SCIENCE NOTES

Unit 3.1: Heat

The particle model:
 The particle model can be used to explain the properties of solids, liquids, and gases. It
states that all matter is made up of particles which are in constant motion.
 Solids = particles closely packed
 Liquids = particles closely packed but free to move + flow
 Gases = particles not bound together + free to move
 More heat = more kinetic energy = particles move faster and spread
Absolute zero:
 Point in temperature where particles have no kinetic energy
 -273°C, 0 K
Law of conservation of energy:
 Energy is not created or destroyed. It is only converted in different forms.

Heat and Temperature:

 Heat is a form of energy that can be transferred from one object to another.
 Heat is measured in Joules.
 Temperature is the average amount of kinetic energy in particles.
 More kinetic energy = the higher the temperature
 Same temperature for 2 beakers, one has more water, it will have more heat.
Heat Transfer:
 Heat always moves from a warmer place to a cooler place
  3 heat transfers: convection, conduction, radiation
 Conduction:
- direct contact
 Convection:
- happens in liquids and gases
- heat is transferred through currents
- circular pattern
- warmer liquid/gas rise up ---warmer = less dense
- cooler liquid/gas sink ---cooler = more dense
 Radiation:
- transfer of energy by electromagnetic radiation
- does not require a medium in which the energy needs to transmit through
- 3 things can happen when radiated energy hits a surface:
1. heat may be absorbed into the surface
2. heat may be reflected from the surface
3. heat may be transmitted through the surface

Conductors and insulators:

 Conductor = something that allows heat/electricity to pass through
 Insulator = something that does not allow heat/electricity to pass through
 Good Insulator = Poor conductor
 Most effective to least effective insulator example:
A parka, a woolen jumper, a cotton windcheater, a cotton t-shirt
Unit 3.2: Sound
Sound:
 Sound is produced when something vibrates, moving back and forth; which also allows
other particles (such as air particles) to vibrate causing sound to travel.
 Sound is a PRESSURE wave. Sound is a LONGITUDINAL wave.
Waves:
 Wave = movement of energy
 Waves carry energy from one point to another
 When energy is transferred through a medium, waves are created
Transverse wave:
 Particles move up and down so the direction of their medium is at right angles
(perpendicular) to the direction of the wave.
 Example: water waves
 Parts of transverse waves:
- Peak/crest: High points of a transverse wave
- Trough: Low points of a transverse wave

Longitudinal Waves:
 Particles move left to right, so the direction of their movement is parallel to the
direction of the wave.
  Example: Sound waves
 2 parts of a longitudinal wave:
- Compression: region in a sound wave where the particles are closest together.
- Rarefaction: region in a sound wave where the particles are furthest apart.

Features of a sound wave:

 Wavelength: indicates the distance that wave travels before it repeats itself.
- In a longitudinal wave, wavelength refers to the distance between two consecutive
compressions or between two consecutive rarefactions.
- In a transverse wave, the wavelength refers to the distance between two consecutive
peak/crusts or between two consecutive troughs.
 Period: time taken for a wave to move a wavelength
- In a longitudinal wave, the period refers to the time taken to move between two
consecutive compressions or between two consecutive rarefactions.
- In a transverse wave, the period refers to the time taken to move between two
consecutive peak/crusts or between two consecutive troughs.
 Frequency: number of sound waves produced each second
- In a longitudinal wave, the frequency refers to the number of times two consecutive
compressions or two consecutive rarefactions happen in a second.
- In a transverse wave, the frequency refers to the number of times two consecutive
peak/crusts or two consecutive troughs happen in a second.
- Low-frequency sounds produce sound waves less often than high-frequency sounds
 Amplitude: the maximum displacement from equilibrium – in simpler words, the
distance between the equilibrium line to the trough/peak.
- A large amplitude indicates a large sound wave.
Characteristics of sound: pitch and loudness
 The higher the amplitude, the louder – vice versa
  The higher the frequency, the higher the pitch – vice versa

Movement of sound in different mediums:

 Sound waves MUST travel through a medium because mediums have particles and
sound NEEDS particles to vibrate in order to be heard. Therefore, sound cannot be
heard in a vacuum.
Random knowledge you should know for the exam:
 Sound travels faster through a solid than a gas because solids have particles closely
packed which means the particles will bump into each other faster.
 Sound travels faster through warmer materials because warmer materials have more
kinetic energy meaning they will bump into another particle faster.
 Vacuum = no particles/matter/air = no sound
 A sound wave in air travels 340 meters per second
 X – rays and light do not need a medium
 SPACE IS A VACCUUM.

Unit 3.3 – Light

Light:
 Light is a form of energy called electromagnetic radiation.
 It does not need a medium to travel through, in other words, it does not need particles
to transmit through.
 Just like sound, they travel in waves.
 Light = transverse wave
 Different wavelengths > different electromagnetic waves > different colours
 Electromagnetic waves travel the same speed but have different frequencies.
  Higher frequencies > lower wavelength > purple light/colour
 Lower frequencies > higher wavelength > red light/colour
 Bigger the amplitude of the wave > brighter the light/higher intensity
 A light wave travels 3 x 108 meters per second in a vacuum
Properties of light:
 When light hits a surface, 3 things can happen:
- the light can be transmitted through it
- reflected through it
- or absorbed into it

How light behaves:

 If an object emits light, it is called luminous. Most objects are non-luminous.

 Reflection = When light bounces off an object and then hits your eyes
 Reflection – two types:
- regular reflection
- diffuse reflection
Regular reflection:
 All light rays reflected form a clear, sharp image. This is because the surface that the
light is reflected from, is smooth.
Diffuse reflection:
 Rough surfaces will reflect light in many directions. The reflection does not form an
image.

Law of reflection:
 The angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence.
 Angle of incidence = incoming ray of light
 Angle of reflection = reflected ray of light
 The normal is perpendicular to the mirror
IN THE EXAM THEY MIGHT GIVE YOU:

Mirrors:

 Plane mirror = Flat mirror

 Object reflected is
- the same size
- same distance behind the mirror
- is reversed sideways = lateral inversion
- called a virtual image (image that forms inside/behind the mmirror)
Virtual image vs. real image:

Plane mirrors:
 Light from a source is reflected off a plane mirror and to your eyes.
 Our brain projects the reflected rays behind the mirror.
 A virtual image is formed.
 For ray diagram:
1. Draw the virtual image the same distance
away from mirror on the other side with a
dotted line. It must be the same size as the
object
2. Draw 2 reflection rays from the top and
bottom of the virtual image and connect
then to the middle of the eye on the other
side of the mirror (after the mirror line,
change your dotted line into a straight line with no blank spaces)
3. Draw 2 rays from the top and bottom of the actual object with a straight line (this is
the incident ray) and make the line join and intersect the reflection ray where the mirror
is)

Concave and convex mirrors:

  Convex = centre of curvature + focal point is behind the mirror
 Concave = centre of curvature + focal point is infront of the mirror
Concave mirror:
 Can form a real or virtual image depending on the location of the object

There are 3 types of rays in the concave ray diagram:

There are 5 types of locations an object can be for the concave mirror:
 Beyond C
 At C
 Between C and F
 At F
 Between F and P
Convex mirrors:
 Virtual image
There are 3 types of rays in the convex ray diagram:
RAY DIAGRAM:

Refraction:
 When passing through different mediums, there is a bend in light and change in
direction of wave.
  Underwater objects appear closer than they are.
 Depth illusion = objects appear closer than they are.

Refractive index:
 Refractive index = how easily light travels in a substance
 Smaller refractive index > faster light will travel.
 Formula:

 Bigger refractive index  lower refractive index = bends away from the normal and light
goes faster (this means that the 1st medium was denser)
 Lower refractive index  higher
refractive index = bends
towards the normal and light is
slower (this means that the 2nd
medium was denser)

Lenses:
  Lenses REFRACT light
 Convex (converging) lenses = image can be real or virtual
close = virtual + magnified
far = real
 Concave lenses = virtual images
CHAPTER 4 – ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION!!
Electromagnetic wave:
 Travel as vibrations of the electrical and magnetic fields
 Electric and magnetic field travels perpendicular to each other.
 All EM (Electromagnetic waves) travel at the same speed > 300000000 m/s OR 3 x 10 8
m/s 0R 300000 km/s (they are all the same thing :D
 They do not need a medium.
 EM waves are transverse waves.
 EM waves > can also be thought of as stream of particles.
 Electromagnetic spectrum > order of EM waves in increasing frequency and decreasing
wavelength.
 In order of increasing frequency and decreasing wavelength these are: radio waves,
microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays and gamma
rays. (RMIVUXG)
Radio Waves:
 Longest wavelengths and lowest frequencies.
 Used in: RADAR, satellite transmissions, cooking food.
Microwaves:
 Used in microwaves.
 Waves transfer energy to the water inside the object and cause the water molecules to
vibrate, giving them energy and heat.
Infrared waves:
 Shorter wavelength, higher frequency.
 Used for: finding people on the dark and in TV remote control.
Visible light:
  These waves can be seen.
 The visible spectrum is the rainbow of colours that combine to form white light.

How we see colour:

 If the colour of an object is red, all colours from the visible spectrum are absorbed
except the colour red which is reflected. If there is another colour like yellow infront of
the red colour, then since there would only be red light from the first colour coming out,
there will not be any yellow to be reflected. Therefore, the colour shown at the end will
be black.
Ultraviolet Light:
 Frequency is high enough with UV rays to penetrate living cells and cause them damage.
 UV in our skin produces Vitamin D in our bodies.
 Used for sterilization to kill bacteria.
X-rays:
 They have enough energy to penetrate deep into tissues and cause damage to cells, but
dense materials can stop this from happening like bones.
 Used to look at solid structures such as bones and bridges and treatment for cancer.
Gamma Rays:
 Carry the most energy.
 Shortest wavelengths and highest frequencies
 Used in treatment of cancers.
 Gamma rays are released by nuclear reactions
Visible spectrum primary colours:

 GREEN, RED, BLUE.