PAST PAPER

WINTER 2016 41 Copper(II) oxide and carbon are both black solids. Copper(II) oxide reacts with dilute
sulfuric acid forming aqueous copper(II) sulfate. Carbon does not react with dilute sulfuric acid.
Describe how you would obtain a pure, dry sample of carbon from a mixture of powdered copper(II)
oxide and powdered carbon.
You are provided with
• all the apparatus normally found in a laboratory, • the mixture of powdered copper(II) oxide and
powdered carbon, • dilute sulfuric acid, • distilled water.
No other chemicals are available.
You should give experimental details and the observations occurring at each stage of the procedure.[5]
M1 Add (dilute) sulfuric acid to the mixture.
M2 Excess sulfuric acid / heat / stir / shake / mix
M3 Filter / centrifuge / decant
M4 Black solid on filter paper or at the bottom or remains undissolved / blue solution
M5 Carbon on filter paper or at the bottom or remains undissolved / copper sulfate solution formed
M6 Wash or dry carbon
………………………………………………………………………………....................
WINTER 2016 42 Vinegar contains dilute ethanoic acid. Different brands of vinegar contain different
concentrations of ethanoic acid. You are provided with two different brands of colourless vinegar as well
as the apparatus and chemicals normally found in a laboratory. Describe how you would carry out
experiments to find out which of the two brands contains the higher concentration of ethanoic acid. You
should give experimental details and the observations occurring at each stage of the procedure.

EITHER TITRATION METHOD Max 5 from: M1 Titration / description of titration method (1) M2 Alkali /
base (1) M3 Name of suitable alkali (1) M4 Equal volumes of acid / equal volumes of alkali (in conical
flask) (1) M5 Named suitable indicator / thermometer (1) M6 Most conc needs highest volume of alkali /
biggest temperature rise if thermometric method, or reverse argument (ORA) / if acid is in burette
volume of least concentrated acid is largest, ORA (1)

Question Answer Marks OR METAL M1 Add any metal(1) M2 Named suitable metal e.g. iron, magnesium,
zinc (1) M3 Equal amounts of vinegar + equal amount of metal or Equal amounts of vinegar + excess of
metal or excess vinegar + equal amounts of metal (1)

M4 Measurement of time / use of watch or clock/unit of time (1) or M4 measure mass change / measure
volume of gas collected / number of bubbles / amount of gas / apparatus to measure gas volume
(without mentioning volume) e.g. gas syringe (1)

M5 More conc acid: dissolves metal faster / takes less time / reaction stops first / bubbles faster / more
bubbles produced per unit time / more gas produced per unit time / steeper graph or larger gradient or
graph levels off first, ORA (1) Can score from sketch graph. OR CARBONATE M1 Carbonate /
hydrogencarbonate (1) M2 Named carbonate / hydrogencarbonate (1) M3 Equal amounts of vinegar +
equal amounts of carbonate or equal amounts of vinegar + excess of carbonate or excess vinegar + equal
amounts of carbonate (1)

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 M4 Measurement of time / use of watch or clock/unit of time(1) or M4 measure mass change /
measure volume of gas collected / number of bubbles / amount of gas / apparatus to measure gas
volume (without mentioning volume) e.g. gas syringe (1)

M5 More conc acid: dissolves carbonate faster / takes less time / reaction stops first / bubbles faster /
more bubbles produced per unit time / more gas produced per unit time / steeper graph or larger
gradient or graph levels off first, ORA (1) Can score from sketch graph.

Question Answer Marks OR pH METHOD M1 Measure pH (1) M2 pH meter/universal indicator / pH

indicator / pH paper (1) M3 any reference to pH number less than 7 (or statement that pH is below 7) /
reference to colour chart / reference to red, orange or yellow (1) M4 reference to 2 feasible pH values or
ranges for acids of different concentrations / reference to 2 suitable colours i.e. red, orange, yellow, for
different acids (1) M5 more conc acid has lower pH ORA / colours linked to relative concentrations for
both acids e.g. red more conc than orange (1) OR CONDUCTIVITY M1 Conductivity / description of
conductivity method / circuit diagram (1) M2 bulb or ammeter in circuit (1) M3 bulb lights / reference to
brightness or current (1) M4 compare brightness / current (1) M5 more concentrated acid = brighter bulb
or greater current (1)

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………M/J 2017 41 Sand is insoluble in water; sodium chloride is
soluble in water.
You are provided with a beaker containing 10.0 g of a mixture of sand and sodium chloride.
Suggest an experiment to determine the percentage, by mass, of sodium chloride in the mixture.
You should state
• the apparatus required,
• any measurements you need to make,
• how you would use your results to determine the percentage, by mass, of sodium
chloride in the mixture.[5]
Method 1
M1 Add water to beaker containing mixture and stir / heat / mix / dissolve sodium chloride (1)
M2 Filter (1)
M3 Dry the sand (1)
M4 Weigh (dry) sand (1)
M5 Percentage of sand = mass of sand / 10.0 × 100 and percentage of sodium chloride = 100 –
percentage of sand (1)
OR
Method 2
M1 Add water to beaker containing mixture and stir / heat / mix / dissolve sodium chloride (1)
M2 Filter (1)
M3 Evaporate filtrate to dryness / remove all water (1)
M4 Weigh (dry) sodium chloride (1)
M5 Percentage of sodium chloride = mass of sodium chloride × 100 / 10.0
(1)...............................................................................................................................

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………..M/J 2017 42 Copper(II) sulfate crystals contain water of

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crystallisation which may be removed by heating. (a) You are to plan an experiment to find the
percentage, by mass, of water in copper(II) sulfate crystals. You should • describe or draw a diagram of
the apparatus that may be used to remove the water, • suggest all the weighings that should be done,
• show how they may be used to calculate the percentage, by mass, of water.

Method 1 M1 Weigh crystals / weigh before heating (1)

M2 Heat to ensure that all water has been removed / heat to dryness / heat to constant mass / heat until
solid turns white (1)
M3 Weigh anhydrous salt / weigh after heating (1)
M4 (Calculate mass of water by) subtraction of masses / calculate decrease or loss in mass (This mark
can score from the expression in M5) (1)

M5 Mass of water or decrease in mass ÷ mass of crystals ⋅ 100 = % water (1)

OR Method 2 M1 Weigh crystals / weigh before heating (1)
M2 Heat to ensure that all water has been removed / heat to dryness / heat to constant mass / heat until
(solid) turns white (1)
M3 Condense water (can be shown in diagram) / (obtain water by) distillation (can be shown in diagram)
(1)
M4 Weigh water (1)
M5 Mass of water ÷ mass of crystals ⋅ 100 = % water (1)

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………..Winter 2017 41 Fullerenes are solid forms of carbon. Fullerenes
are found in soot. Soot also contains other forms of carbon. Fullerenes are soluble in liquid hydrocarbons
such as heptane. The other forms of
carbon in soot are insoluble in heptane.
Describe how you could obtain a pure sample of solid fullerene from soot. You should explain
what occurs at each stage of the process.
You are provided with all common laboratory apparatus.[4]
...............................................................................................
add liquid hydrocarbon / heptane AND stir / shake / heat / mix (1)
fullerene dissolves / impurities do not dissolve (1)
filter / decant / centrifuge (1)
evaporate the heptane / hydrocarbon / solvent / filtrate / liquid (1)

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………..Winter 2017 42 a) Copper(II) sulfate crystals contain water of
crystallisation which may be removed by heating.
(a) You are to plan an experiment to find the percentage, by mass, of water in copper(II) sulfate
crystals.
You should
• describe or draw a diagram of the apparatus that may be used to remove the water,
• suggest all the weighings that should be done,
• show how they may be used to calculate the percentage, by mass, of water.
...............................................................................................................................

b) The formula for copper(II) sulfate crystals is CuSO4.yH2O where y is the number of moles of

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water of crystallisation in one mole of crystals.
A student does an experiment and finds that y = 4. The correct value of y for her sample is 5.
Suggest an error in her experiment that would result in this difference. Explain how this error
would lead to the lower value of y and suggest how the experiment could be improved to
result in a correct value for y.
You can assume that all her weighings were read and recorded correctly and that her
calculation was correct.

M1 Weigh crystals / weigh before heating (1)

M2 Heat to ensure that all water has been removed / heat to dryness / heat to constant mass / heat until
solid turns
white (1)
M3 Weigh anhydrous salt / weigh after heating (1)
M4 (Calculate mass of water by) subtraction of masses / calculate decrease or loss in mass (This mark
can score from
the expression in M5) (1)
M5 Mass of water or decrease in mass ÷ mass of crystals × 100 = % water (1)
OR
Method 2
M1 Weigh crystals / weigh before heating (1)
M2 Heat to ensure that all water has been removed / heat to dryness / heat to constant mass / heat until
(solid) turns
white (1)
M3 Condense water (can be shown in diagram) / (obtain water by) distillation (can be shown in diagram)
(1)
M4 Weigh water (1)
M5 Mass of water ÷ mass of crystals × 100 = % water (1)
5
3(b) Any three from:
• M1 Not all the water is removed or evaporated / some water is left (in the crystals) (1)
• M2 Some water remained gaseous or evaporated or escaped. All of these need to be qualified by
adding either
and were not collected or during collection (1)
• M3 Not heated (long) enough / stopped heating too soon/ should have been heated longer / should be
heated until
it turns white (1)
• M4 Heat to constant mass (of solid) / heat to constant volume or constant mass of water (1)

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
M/J 2018 41 The order of reactivity of these four metals can also be found by measuring the
temperature
change when each metal reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid.
Describe how you would do this experiment.
Your description should include:
• the measurements you need to take
• the variables you need to keep constant

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• an explanation of how the order of reactivity can be deduced from your results.[5]
.................................................................................................................................
.............
M1 acid + metal in a container (1)
M2 equal volume / concentration / amount of acid in each (1)
M3 Measure T1 (1)
M4 Measure T2 (1)
M5 biggest change in temperature = highest reactivity / smallest change in temperature = lowest
reactivity (1)

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………..M/J 2018 42 3 Calcium carbonate reacts with dilute
hydrochloric acid to form carbon dioxide gas. Describe an experiment to follow the rate of reaction
between calcium carbonate and 25 cm3 0.10 mol / dm3 hydrochloric acid at room temperature. Your
method must include the collection of carbon dioxide gas. You are provided with: • 2 g of small pieces of
calcium carbonate (an excess) • 25 cm3 0.10 mol / dm3 hydrochloric acid • the apparatus normally
found in a school laboratory. Your answer should include: • a method • the measurements you need to
make during your experiment • how you will process your results. You may use a labelled diagram to
help explain the method.

M1 mix hydrochloric acid and calcium carbonate in any container (1) M2 gas syringe or measuring
cylinder over water / burette over water (1) M3 some indication of how to mix reactants with minimum
loss of gas or indication of gas-tight apparatus (1) M4 measurement of volume (of gas) (1) M5
measurement of time (1) M6 rate = volume ÷ time or plot graph and measure gradient or comment on
steepness of graph (1)

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………..Winter 2018 41 A student is provided with three bottles; one
contains dilute hydrochloric acid, another contains
aqueous sodium sulfate and the third contains ethanol.
The student is also provided with magnesium ribbon, acidified aqueous potassium manganate(VII)
and aqueous barium nitrate (acidified with nitric acid). The student has access to all the apparatus
normally found in a laboratory but no other chemicals.
For each of the three bottles, give a test with a positive result which identifies its contents. Chemical
equations are not required.
..............................................
M1 magnesium: bubbles / effervescence / fizzing / hydrogen evolved / solid dissolves with hydrochloric
acid / solid disappears
with hydrochloric acid (1)
M2 acidified barium nitrate: white precipitate with sodium sulfate (1)
M3 ethanol: acidified potassium manganate(VII) + heat (1)
M4 turns colourless(1)

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………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………Winter 018 42 A student is provided with three bottles: one
contains dilute hydrochloric acid, another contains aqueous sodium sulfite and the third contains
aqueous sodium sulfate. The student is provided with magnesium ribbon, aqueous barium nitrate and
dilute nitric acid but no other chemicals. The student has access to all the apparatus normally found in a
school laboratory. For each of the three bottles, describe a test and its positive result to identify the
contents of the bottle. Chemical equations are not required.

M1 hydrochloric acid magnesium ribbon bubbles / fizzes / effervesces / solid dissolves / solid disappears

(1)
M2 sodium sulfite dilute nitric acid or hydrochloric acid (to the two remaining solutions) and warm:
sulfur dioxide / SO2 evolved (1) OR aqueous barium nitrate: a white precipitate forms which dissolves in
nitric acid OR a white precipitate forms which dissolves in hydrochloric acid (1)
M3 sodium sulfate white precipitate with acidified barium nitrate (1)

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………M/J 2019 41 the end-point the student records that 12.5 cm3
of 0.100 mol / dm3 sulfuric acid has
neutralised 25.0 cm3 of 0.100 mol / dm3 ammonia.
Plan an experiment to prepare a pure sample of ammonium sulfate crystals.
You should use:
• 0.100 mol / dm3 sulfuric acid • 0.100 mol / dm3 ammonia • the apparatus normally found in a
chemistry laboratory.

M1 Measure aqueous ammonia in burette / pipette

M2 Measure sulfuric acid in burette / pipette
M3 volume of ammonia is 2× the volume of acid
M4 Heat / evaporate / leave in sun
M5 to saturation point / crystallise
M6 Dry crystals between filter paper

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………..M/J 2019 42 E150a and E155 are both brown food colourings.
Plan an investigation to find whether the brown food colouring in a soft drink is E150a or E155. The food
colourings are both soluble in water. You are provided with solutions of E150a, E155 and the brown food
colouring from the soft drink. You also have access to the apparatus normally found in a chemistry
laboratory. You should draw a labelled diagram with your plan and include essential practical details.

MARKS CAN SCORE IN DIAGRAM AND IN TEXT

M1 chromatography methods M2 spots of sample and E150a and E155 (1) M3 solvent in jar / beaker
with level below base line (or on diagram) (1) M4 baseline drawn in pencil (1) M5 let solvent run (to near
top of paper) OR solvent front mentioned (1) M6 compare position of spot(s) from sample with spots
from E150a / E155 OR (measure) Rf / retention factor (1)

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………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………..WINTER 2019 41 Carbon and copper(II) oxide are both black
solids. Copper(II) oxide reacts with dilute sulfuric acid to form an aqueous solution. Carbon does not
react with or dissolve in dilute sulfuric acid. Neither carbon nor copper(II) oxide dissolve in water.
A mixture contains carbon and copper(II) oxide only.
Plan an experiment to produce a sample of pure carbon from the mixture.
You may use:
• dilute sulfuric acid • distilled water• any of the apparatus usually found in a chemistry laboratory.
No other chemicals are available.
Your plan should include details of:
• how to dissolve the copper(II) oxide in the dilute sulfuric acid
• how to separate the carbon • how to purify the carbon • observations occurring at
each stage of the process.
Chemical equations are not required.[5]

(add mixture to acid and) shake / stir / heat (1)

filter off the carbon(1)
blue solution(filtrate)(1)
wash residue with distilled water(1)
dry residue / description of drying(1)
..............

…………………………………………………………………………………………….
WINTER 2019 42 An unlabelled bottle contains solid sodium carbonate, Na2CO3. Another unlabelled
bottle contains solid sodium hydrogencarbonate, NaHCO3. The reaction between sodium carbonate and
dilute hydrochloric acid is exothermic. The reaction between sodium hydrogencarbonate and dilute
hydrochloric acid is endothermic. Plan experiments using the reaction of each solid with dilute
hydrochloric acid: • to identify each solid • to determine which reaction produces the larger energy
change per gram of solid. You may use any of the apparatus normally found in a chemistry laboratory but
no other chemicals. You should state all the measurements you would make. Chemical equations are not
required[7]

use of suitable apparatus in which to carry out the reaction (1)

equal volumes of acid in both / equal amounts of acid in both / excess acid in both (1)
measure masses of the two samples of solid (1)
measure temperature / use thermometer (1)
temperature increase means exothermic or sodium carbonate (1)
temperature decrease means endothermic or sodium hydrogencarbonate (1)
Reference to how the temperature changes are used to determine energy change per gram (1

SUMMER 2020 41

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3 Bromine, chlorine, fluorine and iodine are elements in Group VII of the Periodic Table. Group VII
elements react with compounds of Group VII elements in aqueous solution in displacement reactions.
More reactive elements displace less reactive elements from their compounds.
For example: potassium iodide + fluorine------------🡪 potassium fluoride + iodine
2KI + F2 -----------------🡪2KF + I2
You have access to:
• colourless aqueous solutions of potassium bromide, potassium chloride and potassium iodide
• aqueous solutions of bromine (orange), chlorine (yellow) and iodine (brown)
• the apparatus normally found in a school laboratory. No other chemicals are available.
Plan experiments using these solutions to show that:
• chlorine is more reactive than bromine and iodine
• bromine is more reactive than iodine but less reactive than chlorine.
Your plan must include: • what you need to do • the observations you expect • an explanation of how
these observations show the order of reactivity of bromine, chlorine and iodine.

Add aqueous chlorine to aqueous potassium bromide (1) turns orange (1) add aqueous bromine to
aqueous potassium iodide (1) turns brown or black solid (1) more reactive elements displaces the less
reactive elements from their compounds (1) OR (The order is correct because) chlorine displaces bromine
(and iodine) AND bromine displaces iodine (1)

5070/42/O/N/20
4 You are provided with a mixture of copper(II) carbonate and carbon.
Both copper(II) carbonate and carbon are solids. They are both insoluble in water. Copper(II) carbonate
reacts with dilute sulfuric acid and forms an aqueous solution. Carbon does not react with or dissolve in
dilute sulfuric acid.
Use this information to plan an experiment to
produce a sample of pure carbon from the mixture.
You are provided with the mixture of copper(II)
carbonate and carbon as well as dilute sulfuric acid
and distilled water. You have access to the apparatus
normally found in a school chemistry laboratory. No
other chemicals are available.

Your plan should include details of how to:

• separate the carbon
• purify the carbon.
Chemical equations are not required. [4]

M1 add acid to the mixture and stir or shake or heat / warm / boil (1)
M2 until bubbling stops / acid is in excess (1)
M3 filter off the carbon (1)
M4 wash (residue / carbon) with distilled water and dry (1

4 A student wants to electroplate a metallic spoon with a layer of copper. Plan how the student does the
experiment. You should: • state what needs to be done to the spoon before electrolysis • include a
labelled diagram of the apparatus • give the names of the substances used. [5]

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1 clean / wash the spoon / use sandpaper (1)
M2 copper anode / + (1) M3 spoon cathode / – (1)
M4 named aqueous copper salt (1) M5 diagram (1)
5070/41/M/J/21
4 A mixture of aqueous iron(III) nitrate and aqueous sodium thiosulfate is purple.
A reaction takes place in the mixture.
When the reaction is complete the solution turns from purple to colourless. Plan experiments to show
that aqueous copper(II) sulfate increases the rate of this reaction.
You are provided with • aqueous iron(III) nitrate
• aqueous sodium thiosulfate • aqueous copper(II) sulfate
• the apparatus normally found in a school laboratory.

Your answer should include • a method which includes the names of the apparatus you would use and
the variables you would control
• the measurements you need to make during your experiment
• the results you expect
• an explanation of how the results show that copper(II) sulfate increases the rate of the reaction.

Method:
M1 Chooses ANY suitable named apparatus e.g. flask / beaker / test tube / measuring cylinder
M2 Chooses suitable apparatus to measure time e.g. stopwatch / stop clock / timer
M3 Mix iron(III) nitrate and sodium thiosulfate (and start timing)
M4 Records time for solution to turn colourless (pale blue / colourless if copper sulfate is present)
M5 Repeats with copper(II) sulfate added
M6 Keeps quantities constant e.g. volumes or concentrations
M7 Keeps temperature constant.
M8 The reaction containing copper(II) sulfate has shorter time ORA
M9 A shorter time indicates a greater rate OR
A Alternative method
M1 Chooses ANY suitable named apparatus e.g. flask / beaker / test tube / measuring cylinder
M2 Sets up 2 experiments to run simultaneously.
M3 Mixes iron(III) nitrate and sodium thiosulfate
M4 Mixes iron(III) nitrate sodium thiosulfate and copper(II) sulfate
M5 Notes which one turns colourless first. M6 Keeps quantities constant e.g. volumes or concentrations
M7 Keeps temperature constant.
M8 The reaction containing copper(II) sulfate turns colourless first ORA
M9 The one which turns colourless first has a greater rate OR A

5070/42/M/J/21
(b) Ammonium sulfite, (NH4)2SO3, is a water-soluble compound.
Aqueous ammonium sulfite is slowly oxidised by oxygen in air.
This means aqueous ammonium sulfite will also contain some sulfate ions, SO42–.
Describe a series of tests, and the observations, to show the presence of ammonium ions,
sulfite ions and sulfate ions in this solution.
It must be clear in your answer which ion is identified by each test............ [6]

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2(b) (sulfite)
M1 add acid and warm (1)
M2 sulfur dioxide turns acidified potassium manganate(VII) colourless (1) (sulfate)
M3 add aqueous barium nitrate and dilute nitric acid (1)
M4 White precipitate (1) (ammonium)
M5 add aqueous sodium hydroxide and warm (1)
M6 ammonia gas turns damp red litmus blue (1)

5070/41/O/N/21
3 A student is provided with three unlabelled bottles which each contain a solution.
The student knows that the bottles contain:
• dilute sulfuric acid
• aqueous calcium chloride
• aqueous zinc chloride.
The student is provided with:
• dilute nitric acid
• aqueous barium nitrate
• aqueous sodium hydroxide
but no other chemicals or indicators.
For each of the three unlabelled bottles, describe a test and give the observations to identify the
contents of the bottle.
You must describe tests that give positive results to identify the contents of each bottle.
It must be clear in your answer which solution is identified by each positive result.
Chemical equations are not required.

dilute sulfuric acid:

use aqueous barium nitrate (+ dilute nitric acid) (1)
white precipitate (1)
aqueous calcium chloride and aqueous zinc chloride:
aqueous sodium hydroxide (to test for both) (1)
aqueous calcium chloride:
white precipitate (1)
insoluble in excess (1)
aqueous zinc chloride:
white precipitate (1)

5070/41/M/J/22
3 A student has three colourless organic liquids, W, X and Y.
One is an alkene, one is an alcohol and one is a carboxylic acid but the student does not know
which liquid is which.
Describe a series of tests to determine which liquid, W, X or Y, is the alkene, which is the alcohol
and which is the carboxylic acid.
Each liquid must be identified by a positive test.
You are provided with:
• separate samples of liquids W, X and Y
• acidified aqueous potassium manganate(VII)
• aqueous bromine

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• solid calcium carbonate
• the apparatus normally found in a school laboratory.
In your answer include:
• a description of the tests
• the apparatus needed for the tests
• how the results of the tests are used to identify W, X and Y
• a safety risk that is involved in doing one of the tests and a precaution to avoid the risk.

M1 aqueous bromine turns from orange / brown / yellow to colourless in one. (1)
M2 this identifies the alkene (1)
M3 potassium manganate(VII) turns from purple to colourless (in two samples). (1)
M4 (one is the alkene already identified) This identifies the alcohol (1)
M5 solid calcium carbonate causes effervescence / fizzing / bubbles of gas in one. (1)
M6 this is the acid (1)
M7 organic liquids / alcohol / alkene flammable (1)
M8 do not have flames / lighted Bunsen (1)
OR
M7 acid corrosive (1)
M8 wear goggles (1)

5070/42/M/J/22
(b) A mixture of solids contains barium sulfate and sodium chloride only. Barium sulfate is insoluble in
water. Sodium chloride is soluble in water. Describe how to separate the mixture to obtain pure barium
sulfate and pure crystals of sodium chloride [6]

5070/04/SP/2023
4 Plant leaves contain a mixture of coloured substances. Plan an experiment to find the Rf values of the
coloured substances present in plant leaves. Your plan should describe the use of common laboratory
apparatus, plant leaves, sand, ethanol as the solvent and absorbent paper. You may draw a diagram to
help answer the question.

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Any six from: • chromatography • cut / grind / crush plant leaves (using pestle / mortar) with
sand and ethanol • decant / pour-off / filter liquid • draw a line in pencil near the bottom of the paper •
apply extract to paper (in correct location) • place paper in solvent (with solvent level below spots) •
allow the solvent to travel up the paper • mark the solvent front • Rf = distance travelled by solute
distance travelled by solvent

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