with a yellow collar around its neck.
_________5. When you practice, you improve rapidly.
_________6. You know that it bothers him.
_________7. I came, I saw, I conquered.
_________8. When I was a bachelor, I lived by myself and worked at the weaver’s trade.
_________9. Recklessly, they flew downhill.
________10. She was presented a problem.
UNIT V SEMANTICS
Lesson 1Sense Relations
Objectives
 identify the semantic relations present in statements;
 explain semantic ambiguities in sentences;
 paraphrase structurally or lexically ambiguous sentences;
 write homonyms based on the given meanings of words, and
 identify words as gradable or non-gradable.
Semantics studies aspects of meaning which are intrinsic to words/phrases and
are not context-dependent.
A good way to begin thinking about semantic problems is to look at the following
sense relations, i.e. how meanings of one expression (e.g. a word, phrase) relate to the
meanings of other expressions:
A. Synonymy
Synonymy subsists when two expressions have the same meaning.
e.g. nevertheless/nonetheless, boy/lad, large/big, lawyer/attorney,
toilet/lavatory
B. Ambiguity
Structural/syntactic ambiguity: a sentence has more than one possible syntactic
structure resulting in different meanings, even if all words have the same meaning.
e.g. She [VP discussed [NP politics] [PP with the bus driver]].
Lexical ambiguity: arises when a word has more than one meaning; syntactic
structure doesn’t contribute to the ambiguity. The context may or may not favour a
meaning:
e.g. She was at the bank. [river bank/financial institution]
Sources of lexical ambiguity: Homonymy and polysemy
Homonymy: relation between semantically unrelated words which happen to have
the same pronunciation:
e.g. pupil, wring/ring, bank, bar, lap, let
Polysemy: a polysemous word has different, but related, senses:
e.g. a. I drank the glass.
b. I broke the glass.
Sources of polysemy: metaphor and metonymy
Metonymy: the use of one word to describe a concept associated with the concept
normally expressed by that word.
e.g. The pianist was playing Beethoven (=a work by Beethoven)
Metaphor: the use of the the term for one concept X to refer to another concept Y,
where X and Y have properties in common.
e.g. That guy is fridge.
C. Antonymy
Antonymy (relations of opposition or contrast):
Binary (non-gradable) antonymy: Negation of one of a pair of antonyms entails
the other antonym. These are either-or decisions with no middle ground.
e. g dead/alive, possible/impossible, female/male, odd/even (numbers),
hit/miss (targets)
Gradable antonymy: antonyms at opposite ends of a scale with varying degrees
possible.
e.g. a. rich/poor, young/old, fast/slow, near/far. hot/warm/tepid/cool/cold
D. Meronymy
Meronymy part-whole relations:
e. g a. body-arm-hand-finger
b. bike-wheel-tyre-valve
In many languages, certain expressions treat parts in the same way as possessions.
The relation between possessor and possession is called alienable possession (possessor
can choose to get rid of possession).
e.g. Mary has a car; Mary’s car; people with cars.
The relation between part and whole is an instance of inalienable possession
(possessor can’t (easily) get rid of the possession).
e.g. Mary has red hair; Mary’s red hair; people with red hair.
E. Hyponymy
Hyponymy: relationship of the type “x is a more specific instance of y”.
e.g. dog is a hyponym of animal
animal is a hyperonym
Exercise 1 Semantic Relations
A. State what semantic relations do the following sentences show.
________1. Please do not annoy or bother the animals.
________2. Her hobbies are traditional folk music and literature
________3. They said that you were a complete loser at the party
________4. Sharon picked an apple.
________5. The crew are revolting.
________6. Harry sold her flowers.
________7. The university has a flat roof.
________8. I threw the ball through the window.
________9. The chair is under the table.
_______10. They counted the heads at the meeting.
_______11. The newspaper report exploded the myths about James’ private life.
_______12. He’s got nerves of steel and a heart of stone.
_______13. She’s well-read considering that she’s eight years old.
_______14. Look! There’s an elephant.
_______15. Sheena has read many books on political affairs in recent years.
B. Explain the semantic ambiguity of the following sentences by providing two or
more sentences that paraphrase the multiple meanings.
1. Lea cannot bear children.
2. Henry waited by the bank.
3. Is she really that kind?
4. The long drill was boring.
5. It takes a good ruler to make a straight line.
C. The following sentences may either be structurally or lexically ambiguous or
both. Provide paraphrases showing you understand all the meanings.
1. I saw him walking by the bank.
2. They laughed at the colourful ball.
3. Manny was knocked over by the punch.
4. She said she would file it on Monday.
5. He cannot recommend visiting professors too highly.
D. For each definition below, write in the first blank the word that has that
meaning and in the second (and third if present) a differently spelled homonym
that has a different meaning.
1. naked __________ __________
2. eight bits __________ __________
3. one of five senses __________ __________
4. several couples __________ __________
5. not pretty __________ __________
E. Indicate whether the pairs in Columns A and B are gradable or non-gradable.
Column A Column B Answer
good bad
pass fail
legal illegal
fast slow
hot cold
UNIT VI PRAGMATICS
Lesson 1Pragmatics
Objectives
 identify deictic expressions in statements;
 recognize statements from a short conversation as relevant explanations;
 write presuppositions based from the given statements, and
 analyse statements and identify whether they imply the truth of other
statements.
Pragmatics is the study of meaning with reference to aspects of the extra-
linguistic context, notably the speaker’s intention.
Illocutionary force (distinction between statements, requests/commands, questions
etc.) is not always matched by grammatical mood (declarative, interrogative, imperative),
so we need to know the speaker’s intention. Hence it is pragmatic.
e.g. There is an ink stain on the table. (i) statement; (ii) request to remove
stain, and (iii) asking how to remove stain.
Performative verbs bring about certain non-linguistic situations when the
sentences are utterred, so they are also studied in pragmatics.
e.g. I sentence you to five years in prison.
Lesson 1Types of Deixis
Deixis is the phenomenon whereby the reference of certain expressions cannot be
determined without knowing to the extralinguistic context of the utterance (who uttered it
where and when):
e.g. I will meet you here this afternoon at 3.
1. Spatial Deixis
Determiners: this/that
Verbs specifying motion toward/away from speaker: come/go
Adverbs (intransitive prepositions): here/there; hither/hence, thither/thence
2. Temporal Deixis
Adverbs/PPs: now/then; this year/that year; at this/that point; yesterday;
two days ago
Tense: present tense (proximal) vs. past/future tense (distal)
3. Personal Deixis
First person (Speaker: I, we)
Second person (hearer: you)
4. Social Deixis
The T/V distinction: French tu/vous, Middle Engl. thou/ye); metaphorical
proximity/distance on social (age, power, class) hierarchy or
familiarity/solidarity hierarchy. Deictic because choice of forms depends
on extralinguistic knowledge.
5. Textual Deixis
Metaphoric deixis in texts, often borrowing spatial/temporal deictic words.
Exercise 1 Types of Deixis
Circle any deictic expression in the following sentences.
1. There are the times that try men’s souls.
2. There is a tide in the affairs of men which taken at the flood leads on to
fortune.
3. Yesterday, all my troubles seemed so far away.
4. The name of this rock band is “Eraserheads”.
5. I saw her standing there.
6. Whenever I see you, I think of her.
7. It seems that she and he will never stop arguing with them.
8. Obey thy father and mother.
9. Give thee love on Christmas day.
10. Here is the person who can help you.
Lesson 2Implicature
Implicature is that which is implied rather than being said explicitly:
e.g. A: Do you know the time?
B: The bank is still open.
Philosopher H. Paul Grice proposed the Cooperative Principle and some Maxims
which interact to explain many implicatures that exist. The cooperative principle make
your contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted
purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.
Grice’s Maxims (Gricean Maxims, conversational maxims):
a. Maxim of Quality: Try to make your contribution one that is true, specifically:
1. Do not say what you believe to be false
2. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence
b. Maxim of Quantity
1. Make your contribution as informative as is required for the current
purposes of the exchange
2. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required
c. Maxim of Relevance
1. Make your contributions relevant
d. Maxim of Manner
1. Avoid obscurity
2. Avoid ambiguity
3. Be brief
4. Be orderly
Examples of implicatures generated by the maxims:
a. It snowed in Sydney in 1836.
The speaker/writer believes the statement is true. (by Quality)
b. A. Who did you have lunch with?
B. George, Martha and Anna.
Nobody else was present at the lunch. (by Quantity)
c. A. I have nearly run out of petrol.
B. There’s a garage round the corner.
The garage is open now and sells petrol. (by Relevance)
d. Frankie read a book and fell asleep.
Reading before sleep. (by Manner)
Exercise 2 Implicature
Assuming that the cooperative principle is at work in most conversations, we can
see how hearers will try to find meaning in utterances that seem meaningless or
irrelevant. We assume that there must be a reason for these. Below is a conversation
between a shopkeeper and a 16-year old customer:
Customer: Just these, please.
Shopkeeper: Are you eighteen?
Customer: Oh, I’m from the Philippines.
Shopkeeper: (after a brief pause) Ok (serves beer to him).
There seems to be no explanation for the customer’s “bizarre reply”. Perhaps this
should be qualified: we cannot be sure what the explanation is, but we can find some
plausible answer.
Check before each number if the statement can be included as a possible
explanation.
The young man thought his being from the might explain whatever it was
about him that had made the shopkeeper suspicious about his youth.
The young man thought the shopkeeper’s question was provoked by his
manner of speaking, so he wanted to explain this.
The young man was genuinely flustered and said the first thing he could think
of, while trying to think of a better reason for his looking under-age.
The young man thought that the shopkeeper might treat someone from the
Philippines in a more indulgent manner than people from elsewhere.
Lesson 3Presuppositions
Presuppositions are assumptions or beliefs assumed to be true when a particular
sentence is uttered. Diagnostic presuppositions associated with a sentence remain true
even if the sentence is negated
e.g. a. They realised that that Ann was right. → Ann was right.
b. They did not realise that Ann was right. →Ann was right.
Exercise 3 Presuppositions
The following sentences make certain presuppositions. Write them on the blanks.
1. Ann regretted not receiving a new book for the New Year.
_______________________________________________
2. The administration forgot that the professors support the students.
_______________________________________________
3. That his girlfriend left made Noel very sad.
_______________________________________________
4. The police ordered the minors to stop drinking.
_______________________________________________
5. Theresa wants more popcorn.
_______________________________________________
Lesson 4Entailment
Entailment is a proposition which inevitably follows from the meaning of another
proposition:
e.g. They raised the prices. → The prices rose.
Martha got a degree in medicine. → Martha got a degree.
Exercise 4 Entailment
Read the first sentence well and decide whether it necessarily implies the truth of
the next sentence for each of the items below. Write either E (entailment) or NE (no
entailment).
1. Jenny bought a used bag for four thousand.
2. The used bag costs four thousand.
3. Joy just opened the door.
The door is closed.
4. The tea is hot.
The tea is not cold.
5. Helen ate an apple.
Helen ate a fruit.
6. Kate is short and clever.
Kate is short.
Kate is clever.
References
Books
Cabbab, Julita A. and Fred Anthony Cabbab. Speech Communication Manual and
Skills Development. Makati: Bookmark Inc., 1994.
Clark, Virginia P. et al. Language: Introductory Readings. 3rd edition. New York: Saint
Martin’s Press, 1981.
Concepcion, Proceso G. et al. Speech Communication for Filipinos. Quezon City: Rex
Printing Company, Inc., 1994.
Flores, Carmelita S. and Evelyn B. Lopez. Effective Speech Communication. Quezon

City: National Book Store, Inc., 1990.
Fromkin, Victoria. An Introduction to Language. USA: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston.,1998.
Gleason, H.A. An Introduction to Descriptive Linguistics. New York: Holt, Rinehart

and Winston, 1955.
Mara, Lourdes S. and Isabel S. Soriano. English Pronunciation for the Filipino College
Students. 3rd edition. Quezon City: KEN Inc., 1998.
Ortiz, Ma. Aurora R. et al. Towards More Effective Speech Communication. Quezon
City: JMC Pres, Inc., 1981.
Tayao, Ma. Lourdes G. et al. Applied Linguistics for Communication Arts. Diliman,
Quezon City: Office of the Academic Support and Instructional Services
University of the Philippines Open University, 1997.
Ursua, Leticia B. et al. Speech Trends and Practices. Books on Wheels Enterprises,
1995.
E-Books
Aarts, Bas and April McMahon. (2006). The Handbook of English Linguistics. USA:
Blackwell Publishing.
Fromkin, Victoria et al. (2003). An Introduction to Language. USA: Wadsworth,

Thomson and Thomson.
Meyer, Charles F. (2009). Introducing English Linguistics. New York: Cambridge

University Press.
Trask, R.L. (2007). Language and Linguistics. New York: Routledge.
Electronic Sources
“Diachronic Linguistics.” http://grammar.about.com/od/d/g/Diachronic-Linguistics.htm.
“Emphasis.” http://grove.ufl.edu/~klili/pron/emp/.
“Historical Linguistics.” http://grammar.about.com/od/fh/g/historicallinguisticsterm.htm.
“Intonation.” http:// grove.ufl.edu/~klii/pron/emp/.
“Intonation.” http://www.americanaccent.com/inonation.html#newinfo.
“International Phonetic Alphabet,” http://www.ic.Arizona.edu/~Isp/IPA.htm.
“IPA Transcription.” http//www.ic.Arizona.edu/~Isp/ExerciseIndex.htm/Phonology.
“Linguistics.” http://grammar.about.com/od/grammarfaq/a/What-Is-Linguistics.htm.
McIntyre, Andrew. “Introduction to English Linguistics (Lecture Notes)”. September 17,

2010.
“Morphology.” http://www-rohan.sdsu.edu/~ling354/morphology.html.
“Morphology.”www.palgrave.com/language/.../Words/.../Words09Kindsofmorphemes.pp
t-morphemes powerpoint.
“Phonetics.” http://allegro.sbs.emass.edu/berthiere/Articphonetics.html.
“Phonetics and Phonology.”http://www.education/eedac.uk/~edu/inted/icu/langmath.htm.
“Phonology.” http://grammar.about.com/od/pq/g/phonologyterm.htm.
“Phrasal Stress.” http://grove.ufl.edu/~klili/pron/ws/.
“Rules for Sentence Stress in English.” http://pronunciaiton.

englishclub.com/sentence~stress-rules.htm.
“Semantics.” http://web.eecs.umich.edu/~rthomaso/documents/general/what-is-
semantics.html.
“Sentence Stress in English.” http:// http://pronunciaiton.

englishclub.com/sentence~stress.htm.
“Synchronic Linguistics.” http://grammar.about.com/od/rs/g/Synchronic-Linguistics.htm.
“Syntax -English Sentence Structure.” http://esl.fis.edu/learners/advice/syntax.htm.
“The Sounds of Speech.” http://www.Isade.org/web2/speech_sounds.html.
“Thought Groups in English.” http://grove.ufl.edu/~klili/pron/tg/.
“Understanding Syllables for Word Stress in English.”

http://pronunciation.englishclub.com/word~stress.htm.
“Why is word Stress important in English?.” http://pronunciation. englishclub.com/word-
stress.2htm.
“Word Stress.” http://grove.ufl.edu/~klili/pron/ws/.

Module in Introduction To Linguistics-Presley de Vera

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Module in Introduction To Linguistics-Presley de Vera

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Pangasinan State University

This is to certify that this instructional material prepared by Ms. Presley V. de

This is a very important reference for the students taking up Bachelor of

NELIA C. RESULTAY, Ed. D.

I. Course Code: CAE 211

The University Vision

A dynamic, self-reliant, and productivity-driven institution of higher learning

The University Mission

The Goals of the College

1. Promote quality and relevant education designed to fully exploit individual

II. Course Description

This course is an introduction to the study of language. It investigates the nature

III. Course Objectives

Exposure to the course, the students will be able to:

 express their views on the importance of language and linguistics;

Exposure to the course, the students will be able to:

 explain some definitions of language;

V. Course Content Time Allotment

Unit I. Language and Linguistics 10 hours

Unit II. Phonology 16 hours

Unit III. Morphology 10 hours

Unit IV. Syntax 8 hours

Unit V. Semantics 5 hours

Unit VI. Pragmatics 5 hours

VI. Learning/Enrichment Activities

VII. Bases for Evaluation

a. Final Examination………………......……………………….. 30%

VIII. Utilization of Instructional Materials

Flores, Carmelita S. and Evelyn B. Lopez. Effective Speech Communication. Quezon

Fromkin, Victoria. An Introduction to Language. USA: Holt, Rinehart and

Gleason, H.A. An Introduction to Descriptive Linguistics. New York: Holt, Rinehart

Fromkin, Victoria et al. (2003). An Introduction to Language. USA: Wadsworth,

Meyer, Charles F. (2009). Introducing English Linguistics. New York: Cambridge

Trask, R.L. (2007). Language and Linguistics. New York: Routledge.

“Diachronic Linguistics.” http://grammar.about.com/od/d/g/Diachronic-Linguistics.htm.

“Historical Linguistics.” http://grammar.about.com/od/fh/g/historicallinguisticsterm.htm.

“Intonation.” http:// grove.ufl.edu/~klii/pron/emp/.

“International Phonetic Alphabet,” http://www.ic.Arizona.edu/~Isp/IPA.htm.

“IPA Transcription.” http//www.ic.Arizona.edu/~Isp/ExerciseIndex.htm/Phonology.

McIntyre, Andrew. “Introduction to English Linguistics (Lecture Notes)”. September 17,

“Phonetics and Phonology.”http://www.education/eedac.uk/~edu/inted/icu/langmath.htm.

“Phrasal Stress.” http://grove.ufl.edu/~klili/pron/ws/.

“Rules for Sentence Stress in English.” http://pronunciaiton.

PRESLEY V. DE VERA, Ed. D.

Unit I. Language and Linguistics 12

Unit II. Phonology 27

Unit III. Morphology 73

Unit IV. Syntax 80

UNIT I- LANGUAGE AND LINGUISTICS

Lesson 1 Definitions of Language

After studying this lesson, you should be able to:

 give an extended definition of language.

language, have come up with:

1. Language is speech. Speech is language. The written record is but a

secondary representation of the language. (Charles Fries)

2. Language is a system of signals conforming to the rules which constitutes its

grammar. It is a set of culturally transmitted behavior patterns shared by a

group of individuals. (Joseph Greenberg)

3. Language is a code: a set of elements…forms composed of sounds, letters,

their combinations into words, sentences etc. used fro communication

between individuals who share the same rules. (Roger Bell)

4. Language is a system which relates meanings to substance. It is a mental