Ime Module 4

A J INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY, MANGALORE
MODULE- 4
ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND JOINING PROCESSES

Engineering Materials: Types and applications of Ferrous & Nonferrous Metals, silica,
ceramics, glass, graphite, diamond and polymer. Shape Memory Alloys.
Joining Processes: Soldering, Brazing and Welding, Definitions, classification of welding
process, Arc welding, Gas welding and types of flames.
INTRODUCTION
 Nowadays we use many types of materials, fashioned in many different ways to

satisfy our requirements for various purposes like housing, furniture, defense and
many more.
 There are various materials available and the choice of a particular material for a
specific application depends on the set of properties possessed by the material
 Engineering materials are defined as solid substances, which are manufactured and
used for various engineering applications.
CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING MATERIAL

Engineering materials broadly classified into two categories:
i) Metals
ii) Non - metals
METALS:
All metals used in engineering applications can be classified into two categories.
1) Ferrous metals:
The metal in which iron as the chief constituent that metal is called as ferrous metal.
Example- steel, cast iron etc
2) Non-ferrous metal:
The metal in which do not contain iron that metal called as non-ferrous metal.
Example- aluminum, copper etc
I n t r o d u c t i o n t o M e c h a n i c a l E n g i n e e r i n g M o d u l e 4 n o t e s 1 | 32
CLASSIFICATION OF FERROUS METALS
Ferrous
metal
Wrought
Pig iron Cast iron Steel
iron
Grey cast Low carbon

iron steel
White cast Medium

iron carbon steel
Malleable High carbon

cast iron steel
Ductile cast
Alloy steels
iron
Tool steel
Stainless
steel
FERROUS METAL:
1) PIG IRON:
Pig iron is a ferrous metal produced in a blast furnace by melting iron ore and coke (rich
carbon content) combined with flux like limestone.
Composition 92% iron, 3-4% carbon, and small amounts of sulphur, manganese,
phosphorous.
Properties the high percentage of carbon content in pig iron makes very hard, high
brittleness
Applications pig iron mainly used in making wrought iron, cast iron, and steel
2) WROUGHT IRON:
It is produced by re- melting pig iron in the furnace
Composition 99.5% iron and carbon content ranging from 0.05 to 0.25%.
Properties soft, ductile, high elasticity, and better tensile strength
Applications used for decorative applications like, fences, gates, and railings and
balconies
3) CAST IRON :
Cast iron is obtained by re-melting pig iron in cupola furnace by making certain changes
to its composition while in molten state.
Composition 90-92% iron, 2-4.5% carbon, 1-3% silicon and small amounts of sulphur,
manganese and phosphorous
Properties Low ductility, low melting point, good fluidity, castability, excellent
machinability, resistance to deformation.
Applications hardware-hinges, columns, fences, piping etc
a) Grey cast iron:

Most widely used type of cast irons. Its fractioned surface looks or appears grey due to
presence of graphite flakes.
Composition 2.5%-4% carbon, 1.3-2.3% silicon and small amount of sulpur,
phosphorous, manganese in small amount.
Properties High fluidity, very high compressive strength, excellent castability, wear
resistant, more brittle.
Applications Manufacturing of piston rings, cylinder and blocks, machine frames,

flywheel.
b) White cast iron:

White cast iron is produced by chilling (rapid cooling) selecting areas of a casting in a
mould, this prevents graphite carbon from precipitating it out.
Composition 8-3.6% carbon, 0.5-2% silicon along with small amount of S, Ph, Mn
Properties Very hard and brittle, highly wear resistance, high compressive strength,
machinability is poor.
Applications Used for making pump liners, mill liners, extrusion nozzles, car wheels,
crushers, clay mixing.
c) Malleable cast iron:
It is produced by annealing-heat treated process in order to transform iron carbide present in

white cast iron to graphite.
Composition 2-3% carbon, 0.6-1.3% silicon, sulphur, manganese, phosphorous in small
amount
Properties Ductile, shock resistance and easily machined, highly malleable
Applications Manufacturing of automotive components such as crankshaft,
transmission gears
4) STEELS:
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon. Carbon content less than 2%, in addition various
alloying element like sulphur, phosphorous, manganese, nickel, chromium, copper etc.
a) Low carbon steel:
It is also called as mild steel
Composition Iron+ 0.16-0.18% carbon, 0.4% silicon, small amount of s, ph, mn
Properties Good machinability, formability, more malleable, more ductile
Applications Manufacturing of gears, screws, nails, rivets, nuts, pins, shaft, some
machine parts
b) Medium carbon steel:

Composition Iron+ 0.25-0.59% carbon
Properties wear resistance, stronger less than low carbon steel
Applications making forging, manufacturing of automotive and machine
components, bolts, crankshaft, axels etc.
c) High carbon steel:

Composition iron+ carbon content in the range of 0.6-1%.
Properties posses’ high hardness and wear resistance, very brittle

Applications used for making hammer, dies, screws, hacksaw blades, springs
5) Alloy steel:
Steel which have other element than carbon to provide specific characteristics are known
as alloy steels.
Composition alloying elements are Ni, Cr, Mo, Mg, Si, Vn, etc
Properties: Excellent strength, corrosion resistance, high hardness and wear
resistance.
Applications Manufacturing of aircraft under carriage parts, punches and dies,
heavy gears, containers.
6) Stainless steel:
Steel which do not easily stained and are resistance to rusting and corrosion are known as
stainless steel.
Composition Iron carbon alloy with chromium content varying from 11.5-25%.
In addition to chromium other alloying element such as copper,
aluminium and silicon
Properties high strength and toughness, corrosive resistance, easily
machinability
Applications Manufacturing of kitchen sinks, food processing equipment,
surgical and dental equipment. Knifes, blades.
CLASSIFICATION OF NON - FERROUS METALS
Non- Ferrous
Metals
Copper & its Aluminium & Lead & its Nickel & its
alloys its alloys alloys aloys
Brass
Bronze
NON FERROUS MATERIAL

1) COPPER AND ITS ALLOY:
Most important non-ferrous metal and it is first metal discovered by man.
Properties malleable, corrosive resistant, good conductor of heat and electricity

Applications Used for radiators, soldering irons, heat exchangers etc
Classification of copper alloys:

a) Brass:
Composition alloy of copper and zinc the amount of zinc varying from 5-45%
Properties High strength than copper, good thermal and electrical conductivity.
higher machinability
Applications manufacture of nuts, bolts, taps, condenser and heat exchanger tubes
b) Bronze:
Composition 88% copper, small amount of tin (not more than 11%).
Properties High strengths than brasses, higher hardness and better
corrosion resistance, easily machinable.
Applications bronze can be rolled into wires, rods and sheets due to good
ductility and malleability, condenser tubes, valve parts
2) ALLUMINIUM:
Aluminium is silverish white non ferrous metal extracted from bauxite mineral.
Composition Bauxite is a hydrated aluminium oxide. Mineral bauxite is primarily
a mixture of Al2O3, 3H2O, fe2O3, and SiO2
Properties light weight, easily machinable, highly reflective to heat and light,
good conductor heat and electricity, high ductility and malleability,
good corrosive resistance.
Applications electrical applications, such as overhead cables, electrical wires,
windings of motor, generator, manufacturing of parts in aircraft,
spacecraft, marine applications.
3) LEAD AND ITS ALLOYS:

Lead is a soft, silvery white (or) greyish non-ferrous metal.
Properties It is a malleable, ductile, corrosion resistance and heaviest among
all common metals, poor conductor of electricity and poisons in

nature.
Applications used for solder, electrical fuses and boiler plugs. It is also used as
electrode in lead acid batteries.
4) NICKEL AND ITS ALLOY:

Nickel and its alloy are nonferrous metals with high strength and toughness, excellent
corrosion resistance and superior elevated temperature.
Applications: used in aerospace, power generation, petrochemical industries.
5) ZINC
Composition Zinc is a heavy, bluish white metal which can be extracted from
zinc sulphide
Properties air conductor of electricity, has relatively low melting and boiling
point, resistant to corrosion
Applications Usually used for coating steel to make galvanised items
6) TIN
Composition It is a silvery-white metal obtained from an oxide called tin stone by
refining in a reverberatory furnace
Properties Soft, malleable and ductile, corrosion resistant from water but is not
resistant for acids and alkalies, low melting point (232ºC)
Applications : It is coated for storing food and water, Used in perforated lanters,
candle shields and mirror frames, Used as roofing material due to its
light weight and corrosion resistance.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FERROUS AND NON FERROUS METALS:

FERROUS METALS NONFERROUS METALS
Ferrous metals contains iron Nonferrous metals do not contain
iron
Magnetic Nonmagnetic
Little resistance to corrosion More resistance to corrosion
High tensile strength Low tensile strength
Lower melting point Higher melting point
SILICA
It is also called silicon dioxide, compound of the two most abundant elements in Earth's crust,
silicon and oxygen
Crystalline silica is a common mineral found in the earth's crust. Materials like sand, stone,
concrete, and mortar contain crystalline silica.
Silica is a chemical compound also known as silicon dioxide or silox. The chemical formula
for silicon is SiO2.
Silica may be found in many forms of nature.
For example, flint, quartz, and opalIt is also used to make products such as glass, pottery,
ceramics, bricks, and artificial stone.
Applications of Silica:
Silica has many industrial applications in abrasives and polishes; in glass manufacturing,
fillers and extenders, silica brick manufacturing as a catalyst; in specialty coatings, cleaners
ceramics, electronics optics, and refractories; in ferro-silicon manufacturing and rubber.
It is usually used to manufacture glass, ceramics and abrasives. Flooring, mortars, cement,
roofing shingles, asphalt, and other industrial materials all use silica to improve durability
and structural integrity.
As silica is resistant to weather, wear and corrosion, it is often used as a caulk or sealant.
CERAMICS
The word "ceramic" is derived from the Greek word keramikos meaning pottery.
“Ceramics can be defined as inorganic, non-metallic materials that are typically produced
using clay and other minerals from the earth or chemically processed powders.”
Ceramics may be crystalline in nature and are compounds of metallic and non-metallic
elements such as aluminum and oxygen (alumina), silicone and nitrogen (silicon nitride) and
silicon and carbon (silicon carbide).
Properties of ceramics
 High hardness
 High melting point
 Good Thermal insulator
 Highly electricity resistance
 Low mass density
 Generally, chemically inert
 Brittle in nature
 Zero ductility
 Low tensile strength
Applications of ceramics
 They are used in space industry because of their low weight
 They are used as cutting tools
 They are used as refractory materials
 They are used as thermal insulator
 They are used as electrical insulator
GLASS:
“Glass may also be defined as a hard, brittle, transparent or translucent material mainly
compound of silica, combined with varying proportions of oxides of sodium, potassium,
calcium, magnesia, iron and other minerals.
The term "glass" as ordinarily used refers to material which is made by the fusion of mixture
of silica, basic oxides and a few other compounds that react either with silica or with the
basic oxides.
Properties of Glass
1. Glass is an amorphous solid that is its constituent particles are not arranged in any regular
fashion.
2. Glass is brittle that is it can easily crack by applying little external force.
3. Glass may be transparent or translucent depending upon the compounds used in its
manufacturing.
4. Glass melt over a range of temperature.
5. Glass is isotropic.
6. Glass does not have definite heat of fusion.
7. Glass gives smooth cooling curves.
8. Glass is a good insulator of heat and electricity.
9. Glass has a high melting point and does not react with external reagents. That's why they
are used in laboratories.
10. Glass has no definite structure that means they have high compressive strength, can
absorb, transmit, and reflect light.
Applications of Glass
1. Kitchenware
2. Eyeglasses and lenses
3. Electronic Screens tv
4. Microscopes for magnification
5. Lights and bulbs
6. Storage of specimens, harsh chemicals
7. Automobiles
8. Housing, furniture, and decoration
9. Laboratory handling
10. Communication optic cables.
GRAPHITE :
Graphite is a distinct material as it displays the properties of both a metal and a non-metal.
Although graphite is flexible, it is not elastic and has high electrical and thermal conductivity.
It is also chemically inert and highly refractory.
Properties of Graphite
 A greyish black, opaque substance.
 Lighter than diamond, smooth and slippery to touch.
 A good conductor of electricity( Due to the presence of free electrons) and good conductor
of heat.
 A crystalline solid.
 Very soapy to touch.
 Non-inflammable.
 Soft due to weak Vander wall forces.

USES:
 Used in making a pencil.

 Used as a dry lubricant.
 For making electrodes.
 For polishing iron articles.
 Graphite is used crucibles, foundry facings, arc lamps, batteries, brushes for electric
motors, and cores of nuclear reactors
DIAMOND:
 Diamond is the hardest naturally occurring material known because of its covalent bond
structure. Over 70 percent of diamonds are used for industrial applications and demand for
the material is continuously growing.
 Natural diamond is carbon crystals that forms under high temperature and pressure
conditions that exist only about 100 miles beneath the earth’s surface.
It is typically about 99.95 percent carbon. The other 0.05 percent can include one or more
trace elements, which are atoms that aren’t part of the diamond’s essential chemistry.
 Diamond’s crystal structure is isometric, which means the carbon atoms are bonded in
essentially the same way in all directions. 
 The special combination of chemical composition, crystal structure, and formation process
gives diamonds the qualities that make them extraordinary.
Properties
Besides the hardness, diamond provides an impressive combination of chemical, physical and
mechanical properties:
 Hardness
 Low coefficient of friction
 High thermal conductivity
 High electrical resistivity
 Low thermal expansion coefficient
 High strength
Broad optical transparency from ultraviolet to infrared
 Resistant to chemical corrosion
 Biologically compatible
APPLICATIONS:
.  Wear components
 Cutting tools
 Thermal management (in e.g. substrates, heat spreaders and heat sinks)
 Semiconductor devices
 Optical components
 Other high performance applications

POLYMERS
The word polymer comes from the Greek poly-, which means "many", and the mer, which
means "parts".
A polymer is a large molecule made up of chains or rings of linked repeating subunits, which
are called monomers.
Polymers usually have high melting and boiling points. Because the molecules consist of
many monomers, polymers tend to have high molecular masses.
Types of Polymers:
1. Thermoplastic Polymer
2. Thermosetting Polymer
Properties
• Low Density.
• Low Coefficient Of Friction.
• Good Corrosion Resistance.
• Good Mould Ability.
• Excellent Surface Finish Can Be Obtained.
• Can Be Produced With Close Dimensional Tolerances.
• Economical.
• Poor Tensile Strength.
• Low Mechanical Properties.
• Poor Temperature Resistance.
• Can Be Produced Transparent Or In Different Colours
Thermoplastics
• These are soft materials and remain soft when they are heated.
• On cooling they become hard but there will not be any chemical change
• These can be repeatedly melted and remoulded
Ex: Acrylics, nylons, celluloids, polethene, PVC
Thermo-setting plastics
 These materials initially become soft on heating
 But on further heating and application of pressure, it becomes permanently hard
because of irreversible chemical change
 They are hard and brittle in nature
Ex: Bakelite, durite, plaskon
Shape Memory Alloys:
• Shape memory alloys are those materials, even after being deformed, have the
ability to remember and return to their original shape and size, upon appropriate
heat treatment.
• Deformation is normally carried out at relatively low temperature, whereas,
shape memory effect happens due to heating.
• Among materials that are capable of recovering significant amounts of
deformation, the best known are Nickel-Titanium (NITINOL) alloys; and some
Copper based alloys (Cu-Zn-Al and Cu-Al-Ni).
A group of metallic materials that can return to some previously defined shape or size when
subjected to the appropriate thermal procedure.
That is, shape memory alloys can be plastically deformed at some relatively low temperature
and, upon exposure to some higher temperature, will return to their original shape.
Uses of Shape Memory Alloys
Medical Applications
 NiTinol SMA is biocompatible.It can be used in the body without an adverse
reaction.It is used as stent
 SMAs are used in Detistry for orthodontic braces which straighten the teeth
 Surgical Tools used in key hole surgery are made from SMA
Domestic applications
 SMAs can be used as actuators which exert a force associated with the shape change
 Ex.Springs which are incorporated into green house windows to open or close them
selves at a given temperature
 SMAs are used in cut out switches for kettles, security door locks, fire protection
devices
Manufacturing applications
 SMA tubes are used as couplings for connecting two tubes
JOINING PROCESSES
INTRODUCTION
Certain products cannot be manufactured as a single piece. The desired shape and size of
such products can be obtained by joining two parts of same or different materials.
There are basically 2 ways in which the various materials can be joined. They are:-
1. Temporary joining processes
This is the kind of joining process in which the joint between the 2 materials is
Temporary; which means that the joint can be removed as and when required. The best
examples include screws, bolts and nuts etc.
2. Permanent joining processes
These are the joints which are permanent in nature. Once joined, these joints can be
removed only by breaking the joint portion which leads to the physical distortion of the
parent materials. E.g.:- Soldering, Brazing and Welding.
SOLDERING
Soldering is a group of joining process used for joining similar or dissimilar metals by
means of a filler metal whose melting temperature is below 450°C. The filler metal usually
called solder is an alloy of tin and lead in various proportions.
Principle of soldering
The principle by which the filler metal is drawn throughout the joint to create this
bond is capillary action. During soldering, the molten solder is introduced at the joint. A
pulling force draws the molten filler between the surfaces of the parent (base) metals. This is
known as capillary action. After the metal cools, the resulting joint although not as strong as
the base metal (work piece metal), still has adequate strength, electrical conductivity, and
water-tightness for many uses.
Pre soldering requirements:

Before the actual soldering is carried out, the following 2 aspects should be taken care of:
1. Surface Cleaning of the work pieces
2. Usage of FLUX
Surface Cleaning of the work pieces:

Surface preparation includes thoroughly cleaning the workpiece surfaces to remove
contaminants like oil, rust, scale, paint, and other impurities either mechanically (wire brushing, abrasion
techniques etc.) or chemically (soaking, cleaning, or acid etching). Once the contaminants are removed, the next
step is to select a suitable flux.
Usage of FLUX:
A flux is a substance, either in a liquid or semi-liquid state performing a number of functions.
 The flux primarily helps the base metals from oxidizing while they are being heated to
the soldering temperature.
 The flux covers the surface to be soldered, shielding it from oxygen and thereby
preventing oxidation during heating.
 The flux also acts as a wetting agent in the soldering process, reducing the surface
tension of the molten solder and causing it to better wet out the parts to be joined.
 It also cleans the surface, dissolving the metal oxides.
 Different types of flux include rosin-alcohol, zinc chloride, aniline phosphate etc.
 The flux may be applied on to the metal surface by brushing, dipping, spraying, or by
other methods.
Applications:
 One of the most common applications of soldering is assembling electronic components

to printed circuit boards (PCB's). [Note: A PCB is a thin board made of fiberglass or a
similar material. Electrical wires are "printed” onto the board, connecting the central
processor to other components on the board. Some examples of PCBs include
motherboards, RAM chips, and network interface cards.]
 Another common application is making connections between copper pipes in plumbing
systems.
 Joints in sheet metal objects such as food cans, metal containers, and rain gutters are
made by soldering. The process can also be used as a semi-permanent patch for a leak in a
container, or cooking vessel.
SOLDER
A solder is an alloy, which melts at low temperatures. There are two types of solder, soft
solder and hard solder.
(i) Soft solder
 These are alloys of tin and lead. Example Lead = 37 % and Tin = 63 %.
 They have low melting points ranging from 150°C - 190°C.
 A very small amount of antimony, usually less than 0.5% is sometimes added to
improve the mechanical properties of the solder. But, its addition should be
controlled, otherwise which might impair soldering characteristics.
 Soft solders are used in those applications, where the joint is not subjected to heavy
loads and high temperatures.
(ii) Hard solder
 Silver alloyed with lead Example lead = 97.5 % & silver = 2.5 %) or silver alloyed
with copper and zinc Example Silver = 50 %, copper = 34 %, & zinc = 16 %) are
called hard solder.
 Melting point of hard solder ranges from 300 - 600°C
 Used to make strong joints that can resist high temperatures.

Method of soldering
(i) Cleaning of joining surfaces
(ii) Application of flux
(iii) Tinning of surface to be soldered
(iv) Heating
(v) Final clean-up
(i) Cleaning of joining surfaces: Firstly, the joining surface are cleaned
mechanically to make free from dust, oil scale etc. and ensure that the molten
filler metal wets the surfaces.
(ii) Application of flux: Then the joining surfaces are coated with a flux usually
rosin or borax. This cleans the surfaces chemically and helps the solder in making
bond.
(iii) Tinning of surface to be soldered: before carrying out the soldering operation,
the soldering iron must be tinned. This is to remove a thin film of oxide that forms
on the copper bit, which in turns does not allow the job to be heated and thus it
becomes difficult to solder. In tinning the copper bit is heated and then rubbed
with a file to clean it properly and then rotating with solder using resin. This
causes the formation of a thin film of solder over the copper bit. This whole
process is called tinning
(iv) Heating: the soldering iron is then heated and flowing molten filler metals fills
the joints interface. Allow the soldered area to cool and then solidify thus making
the joint.
(v) Final clean-up: after completing the soldering and joints are formed, clean it
with steel wool or solvent to remove left over flux. After this clean the soldering
iron using a damp sponge
Types of soldering
Various soldering methods include:
a) Soldering iron method

b) Torch method
c) Induction method
d) Wave method
e) Resistance method
f) Ultrasonic method etc.
Soldering iron method:
 It is the most common and widely used method of soldering. The tool used in this method is a
soldering iron with a copper coated tip, which may be heated electrically, or by oil/gas flame.
The tip of the soldering iron stores and conducts heat from the heat source to the components
being joined. Figure shows the soldering process.
 The surface of the work pieces is cleaned thoroughly to remove the contaminants. Flux is
applied at the joint. Zinc chloride, hydrochloric acid and alcohol-rosin are some of the fluxes
used in soldering. The soldering iron is heated to a suitable temperature and a little solder is
melted at the tip of the soldering iron.
 The tip of the soldering iron, called the bit, is brought at the joint and the molten solder is
deposited. The molten solder flows into the joint by the capillary force. The solder cools
down and solidifies forming a joint. The joint is cleaned to remove flux residues in order to
prevent corrosion.
 Soldering irons come with various ratings from 15 Watts to over 100 Watts. The advantage of
using high Wattage iron is that, heat can flow quickly into the joint, so that it can be rapidly
made. Low wattage irons are used to make joints for small electronic components, only as
they might get damaged due to excess heat.
Fig:- Soldering iron
ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF SOLDERING:

Advantages
 Low power requirements.
 Low temperature process. Hence, no thermal distortions and residual stresses in the
joint parts.
 Dissimilar parts can be easily joined.
 Thin parts can be joined easily.
Disadvantages
 Flux residues should be removed after soldering, otherwise which causes corrosion.
 Thick parts cannot be efficiently joined.
 Since soldering temperatures are low, a soldered joint cannot be used in high
temperature applications.
 Strength of joint is low. Hence cannot be used for load-bearing members.
Brazing
 Brazing is a method of joining similar or dissimilar metals by means of a filler metal
whose melting temperature is above 450°C, but below the melting point of the base
metal (work piece).
 The filler metal called spelteris a non-ferrous metal or alloy. Copper and copper
alloys, silver and silver alloys, and aluminum alloys are the most commonly used
filler metals for brazing.
 The flow of molten filler material into the gap between the two work pieces is driven
by the capillary force. The filler material cools down and solidifies forming a strong
metallurgical joint.
Flux used in brazing:
 Flux used in brazing performs its usual function as in soldering, i.e., it melts during the
preheating stage and spreads over the joint area, wetting it and protecting the surface from
oxidation. It also cleans the surface, dissolving the metal oxides.
 The flux used in brazing is available in powder, liquid, and paste form. One method of
applying the flux in powdered form is to dip the heated end of the filler rod into the
container of the powdered flux, and allowing the flux to stick to the filler rod.
 Another method is to heat the base metal slightly and sprinkle the powdered flux over the
joint, allowing the flux to partly melt and stick to the base metal. Sometimes, it is
desirable to mix powdered flux with clean water (distilled water) to form a paste.
 Flux in either the paste or liquid form can be applied with a brush to the joint. Better
results occur when the filler metal is also given a coat. The most common type of flux
used is borax, or a mixture of borax with other chemicals. Some of the commercial fluxes
contain small amounts of phosphorous and halogen salts of iodine, bromine, fluorine,
chlorine, or astatine. When a prepared flux is not available, a mixture of 12 parts of borax
and 1 part boric acid may be used.
Types of brazing
Brazing is similar to soldering, except, the difference is in the melting point of the
filler alloy. Brazing methods are classified based on the mode of application of heat.
They are:
a) Torch brazing
b) Furnace brazing
c) Dip brazing
d) Resistance brazing
e) Induction brazing
f) Vacuum brazing etc.
Advantages:
 Much heat is not involved in the process. Hence, low thermal distortions and residual
stresses in the joints.
 Easily automated process.
 Dissimilar parts can be joined.
Disadvantages
 Flux residues must be removed after brazing, otherwise which may cause corrosion.
 Large and thick sections cannot be brazed efficiently.
 Relatively expensive filler materials.
Differentiate between brazing and soldering
Brazing Soldering
Filler metal used in brazing is Filler metal is called solder
called spelter
Melting point of filer metal is Melting point of filer metal is
above 4500c below 4500c
Stronger joints can be obtained Its comparatively low
Brazed joints resist corrosion It do not resist corrosion to the
same extent as that of brazes
Brazing is slightly costlier cheaper
WELDING
It is a process of joining 2 pieces of metal by heating them to a temperature high

enough to cause melting, with or without the application of pressure and with or without the
use of filler metal.
Classification of welding processes:
1) Plastic welding
In plastic welding, the metal parts to be joined are heated to the plastic state, or
slightly above, and then fused together by applying external pressure. No filler metal is used
in this process. Example: Forge welding, Friction welding, resistance welding, etc. Plastic
welding is also called pressure welding process.
2) Fusion welding
In fusion welding, the parts to be joined are heated above their melting temperatures
and then allowed to solidify by cooling. A filler metal may or may not be used during the
welding process. Example Arc welding, gas welding, Laser welding, etc.
Applications:
 Welding finds application in ship building, automobiles, aircraft, power plants, building and bridge
constructions, storage tanks, pressure vessels, refrigerators, machine tools, and almost in all sectors, where parts
are fabricated as per the needs.
 Apart from fabrication work, welding is also used in repair and maintenance work; for example: joining
broken parts and rebuilding worn out components.
Advantages and disadvantages of welding:
Advantages
a) The strength of the joint obtained in welding is much stronger than the work piece metal.
b) Metals with different chemical compositions can be welded easily.
c) Welding equipments are portable. Hence, the parts can be fabricated at the relevant
location instead of transporting the entire assembly to its destination.
d) Complex shapes that are difficult to cast or machine can be easily assembled in parts by
welding.
e) Parts can be fabricated at reasonable costs.
Disadvantages
a) The process gives out harmful radiations, fumes and spatter. Hence, care should be taken
during welding.
b) Skilled operator is required to produce a good joint.
c) The high heat involved in the process causes changes in the structure of metal thereby
lowering its properties (strength, ductility, etc.).
General Welding Procedure
1. Cleaning: The surfaces of the parts to be welded need to be thoroughly cleaned for
removal of dirt, oil, grease, etc.
2. Edge preparation: The process of preparing a contour at the edges of the pieces to be
joined is called as edge preparation. This involves bevelling or grooving. The idea of doing
this is to get fusion or penetration through the entire thickness of the member.
3. Clamping: Next, the parts to be welded are clamped suitably through jigs and fixtures to
that there are no undesirable movements during welding.
4. Check for safety devices: safety devices like goggles and shield to protect the eyes,
protective clothing to prevent the sparks and flying globules of molten metal, safety shoes,
gloves,apron and other safety devices must be ensured
5. The initial weld:Initial tack welds are done at opposite corner of the joints to secure the
pieces together. Any cracks at this stage must be chipped off as the presence of these cracks
causes residual stresses. The length and spacing of the tack weld varies with the thickness of
the metal and length of the joint.
6. Intermediate and final welding:The weld joint is formed through various weaving
movement. During the process, filler metal and a suitable flux are used. After the
intermediate run of welding, the final run is taken
7. Excess material removal: Extra material on the weld surface can be removed using tongs
and chipper. The final weld is now allowed to cool and finally cleaned.
ARC WELDING
Arc welding process is a fusion method of welding that utilizes the high intensity of the arc
generated by the flow of current to melt the work pieces. A solid continuous joint is formed
upon cooling.
Principle:
 The source of heat for arc welding process is an electric arc generated between two
electrically conducting materials: the work piece and the electrode.
 Either AC (alternating current) or DC (direct current) can be used to supply the
required current for welding. The work piece is connected to one pole of the electric
circuit, while the electrode to the other pole.
 When the tip of the electrode is brought in contact with the work piece material, and
momentarily separated by small distance of 2-4mm, an arc can be generated. The
electrical energy is thus converted to heat energy.
 The high heat of the arc melts the edges of the work pieces. Coalescence takes place,
wherein the molten metal of the one work piece combines with the molten metal of
the other work piece. When the coalesced liquid solidifies, the two work pieces join
together to form a single component.
Fig:- Principle of arc welding
Operation:
 Figure shows the arc welding process. In this process, the electrode holder holding the
electrode firmly forms one pole of the electric circuit, while the work piece to be
welded forms the other pole. The electrode serves both to carry the arc and also acts
as a filler rod to deposit the molten metal into the joint.
 The electrode used in arc welding process is a metallic wire, which is made of the
same material or nearly the same chemical composition as that of the work piece
material. The metallic wire is coated with a suitable flux material like rutile (titania),
calcium fluoride, cellulose, iron oxide, etc., which gives off gases as it decomposes
thereby preventing oxidation of the molten metal during welding process. .
 In operation, an arc is struck by touching the tip of the electrode on the work piece
(similar to striking a match stick), and instantaneously the electrode is separated by a
small distance of 2-4 mm such that the arc still remains between the electrode and the
work piece.
 The temperature of the arc ranges from 5000 - 6000°C. The high heat at the tip of the
arc melts the work piece metal forming a small molten metal pool.
 At the same time, the tip of the electrode also melts. The molten metal of the electrode
is transferred into the molten metal of the work piece in the form of globules of
molten metal.
 The deposited metal fills the joint and bonds the joint to form a single piece of metal.
The electrode is moved along the surface to be welded to complete the joint.
 The arc is extinguished by increasing the arc length, i.e., by widening the gap between
the work piece and the electrode.
 The source of heat for arc welding process is an electric arc. To supply the current for
welding, two types of power sources are available, viz., alternating current (AC), &
direct current (DC).
Types of electrodes
Welding electrodes used in arc welding process are classified into two types:
Consumable electrodes:
 Consumable electrodes are those which get consumed during the welding process.
These electrodes help to establish the arc, and also act as a filler metal to deposit
additional material to fill the gap between the work pieces.
Consumable electrodes are further classified as,

 Coated electrodes
 bare (plain) electrodes
 tubular electrodes
(a) Coated Electrodes:
Coated electrodes are the most widely used type of electrodes used in arc welding process. In
coated electrodes, the metallic wire, called core is coated with a flux. Coating is done by
dipping the heated end of the metal rod in the constituents of flux. Various constituents, like
titanium oxide, cellulose, manganese oxide, calcium carbonates, mica, iron oxide etc., are
used as flux materials for coating. The flux coated on the electrode performs the following
functions.
 Stabilizes the arc.
 Prevents oxidation of molten metal.
 Helps in removal of oxides & other undesirable substances present on the surface of
the work piece.
 Chemically reacts with the oxides and forms a slag. The slag floats and covers the top
portion of the molten metal thereby preventing it from rapid cooling.
 Eliminates weld metal porosity
 Helps to produce minimum spatter adjacent to the weld.
(b) Plain / Bare electrode:
The metallic wire (core wire) is left plain or uncoated with flux. These electrodes do not
prevent oxidation of the weld and hence the joint obtained is weak. Welding processes that
makes use of bare electrodes utilize inert gases for shielding of weld metal during welding.
(c) Tubular electrodes:

Tubular electrodes are hollow materials containing flux constituents inside, and are
used in flux-cored arc welding process. The tubular electrode consists of a wire made of a
low-carbon steel sheath surrounding a core of flux and alloying materials. The compounds
contained in the wire perform essentially the same functions as the coated electrodes.
Non-consumable electrodes:
Non-consumable electrodes are made of carbon, graphite or tungsten and do not consume
during welding. They serve only to strike and maintain the arc during the welding process.
GAS WELDING
 Gas welding is a fusion welding process in which the work pieces are joined by the
heat of a strong flame generated by the combustion of a fuel gas and oxygen. The fuel
gas may be acetylene, hydrogen, propane, or butane.
 When the fuel gas and oxygen are mixed in suitable proportions in a welding torch
and ignited, the flame resulting at the tip of the torch is sufficient enough to melt the
edges of the work piece metals. A solid continuous joint is formed upon cooling. The
two familiar fuel gases used in gas welding are:
 Mixture of oxygen and acetylene gas - called oxy-acetylene welding process.
 Mixture of oxygen and hydrogen gas - called oxy-hydrogen welding process. Oxy-
acetylene welding is the most versatile and widely used gas welding process due to its
high flame temperature (up to 3500°C) when compared to that of oxy-hydrogen
process (up to 2500°C).
OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING:
 When oxygen and acetylene are mixed in suitable proportions in a welding torch and
ignited, the flame resulting at the tip of the torch has a temperature ranging from
3200°C - 3500°C, which is sufficient enough to melt and fuse the work piece metals.
Filler metal may or may not be used during the process. Figure shows the
arrangement of the oxy-acetylene welding process.
The equipment consists of the following:

 Two large cylinders; one containing oxygen at high pressure, and the other containing
acetylene gas.
 Two pressure regulators fitted on the respective cylinders to regulate or control the
pressure of the gas flowing from the cylinders to the welding torch as per the
requirements.
 Welding torch is used to mix both oxygen and acetylene gas in proper proportions and
burn the mixture at its tip. A match stick or a spark lighter may be used to ignite the
mixture at the torch tip.
Fig- Oxy-acetylene welding
Operation:
 By adjusting the pressure regulators, suitable proportions of oxygen and acetylene
gases enter into the welding torch. The gases get mixed in the torch and are issued
from the torch to burn in the atmosphere.
 The resulting flame at the torch tip has a temperature ranging from 3200-3500°C and
this heat is sufficient enough to melt the work piece metal. Since a slight gap usually
exists between the two work pieces, a filler metal may be used to supply the
additional material to fill the gap. The molten metal of the filler metal combines with
the molten metal of the work piece, and upon solidification form a single piece of
metal.
Advantages & Disadvantages of Oxy-acetylene Gas Welding

Advantages
 Process is simple and inexpensive.
 Eliminates skilled operator.
 Temperature of the flame can be controlled depending on the thickness and type of
the material being welded.
Disadvantages
 Acetylene gas is slightly costlier.
 Not suitable for thick and high melting point metals.
 Refractory metals like tungsten, molybdenum etc., and reactive metals like zirconium,
titanium, etc., cannot be gas welded.
 Acetylene gas is highly explosive. Hence, precautions should be taken during its
storage and welding.
FLAMES PRODUCED IN OXY-ACETYLENE PROCESS

Three different types of flames can be produced at the torch tip by regulating the ratio of
oxygen to acetylene.
They are:
 Neutral flame - oxygen and acetylene are mixed in equal proportions.
 Oxidizing flame - excess of oxygen
 Reducing flame - excess of acetylene.
1. Neutral flame:
 A neutral flame is produced when approximately equal volumes of oxygen and acetylene are
burnt at the torch tip. All the carbon supplied by acetylene is being consumed and the
combustion is complete. The flame has a nicely defined inner whitish cone surrounded by a
sharp blue flame. The temperature of the neutral flame is around 3260 °C (5900 °F).
2. Oxidizing flame:
 If, after the neutral flame has been established, the supply of oxygen is further increased, the
result will be an oxidizing flame. In other words, it is a flame in which there is more oxygen
than is required for complete combustion. The oxidizing flame appears similar to the neutral
flame but with a shorter inner white cone, and the outer envelope being narrow and brighter
in color.
3. Reducing flame:
 If the volume of oxygen supplied to the neutral flame is reduced, the resulting flame will be a
carburizing or reducing flame i.e., rich in acetylene. Combustion is incomplete with
unconsumed carbon being present in the flame.
Distinguish among soldering, brazing and welding
Welding Brazing Soldering

High temperature process Medium temperature Low temperature process
process
Filler metal is optional Filler metal is essential Filler metal is required &
& called spelter called solder
Poor surface finish Good surface finish Poor surface finish
Welding defects affects welding No defects Less defects than welding
Flux used is rutile (titania) Flux used is Borox Flux used is zinc cholride
Base metals melts Base metal does not Base metal does not melt
melt
Joints are stronger as compared Joints are stronger than Joints weaker compared to
to soldering and brazing soldering but weaker brazing and welding
than welding
Welding using the filler metal In brazing filler metal is Soldering using the filler
having the melting point nearly having the melting metal having the melting
equal to the base metal point greater than point less than 450ºC
450ºC
No capillary action is present. Joints takes place due Capillary action is also
Joint takes place due to fusion to capillary present in soldering between
actionbetween the base the base metal and filler
metaland the filler metal.
metal
Theory Question Bank
1. Define Engineering Material. Briefly explain classifications of Ferrous and Non

ferrous metals(JAN/FEB 2023)
2. Define Welding. With a neat sketch explain the working of Electric arc welding
(JAN/FEB 2023)
3. Define the following terms
i. Ceramic ii.Graphite iii.Polymer iv.Shape Memory alloys (JAN/FEB
2023)
4. Define soldering. With a neat sketch explain the working of gas welding and name
different types of flames used in oxy acetylene welding (JAN/FEB 2023)
5. Describe the three types of carbon steels with applications
6. List the differences between Soldering, Brazing and Welding
7. Recite the classification of metals
8. Explain the different types of Ferrous materials with applications.
9. Explain the different types of Nonferrous materials with applications.

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A J INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY, MANGALORE

ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND JOINING PROCESSES

 Nowadays we use many types of materials, fashioned in many different ways to

CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING MATERIAL

CLASSIFICATION OF FERROUS METALS

Grey cast Low carbon

White cast Medium

Malleable High carbon

a) Grey cast iron:

Applications Manufacturing of piston rings, cylinder and blocks, machine frames,

b) White cast iron:

c) Malleable cast iron:

It is produced by annealing-heat treated process in order to transform iron carbide present in

b) Medium carbon steel:

c) High carbon steel:

Properties posses’ high hardness and wear resistance, very brittle

CLASSIFICATION OF NON - FERROUS METALS

NON FERROUS MATERIAL

Properties malleable, corrosive resistant, good conductor of heat and electricity

Classification of copper alloys:

3) LEAD AND ITS ALLOYS:

all common metals, poor conductor of electricity and poisons in

4) NICKEL AND ITS ALLOY:

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FERROUS AND NON FERROUS METALS:

 They are used in space industry because of their low weight

 They are used as cutting tools

 They are used as refractory materials

 They are used as thermal insulator

 They are used as electrical insulator

4. Glass melt over a range of temperature.

6. Glass does not have definite heat of fusion.

7. Glass gives smooth cooling curves.

8. Glass is a good insulator of heat and electricity.

 A greyish black, opaque substance.

 Lighter than diamond, smooth and slippery to touch.

 Very soapy to touch.

 Soft due to weak Vander wall forces.

 Used in making a pencil.

 Low coefficient of friction

 High thermal conductivity

 High electrical resistivity

 Low thermal expansion coefficient

Broad optical transparency from ultraviolet to infrared

 Resistant to chemical corrosion

 Other high performance applications

Ex: Acrylics, nylons, celluloids, polethene, PVC

Ex: Bakelite, durite, plaskon

Shape Memory Alloys:

Uses of Shape Memory Alloys

 SMA tubes are used as couplings for connecting two tubes

Pre soldering requirements:

Surface Cleaning of the work pieces:

A flux is a substance, either in a liquid or semi-liquid state performing a number of functions.

 It also cleans the surface, dissolving the metal oxides.

 One of the most common applications of soldering is assembling electronic components

 They have low melting points ranging from 150°C - 190°C.

 Used to make strong joints that can resist high temperatures.