05/05/2015 1

TR 335: FOUNDATION ENGINEERING II

(2.0E CORE)
University of Dar es Salaam

College of Engineering and Technology

Department of Transportation & Geotechnical Engineering

2014/ 15
05/05/2015 2

Course contents
1) Foundations: Design and construction considerations.

2) Deep foundations: Types, analysis, design and construction

considerations.

3) Retaining walls: Types, design and construction aspects.

4) Excavations: Design and methods of excavation.

5) Dewatering of soils: Methods of dewatering and pressure relief,

design of dewatering systems, filter requirements.

6) Embankment dams: Types of earth dams, design principles,

construction of earth dams.

7) Ground improvement techniques Drainage methods, pre-loading and

soil replacement, compaction processes and erosion control.
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Chapter 4: Excavations - Critical height of a vertical cut, Hc

It is the height to which a vertical cut may
be made in the ground without supplying
any support to the vertical face of the
excavation.

The upper and lower bound values of Hc

can be determined through the unsafe
upper bound/ limit equilibrium and safe
lower bound solution respectively.

Unsafe upper bound/ limit equilibrium

solution;

Safe lower bound solution;

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Chapter 4: Excavations
Unsafe upper bound/ limit
equilibrium solution
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Chapter 4: Excavations
Safe lower bound solution;
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Chapter 4: Excavations – Critical depth of excavation, dc

Several types of excavation base failure are
possible;
1) Piping effect of cohesionless soil base at
the critical hydraulic gradient.

2) Excessive water pressure underlying a

cohesive soil base leading to base
buckling.

3) Base heaving due to surround soil failing

by moving into the excavation (reversed
bearing capacity failure!).

Factor of safety for base heaving due to

surround soil failing by moving into the
excavation;
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Chapter 4: Excavations – Critical depth of excavation, dc

Exemplar considerations of potential base failure by piping effects in
cohesionless soils.
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Chapter 4: Excavations – Trench support using bentonite mud

In the construction of diaphragm
walls for basements, underpasses,
coffer dams etc… the trench walls
may be supported temporarily by
bentonite mud or slurry.

The trench is kept filled with mud

while excavation is being carried
out using a mechanical grab.

Concrete is then placed in the

trench using a tremie pipe
displacing the mud from the bottom
upward.
05/05/2015 1

TR 335: FOUNDATION ENGINEERING II

(2.0E CORE)
University of Dar es Salaam

College of Engineering and Technology

Department of Transportation & Geotechnical Engineering

2014/ 15
05/05/2015 2

Course contents
1) Foundations: Design and construction considerations.

2) Deep foundations: Types, analysis, design and construction

considerations.

3) Retaining walls: Types, design and construction aspects.

4) Excavations: Design and methods of excavation.

5) Dewatering of soils: Methods of dewatering and pressure relief,

design of dewatering systems, filter requirements.

6) Embankment dams: Types of earth dams, design principles,

construction of earth dams.

7) Ground improvement techniques Pre-loading and soil replacement,

compaction processes and erosion control.
 05/05/2015 3

Chapter 5: Dewatering/ drainage of soils

 Useful when construction requires excavation below the Ground
Water Table (GWT) into water bearing soils or when pressure-relief
of underlying confined (artesian) pressure is required.

Designed dewatering and pressure-relief systems enable;

1. Lowering the GWT and intercepting seepage, which would
otherwise emerge from the slopes or bottom of the excavation.

2. Improve the stability of slopes (natural and excavated) to prevent

failure.

3. Preventing the possibility of piping (hydraulic failure) in an

excavation.

4. Preventing the rupture and heaving of the bottom of an excavation.

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Chapter 5: Dewatering/ drainage of soils

Designed dewatering and pressure-relief systems enable; (cont…)

5. Improving the density and compaction characteristics of soils at the

bottom of an excavation (improving bearing capacity) and ensuring
dry working conditions.

6. Reducing the lateral water pressure on temporary/ permanent

retaining structures.

7. Reducing the water content of soils in borrow areas to improve

workability and to allow for proper compaction in embankments
without excessive wait for drying
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Chapter 5: Dewatering/ drainage of soils

For excavations below the GWL, the water table has to be lowered
below the bottom of the excavation otherwise slope instabilities as well
as the lack of firm and dry working conditions are possible.
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Chapter 5: Dewatering/ drainage of soils

 During excavation in clay material the presence of the ground water
level is hardly recognized.
 But on approaching a pervious layer a sudden rupture of the bottom
(heaving) of the excavation may occur.
 The confined ground water table in the pervious layer has to be
controlled and, if necessary, relieved before hand.
 To reach a safe condition the pressure head in the aquifer has to be
reduced below the excavation bottom.
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Chapter 5: Dewatering/ drainage of soils

Systems for dewatering and pressure reliefs
1. Sumps and Ditches
 Suitable for small excavations in dense, well-graded or cemented
sands.
 It is possible to permit seepage from slopes to collect in ditches and
sumps (by gravity) from where it is pumped out of the excavation.
 The system tends to cause softening and sloughing of the lower
parts of the slope, underground erosion where the soil contains
lenses of fine sand or silt. The lowering of the water table in a
broader area causes settlement in the neighbourhood.
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Chapter 5: Dewatering/ drainage of soils

Systems for dewatering and
pressure reliefs
2. Sheeting and Open Pumping
Similar to sump and ditches but
pumping is done from within an area
enclosed by retaining walls.

GWT outside the excavation is not

influenced and therefore no settlement
in the neighbourhood will occur due to
a lowered ground water table.

The difference in head between the

outside and inside of the excavation
will induce seepage and if the
difference in head is large enough
there is a potential of base piping;
seepage analysis necessary.
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Chapter 5: Dewatering/ drainage of soils

Systems for dewatering and pressure reliefs
3. Deep–well drainage
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Chapter 5: Dewatering/ drainage of soils

Systems for dewatering and pressure reliefs
4. Well Point System
Well points are small well screens 50 – 100mm diameter and 0.5 –
1.0m long installed along or around an excavation at distances of 1.0
to 4.0m.
Its advantages include absence of piping/ hydraulic failure in
cohesionless soils.
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Chapter 5: Dewatering/ drainage of soils

Systems for dewatering and pressure reliefs
4. Well Point System (Cont…)
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Chapter 5: Dewatering/ drainage of soils

Systems for dewatering and pressure reliefs
5. Grouting
 Used to reduce the permeability of soil prior to lowering of the water
table to reduce well and pumping requirements.

 Grout mixtures consist of bentonite, Portland cement and

admixtures to reduce surface tension and water.
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Chapter 5: Dewatering/ drainage of soils

Systems for dewatering and pressure reliefs
6. Excavation of soil below water level
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Chapter 5: Dewatering/ drainage of soils

Systems for dewatering and pressure reliefs
7. Electro-osmosis method
 The system requires installing positive (anode) electrodes and
negative (cathode) electrodes and applying a d-c voltage across
them by which flow of pore water to the cathode is created.
 The cathode can consist of a well or well point, surrounded by a
sand filter which collects flow.
 The discharge is removed by pumping.
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Chapter 5: Dewatering/ drainage of soils

Design of dewatering and pressure reliefs
 Design of dewatering system depends on the permeability of the
soil.
 Since permeability is dependent on particle size distribution of a
soil material, selection of a dewatering method is primarily based
on the particle size distribution.
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Chapter 5: Dewatering/ drainage of soils

Design of dewatering and pressure reliefs (Cont…)
Other factors to consider include:
1. Size and depth of the excavation
2. Amount of lowering of the ground water table
3. Time remaining during which the excavation remains in a
dewatered condition
4. The power supply
5. Economic considerations
6. Continuous supervision of the lowered water table by using
piezometers

There is no exact design calculations for dewatering rather estimates

and therefore test wells and piezometers should be installed to
evaluate the field performance of the respective systems for the
prevailing specific site conditions.
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Chapter 5: Dewatering/ drainage of soils

Soil filters
 Soil filters are designed and used to prevent internal soil erosion.

 A filter must prevent fine soil particles from being washed out but
at the same time it must allow the maximum water flow without
internal erosion.

 A filter can be used to prevent the mixing of a fine with a coarse

material. In this case the maximum water flow is not so important.

 Instead of a filter of soil e.g. stabilized soil, a layer of lean concrete

or geotextiles can be applied.

The design of a proper filter consists of choosing the dimensions of the

filter and of choosing a material for the filter such that;
a) Sufficient water head is lost due to flow through the filter
b) No significant infiltration of soil is permitted into the filter
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Chapter 5: Dewatering/ drainage of soils

Soil filters (Cont…)

 The selection of a filter to meet the first requirement depends on

both the type of soil and the flow pattern in the earth structure
under consideration.

 The requirements of a filter to keep soil particles from invading the

filter significantly are based on the particle size.

 The resulting filter specifications relate the grading of the protective

filter to that of the soil being protected.

 The expressions not only limit particle movement from the soil into
the filter to a small zone at the interface between the soil and filter,
but also ensure that the permeability of the filter is considerably
greater than that of the surrounding soil.
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Chapter 5: Dewatering/ drainage of soils

Soil filters (Cont…)
1) The first relation restricts the internal
erosion (main effect of a filter)

2) The second provides enough

permeability to allow a safe reduction
of a possible potential.

3) The third gives additional information

(requirements) about the steepness of
the grain size distribution.

4) If the filter is in contact with a

drainage pipe (well screen) the
openings of the screen have to be
considered by the fourth relationship.
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Chapter 5: Dewatering of soils

Soil filters (Finalised…)