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When working in LESCO (Lahore Electric Supply Company) or any electrical
utility company, it is crucial to follow these safety instructions:
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8. Fire Prevention: Have fire extinguishers readily available and ensure all
employees are trained in their proper use.
9. Emergency Response: Establish clear emergency response procedures and
ensure all employees are aware of them.
10. Stay Informed: Stay updated with safety guidelines and attend regular
safety training sessions.
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Electricity in Pakistan:
Pakistan has a total installed power generation capacity of 43,775 MW as of 30
June 2022 which includes 26,683 MW thermal, 10,635 MW hydroelectric,
1,838 MW wind, 630 MW solar, 369 MW bagasse and 3,620 MW nuclear.
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Electricity generation:
Electricity – total installed capacity (FY2021–22): 41,557MW
Electricity – installed capacity by source (FY2021–22):
Natural gas: 32.3% of total
Hydroelectric: 24.7% of total
Furnace oil: 14.3% of total
Coal: 12.8% of total
Nuclear: 8.8% of total
Wind: 4.8% of total
Solar: 1.4% of total
Bagasse: 0.9% of total
Electricity consumption:
Electricity – total consumption: 89,361 GWh (2021–2022)
Electricity – consumption by sector (2021–2022):
Household – 47%
Commercial – 7%
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Industrial – 28%
Agricultural – 9%
Others – 8%
Switch-Yard:
Switchyard is a switching station which is the main link between the generating
plant and the transmission system. It can be considered as the heart of the
power plant, the generated power will only be worthy if it can be transmitted
and received by the consumers. Switchyard is a junction which carries the
generated power to the destination, it plays a major part in the security of the
system, and it can control the reactive power devices which plays a major role
in power quality. It is mostly an assemblage of switches, power circuits,
breakers, and the auxiliary equipment which is used to collect power from the
generators at the power plant and then it will be distributed to the
transmission lines at a load point.
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Single Line Diagram of 132KV/33KV
Substation:
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Switchyard makes available the generated power at the plant to the people.
The power generated at a power station is transmitted via a switchyard. When
there is sudden damage outside the plant switchyard can protect the plant. A
Switchyard consists of many equipment such as Current transformer (CT),
Voltage transformer (VT), Lightning arrester (LA), Power transformers, Isolators
support structure, Circuit breaker (CB), Wave traps, Earthing switch, Bus bar
etc.
Switchyard Equipment:
A Switchyard consists of many equipment such as:
Current transformer (CT)
Voltage transformer (VT)
Lightning arrester (LA)
Power transformers
Isolators support structure
Circuit breaker (CB)
Wave traps
Earthing switch
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Bus bar
Current transformers are the current-sensing units of the power system and
are used at generating stations, electrical substations, and in industrial and
commercial electric power distribution.
Function:
A current transformer has a primary winding, a core, and a secondary winding,
although some transformers, use an air core. While the physical principles are
the same, the details of a "current" transformer compared with a "voltage"
transformer will differ owing to different requirements of the application. A
current transformer is designed to maintain an accurate ratio between the
currents in its primary and secondary circuits over a defined range.
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conductor carrying the primary current is passed through the ring. The CT's
primary, therefore, consists of a single 'turn'. The primary 'winding' may be a
permanent part of the current transformer, i.e., a heavy copper bar to carry
current through the core. Window-type current transformers are also
common, which can have circuit cables run through the middle of an opening
in the core to provide a single-turn primary winding. To assist accuracy, the
primary conductor should be centered in the aperture.
CTs are specified by their current ratio from primary to secondary. The rated
secondary current is normally standardized at 1 or 5 amperes. For example, a
4000:5 CT secondary winding will supply an output current of 5 amperes when
the primary winding current is 4000 amperes. This ratio can also be used to
find the impedance or voltage on one side of the transformer, given the
appropriate value at the other side. For the 4000:5 CT, the secondary
impedance can be found as ZS = NZP = 800ZP, and the secondary voltage can
be found as VS = NVP = 800VP. In some cases, the secondary impedance is
referred to the primary side, and is found as ZS′ = N2ZP. Referring the
impedance is done simply by multiplying initial secondary impedance value by
the current ratio. The secondary winding of a CT can have taps to provide a
range of ratios, five taps being common.
Voltage transformer:
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power transformer with primary and secondary windings. The voltage
produced at the load side is proportional to the number of turns in the
secondary relative to the primary. The voltage transformation is given by:
V1 / V2 = N1 / N2
The secondary side is wound adjacent to the core since it is easy to insulate a
low-voltage winding (labeled B). The primary, carrying high voltage (labeled A)
is wound over the secondary winding with paper tape or cotton insulation
(labeled C) in between.
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Voltage transformer working principle:
Lightning arrester:
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the safety of individuals near them. Smaller versions of lightning arresters, also
called surge arresters, are devices that are connected between each conductor
in power and communications systems and the earth. These prevent the flow
of the normal power or signal currents to ground, but provide a path over
which high-voltage lightning current flows, bypassing the connected
equipment. Their purpose is to limit the rise in voltage when a communications
or power line is struck by lightning or is near to a lightning strike.
Lightning arresters are used to protect electric fences. They consist of a spark
gap and sometimes a series inductor. Such type of equipment is also used for
protecting transmitters feeding a mast radiator. For such devices the series
inductance has usually just one winding.
Lightning arresters can form part of large electrical transformers and can
fragment during transformer ruptures. High-voltage transformer fire barriers
are required to defeat ballistics from small arms as well as projectiles from
transformer bushings and lightning arresters.
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Isolators:
Isolators are also called disconnect switches which operate under no-load
conditions. They are not manufactured for any making or breaking current
capacity. They don’t have an arc quenching system within it. Its main use in the
electrical system is to disconnect a particular part after the current
interruption from that particular part. They ensure there is no current in the
circuit until everything is in order. They are placed on each side of the circuit
breaker to provide isolation. Generally, an automatic type is preferred.
Isolator-symbol
Isolator Switch
These switches are generally used for the repair or replacement of a circuit
breaker. It acts as a switch that disconnects the required part from the circuit
where the repair has to be done. It does not have any current ratings as
compared to CB as these are operated with current being made zero in the
circuit. These switches cannot be opened unless CB is open and CB cannot be
closed unless the isolator is closed.
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Isolator
The working of an isolator is very simple and it can be operated in various ways
such as fully automatic, semi-automatic, or manually operated. Isolators are
sometimes used as switches that can be opened or closed based on the
requirement. But many times, isolators are used permanently in a fixed
position to keep isolation such as in electrical transmission lines, transformers,
and grid stations as shown in the figure below.
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systems, isolators are used in conjunction with circuit breakers to provide an
extra layer of safety.
A first circuit breaker is opened which disconnects the circuit then the isolator
is also opened. And for the reverse process, the first isolator is closed then the
circuit breaker is closed and the circuit is reconnected. The picture below
shows the isolators in a disconnected state within a power substation. It can be
seen that it is a physical and mechanical system. And it can be operated
manually or it can be actuated automatically.
There are various kinds of isolators available in the market. Choice of electrical
isolators depends upon the requirement and application and based on the
placement in the system. Isolators based on Application can be classified into
four types.
Depending upon the position in the power system, the Isolators can further be
categorized into the following three types according to their placement in the
power system.
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Transfer bus side isolator: It directly connects to the transfer bus.
In a single break isolator, only one terminal connects and disconnects whereas
in a double break isolator both terminals at each side connect and disconnect
because the central terminal is moveable. In a pantograph type isolator, both
terminals at each side connect and disconnect only because of the forces of
stress or tension, and usually is no locking mechanism.
Isolators are generally used on both sides of the circuit breaker, this measure is
taken just to ensure extra safety and protection because in a power system
incoming and outgoing lines can have multiple sources of power, and
disconnecting one side is sometimes not enough. So, the isolator on both sides
of the circuit breaker allows essential replacement and services requirements
to be performed safely.
Bus Side Isolator: These are connected to the main buses in the substation.
Whenever there is a need for repair or replacement of any bus, they are
operated.
Lineside Isolator: These are connected between the line and any feeder. A
feeder is a line that carries power from the Substation to the distribution
system.
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Medium Voltage: Isolators for voltages between 11KV to 66KV come under
this type.
High Voltage: Isolators for voltages between 66KV to 330KV come under this
category and they have a high withstanding capacity.
A circuit breaker in which SF6 under pressure gas is used to extinguish the arc
is called SF6 circuit breaker. SF6 (sulphur hexafluoride) gas has excellent
dielectric, arc quenching, chemical and other physical properties which have
proved its superiority over other arc quenching mediums such as oil or air. The
SF6 circuit breaker is mainly divided into three types
The circuit breaker which used air and oil as an insulating medium, their arc
extinguishing force builds up was relatively slow after the movement of
contact separation. In the case of high voltage circuit breakers quick arc
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extinction properties are used which require less time for quick recovery,
voltage builds up. SF6 circuit breakers have good properties in this regards
compared to oil or air circuit breakers. So in high voltage up to 760 kV,
SF6 circuit breakers is used.
Construction of SF6 Circuit Breakers:
SF6 circuit breakers mainly consist of two parts, namely (a) the interrupter unit
and (b) the gas system.
Interrupter Unit – This unit consists of moving and fixed contacts comprising a
set of current-carrying parts and an arcing probe. It is connected to the SF 6 gas
reservoir. This unit consists slide vents in the moving contacts which permit the
high-pressure gas into the main tank.
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The closed circuit gas system is employed in SF 6 circuit breakers. The SF6 gas is
costly, so it is reclaimed after each operation. This unit consists low and high-
pressure chambers with a low-pressure alarm along with warning switches.
When the pressure of the gas is very low due to which the dielectric strength
of gases decrease and an arc quenching ability of the breakers is endangered,
then this system gives the warning alarm.
The SF6 gas absorbs the free electrons in the arc path and forms ions which do
not act as a charge carrier. These ions increase the dielectric strength of the
gas and hence the arc is extinguished. This process reduces the pressure of the
SF6 gas up to 3kg/cm^2 thus; it is stored in the low-pressure reservoir. This low-
pressure gas is pulled back to the high-pressure reservoir for re-use.
Now a day puffer piston pressure is used for generating arc quenching pressure
during an opening operation by mean of a piston attached to the moving
contacts.
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Advantage of SF6 circuit breaker:
SF6 circuit breakers have the following advantages over conventional breaker
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Vacuum Circuit Breaker:
The circuit breaker or CB that uses vacuum media mainly for arc quenching is
called a vacuum circuit breaker. The dielectric strength of the vacuum is much
better or has superior arc quenching properties as compared to other types of
medium. The vacuum amount usually ranges from 10-5 to 10-7 torr. Generally,
the vacuum is a force under atmospheric force wherever no gas is there. These
circuit breakers are suitable for medium voltage power distribution that ranges
from 22kV – 66 kV and are also used for protection and switching power
systems. These circuit breakers replace oil circuit breakers & SF6 circuit
breakers so these circuit breakers are necessary at incomers & interconnectors
within a network.
When an arc is initiated, it generates intense heat, light, and pressure. Arcs can
pose significant safety hazards, as they can cause damage to equipment, result
in electrical fires, and harm personnel. Arc quenching aims to interrupt or
extinguish the arc as quickly as possible to prevent these risk
The vacuum circuit breaker or VCB has two main phenomenal properties which
are discussed below.
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These two properties will make these circuit breakers very efficient, less
costly, less bulky, and much high service life with less maintenance.
This circuit breaker has a superior dielectric medium as compared to
other insulating media. So the vacuum is better as compared to other
media apart from SF6 & air which are used at high pressure.
Once an arc is opened by simply moving the contacts separately within a
vacuum, then an interruption will occur. So with the interruption of arc,
their dielectric strength will be increased up to thousands of times as
compared to other circuit breakers.
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Vacuum Circuit Breaker
Working:
The vacuum circuit breaker working principle is to separate the contact once
any fault occurs within the system & to extinguish the generated arc in the
vacuum throughout the operation. Once any fault takes place within the
system, then this vacuum circuit breaker simply releases its contact to separate
the system as quickly as possible.
In the operation of a circuit breaker, the arc can be generated due to the
ionization of metal vapors within the contacts. So this generated arc can be
stopped or extinguished as electrons, ions & metallic vapors which are reduced
within the contact surface to make a quick enhancement rate within the
vacuum dielectric strength.
The vacuum circuit breaker working mainly depends on the energy stored
mechanism within the closing spring. This spring can be prepared manually or
electrically & it is automatically charged after the CB operation. Lastly, the
tripping can be done once high voltage within the system is detected thus the
contact breaking is done to separate the system.
Busbar:
The bus bar's material composition and cross-sectional size determine the
maximum current it can safely carry. Busbars can have a cross-sectional area of
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as little as 10 square millimeters (0.016 sq. in), but electrical substations may
use metal tubes 50 millimeters (2.0 in) in diameter (2,000 square millimeters
(3.1 sq. in)) or more as busbars. Aluminum smelters use very large busbars to
carry tens of thousands of amperes to the electrochemical cells that produce
aluminum from molten salts.
Busbars are produced in a variety of shapes, including flat strips, solid bars and
rods, and are typically composed of copper, brass or aluminum as solid or
hollow tubes. Some of these shapes allow heat to dissipate more efficiently
due to their high surface area to cross-sectional area ratio. The skin effect
makes 50–60 Hz AC busbars more than about 8 millimeters (0.31 in) thickness
inefficient, so hollow or flat shapes are prevalent in higher-current
applications. A hollow section also has higher stiffness than a solid rod of
equivalent current-carrying capacity, which allows a greater span between
busbar supports in outdoor electrical switchyards.
A busbar must be sufficiently rigid to support its own weight, and forces
imposed by mechanical vibration and possibly earthquakes, as well as
accumulated precipitation in outdoor exposures. In addition, thermal
expansion from temperature changes induced by ohmic heating and ambient
temperature variations, and magnetic forces induced by large currents, must
be considered. To address these concerns, flexible bus bars, typically a
sandwich of thin conductor layers, were developed. They require a structural
frame or cabinet for their installation.
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110 kV busbars in electrical substations
Flexible busbar
Rigid busbar
Capacitor Bank:
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bank will increase the capacity of energy that can be stored on a single
device.
Typical Applications:
• Shunt Capacitor:
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noise bypass applications, capacitors are used to redirect high-frequency
noise to ground before it can propagate throughout the system, but
especially to the load. Shunt capacitor banks are used to improve the
quality of the electrical supply and thus improve the efficiency of the
power systems.
• Power-Factor Correction:
• Store Energy:
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As the equations reveals, another way to increase the capacitance is to
increase the dielectric strength. The “k” element is the relative
permittivity of the dielectric material between the plates. For free space,
“k” equals unity or one. For all other media, “k” is greater than one. Film
and electrolyte capacitors are typical examples of devices suited to these
applications.
2. Circuit Breakers: They are automatic switches that can interrupt the
flow of electricity in the event of a fault or abnormal condition.
6. Alarms and Indicators: Visual and audible alarms help alert operators to
any abnormal conditions in the power system.
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Keep in mind that the specific features and design of a 132KV relay control
panel can vary significantly based on the manufacturer, application, and
industry standards. To get precise and up-to-date information, I
recommend reaching out to specific manufacturers or consulting electrical
engineering professionals with expertise in substation design and control
systems.
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