Half-way review of what you should now understand or be able to do

Be able to apply the op amp Golden rules to simple circuits:

inverting amp, non-inverting amp, low-pass filter/integrator, high-pass filter/differentiator, current-to-voltage converter, voltage follower (slides 13-19, 41,44)

Know that how to derive the gain, as a function of frequency, of the amplifiers covered
particularly for low-pass and high-pass filters (41,44)

Be able to express and interpret dB Be able to draw bode plots and analyse op amp circuits using Bode plots (41-46) Appreciate that the analogy between electrical circuits and electromechanical and electrothermal systems enables the application of Bode plots to transducers (sensors and actuators) (62-77) To be able to draw the Bode plot of transducer with a low-pass filter characteristic by use of its time constant in response to a step input.(7) Be able to include the response of a sensor with a low-pass filter characteristic into a system Bode plot (60-61)

78

What were going to cover in the remainder of the course Amplifier circuits for conditioning the output of sensors Sensors for measuring
especially for interfacing to a computer mechanical displacements temperature pressure

Further relating the temporal transfer function of a sensor/amplifier to its frequency response
impulse response convolution

79

Transducers and sensors Why do we need transducers?

Convert Into an electrical signal Entertainment etc.
Temperature, pressure, humidity, B-field, sound, strain, acceleration

Objectively record a signal Control of machinery

car engine management aircraft controls domestic appliances scientific experiments

microphones/loudspeakers tape recorders, CD players cameras, television optical telecommunications

80

 Basic principles

What and how do we sense/transduce

measure a physical parameter that changes with the mesurand (i.e the thing to be measured)
e.g. temperature dependent resistors

magnetic generation of electricity

Electrostatic generation of electricity optical generation

piezoelectric effect optical-fibre communications CD player camera light meter O2 sensor

microphones (movement to emf) tape heads (magnetic field to emf) gramophone pickups (stylus movement to emf)

Chemical generation

81

What do we want to do with the signal ?

boost the signal to a level significantly above that of noise pick up - normally ~ 1V to drive an actuator to drive a device such as ADC to a significant fraction of full-scale

82

 Modern cars employ engine management computers to optimise engine performance. The outputs from a variety of sensors are converted into voltages and read by a computer that calculates optimum operating conditions. The interface to the computer depends on the sensor principle And frequency-characteristics
low-pass, differentiator etc voltage, current source or resistor
Airflow Sensor Inlet air temperature Knock sensor Exhaust oxygen sensor Accelerator Position Sensor Oil and coolant temperature Sensors Voltage Sensor for engine load Exhaust Pressure Sensor Engine Speed Sensor
83

Example: engine management

Example application: feedback control in a fuel injection

Oxygen sensor informs computer whether engine is running too rich or too lean Calculates correction to fuel conc. Applies correction to fuel/air mixture Sensor outputs conditioned for input to computer

Engine management computer

Fuel injection system

ol Feedback contr of fuel/air ratio

O2

V nal~0.45 g s en s o r s i
84

Match transducer to parameter to output

CD player pickup Temperature Position sensor Knock sensor Microphone Photodiode Potentiometer Thermister mAmps kW mVolts kW

Typical ADC or control input

Volts Amps W
85

 In most electrical sensors an electrical parameter varies relation in proportion to the parameter measured
output voltage output current resistance capacitance inductance

Signal conditioning

Covered here Not covered here

Prior to reading into a computer or for transmission this parameter is converted to a voltage and filtered For example- a record player (gramophone) pickup
This is done using op amplifies as previously discussed The process is called signal conditioning

the output is and amplified from a peak value of few mV to 1V the pickup acts as a differentiator - to give a flat frequency response the signal is also passed through an op amp integrator.
86

A brief aside about analogue to digital converters (ADCs)

Important parameters are

resolution or accuracy with which an analogue input voltage is converted into an output number.
For an n-bit ADC the input voltage is represented by a number between 2n-1 representing full-scale where n is the number of bits typical resolutions include 8, 12, 16 bits which represent voltages with 255, 4096 or 65,532 levels respectively For optimum use of the resolution, the output of the signal conditioning should match the input voltage range to that of the ADC
0 representing zero volts

The sampling frequency at which the input voltage is converted into numbers

e.g 0 to +5V

This should be at least twice the highest frequency present in the signal

87

 ADCs are used to convert an analogue input voltage into a number that can be interpreted as a physical parameter by a computer.
0111 0110 0100 0101 0011 0010 0001 0000 1111 1110 1100 1010 1101 1011 1001 0000 0110 0111 0011 1100 1001 1011

A brief aside about ADCs

Numbers passed from ADC to computer to represent analogue voltage

88

For example: i.e. Read a number into an engine management computer that tells the computer what the angle of the throttle is.
Rotary potentiometer

ADC

Engine management computer

Digital number

Voltage Throttle a throttle angle

a throttle angle

89

Linear and rotational position measurement For example a potentiometer

voltage is a fraction of supply voltage is typically a few V small gain required may require buffering with an amplifier to prevent sensitivity to load impedance and long cables
i.e. to make into voltage source

Vs

Vs
R1 Vo = Vs R2 + R1 x = Vs l

Ro =

R2 R1

R2 R1 R2 + R1

Vo ' =

Rf Ri

Vo

l x

Ro ' ~ 0

Potentiometer

Ri

Rf
90

Measurement techniques
Resistance varies in relation to a parameter use an amplifier to buffer against lower load impedances
thermisters (temperature) potentiometers (position)

VS
R1 + sensor RS
Vo

R f Rs Vo = 1 + R + R VS Ri 1 S
Vo = Rf Rs VS Ri R1 + RS

Ri

Rf

Vo =

Rf Ri

VS

91

 Many sensors vary their electrical characteristic by a small fraction over the range over which they are used A differential amplifier can help to interface this to an ADC (or other device) to give a large fractional change
Wheatstone bridge thermister - resistance varies by 4%/C temperature IC varies by 1mA/K (i.e. 290-300 K = 3% change in i)

Measurement of small fractional changes

R3 R3 Rs R1
+ -

R1 Vo
+

R2 RS R2

x1

Vo' = Vo -

R2 Vs R1 + R2

92

For example:an electronic medical thermometer Employs a thermister to measure temperature in range 35-40 C.
< 0.1 C sensitivity required 8-bit ADC Thermister RS=10kW at 35 C Temperature coefficient
v0 vmax
0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 35 36 37 38 39 temperature 40 128 255

Approximately linear 35 C to 40 C Voltage at 40 C:

12166 Vmax = = 0.549VS 12166 + 10000 Vmin = 0.5

4% per C At 40 C RS=10k x 1.045=12.166kW

VS

Vmax=0.549V
Vo

10 k sensor

Vref

ADC RS
Vo = Rs VS R1 + RS
93

Variation is 0.049/0.549=9%

9% of ADC dynamic range is used 23 counts for 5 C =0.22 C/count

ADC output

 only levels 0-232 are unused:

v0 vmax

250 245 240 0.5 35

For this application

0.22
36 37 38 39 temperature
VS

235 40

Thermister voltage can be applied directly to ADC without amplification But the poor use of the ADC dynamic range means that the required resolution (0.1 C ) is not achieved...

voltage across thermister is high ADC has high input impedance ADC is close to thermister

10 k
Vo

ADC sensor R S
Vo = Rs VS R1 + RS
94

ADC output

Or in graphical format

0.549

255

 A solution is to subtract the bias voltage with a differential amplifier (slide 93) The voltage range is unchanged, but the voltage at the ADC input at the minimum temperature of 35 C is now zero volts Using a differential amplifier with a gain of 10 with a Vref of 0.5V is now 0.49V, making good use of the ADC dynamic range VS 10k 10k Vo VS/2 RS 10k 0.5VS + x10

Vo

Vref

Vo'

ADC

RS (T ) 1 = 10 4 - VS 10 + R (T ) 2 S Vmin = 0 Vmax = 0.49VS

95

0.5 0.4 0.3

255

128 0.2 0.1 0 35 36 37 38 temperature 39 40

0.023 10

0.02
5

0 35 35.1 35.2 35.3 temperature 35.4

0 35.5
96

ADC output

v0 vmax

ADC output

v0 vmax

 Many sensors vary resistance in relation to a parameter

temperature position
thermister

Recap on sensors

Use in a potential divider to convert to voltage A Wheatstone Bridge and differential amplifier increases fractional change in voltage But one should take care
removes voltage offset so that voltage is zero at a specific temperature a potential divider is effected by
variations in supply voltage load impedance

potentiometer

97

 Voltage sources

Ideal sources

Output voltage is independent of load current All real sources have a finite output impedance
Vo=Vs-iRi

a.k.a. internal resistance when the load draws a current i a voltage iRi is dropped across Ri To be a voltage source require RL>>Ro

Examples

amplifiers, batteries feeding low impedances

real transducer voltage sources feeding high impedance op-amps Ro Vo RL

98

good hi-fi amp Ro<0.1W cf loudspeakers with ZL~8W

VS

 Current sources

Ideal sources

output current independent of load Voltage developed across the load is

V = iout Ro || RL = io Ro RL Ro + RL

so the current through the load is

iload = Ro V = iout Rl Ro + Rl

and hence for the current to be independent of load (i.e. a current source) we require RL <<Ro
for example, the virtual earth of a current-to-voltage convertor

io Ro RL

99

 For example

Signal conditioning for Voltage source

a magnetic read head microphones O2 sensor Ro VS Ri

output voltages of mV (electrostatic) mV (moving coil) gains of 100s-1000s to reach levels of 1 volt used for connecting equipment output ~0.45 V

Rwires +

Vo

Vo = -

Rf Ri

VS

Rf

Rf VS Vo = 1 + Ri
R f Ri Vo = 1 + Ri Ro + Rwires + Ri VS

For example

Rf=100kW, Ri=100W =>G=1001, amplifier microphone mV output to 1V line level 741 with G.BW product ~106?

100

 A photodiode

Signal conditioning for current source

electrons are produced by incoming photons these charge the photodiode capacitance the capacitor discharges through the parallel combination of the photodiode shunt resistance and amplifier input resistance
RC time constant low-pass filter with knee frequency 1/2pRC

Rf i Cd Rd Rwires + Vo=-iRf

101

 For example

a digital fibre-optic receiver that produces TTL (5 volt) pulses in response to light pulses a light pulse generates a current of 1 mA for a logical one photodiode has a capacitance of 10 pF drives a remote transresistance amplifier through a 10m length 5 of cable with 100W resistance R = = 5M
f

10 - 6 what is Rf ? 1 f knee = = 159MHz what is the knee frequency ? -11 2p .10 .100 How might the knee frequency be increased ?

Rf
1 mA 10 pF

Rwires=100 Vo=-iRf +

102

 Piezoelectric materials produce a polarisation in response to pressure

Vice versa e.g. PZT (Lead Zirconate Titanate)

Current source:piezoelectric sensor

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + V

Materials are insulators, but have a capacitance Equivalent circuit is a current source driving a high-pass filter with a time constant t=RLC... For low frequency sensitivity RL should be as large as possible
no d.c. sensitivity detect a.c. stress

C RL Ri
Q Rf 1 + C Ri

Vo
Q C

V=

Rf

Vo =

103

piezoelectric sensor as a high-pass filter

For example
for a knock sensor C~1000 pF Require sensitivity > 1kHz 1/(2p RLC)=1 kHz
V= Q C

1 = 1000 2pRL C RL = 2p 1000 10 1

-9

= 159k

Q V = e RC C
t

At 50 Hz engine frequency relative response is

f engine f knock = 50 1 1 1 = = 1000 20 2 10
1 t

= -6 - 20dB = -26dB

104

A Current source B Voltage source C Resistance b

Function Accelerator position Knock sensor Oil temperature Air intake temperature Exhaust oxygen concentration Exhaust particulates (smoke) device Potentiometer Piezoelectric Thermister Hot wire anemometer Oxygen sensor LED & photodiode

ADC

ADC

Ri

Rf
Rf

RL

1 flat 2 lowpass 3 high pass

Ri Rf

c +
ADC

d
output type

ADC

Resistive

Resistive current resistive voltage

signal Filter conditioning function Flat

a,d c,b a a a b

3 High 2 low 2 low 2 low 2 low

105

current

 Know how to interface the following sensor types to a voltage input

voltage source current source
microphone amplifier output temperature IC photodiode piezoelectric sensor thermister potentiometer

What you should now know about sensors

Parameter-sensitive resistor

Determine whether a sensor is low-pass or high-pass from

background knowledge/common sense its equivalent circuit determine its knee frequency (a.k.a. -3dB point, cut-off, pole) from its time constant draw a bode plot for high-pass and low-pass sensors and incorporate these into a Bode plot for a complete system
106

 Differential equations to describe op-amps and transducers How an ADC works

but you should appreciate the need to optimise the use of its dynamic range and thet, for example, an 8-bit ADC represents an input voltage as a number between 0 and 255, that is as one of 28=256 levels

107

 Measurement of frequency response

swept sine wave noise impulse

Qualitative description of the relationship between time-domain and frequency domain Concept of a Linear Time Invariant system Characterisation of a LTI by its impulse response Convolution

108

The following slides include video and sound clips

to view the presentation with animations and sounds click view then slide show or the side show icon bottom left click the loudspeaker icons or movies at any time to hear the sound or to make the movie move

109

A single frequency sinusoid

500Hz

amplitude

0.5

- 0.5 -1
1 0.5 0

power

dB

10 0 - 10 - 20 - 30 - 40 0.2 10 0 - 10 - 20 - 30 - 40 0.2 10 0 - 10 - 20 - 30 - 40 0.2 0.5 1 frequency 2 kHz 5

amplitude

2 1000Hz 8 4 6 milliseconds

10

- 0.5 -1
1 0.5 0

amplitude

2 2000Hz 4 6 8 milliseconds

10

power

dB

0.5 1 frequency

2 kHz

- 0.5 -1

2 4 6 8 milliseconds

10

power

dB

0.5 1 frequency

2 kHz

5
110

Click icon to hear sound

Low-pass filter

Amplitude (dB) Phase (radians)

111

High-pass filter
+

Amplitude (dB) Phase (radians)

112

Two/three frequency components

V500+V 1000
dB

500 Hz
10 0 - 10 - 20 - 30 - 40 0.2 0.5 1 frequency 2 kHz 5

volts

-1 -2

2 3 msecs

V500+V 1000+V 2000 2 1 0 -1 -2 0 1 2 3 msecs 4 5

power power dB

10 0 - 10 - 20 - 30 - 40 0.2 0.5 1 frequency 2 kHz 5

113

volts

Three low-pass filtered frequency components

2 1 0 -1 -2 V500 +V1000+V2000 2
10 0 - 10 - 20 - 30 - 40

Amplitude (dB) Phase (radians)

3 tones with flat response

dB power

volts

1 V500 4

2 1 0 -1 -2

2 3 4 5 msecs V + 1000 +V2000 2

dB

0.2

20 dB/decade 6 dB/octave
10 0 - 10 - 20 - 30 - 40 0.2 0.5 1 frequency

0.5 1 frequency

2 kHz

volts

power

2 3 msecs

2 kHz

5
114

 Combine many frequencies in random phase:

1 0.5 0 - 0.5 -1

Volts

Resultant:
10 5 0 -5 - 10

-4

-2

0 msec

Volts

4 msec

10
115

Amplitude (dB) Phase (radians)

+
10
10 2p

Volts

- 10
10

-5
0 2 4 6 msec 8 10

power

- 10 - 20
0.1 0.2 0.5 1 frequency 10 2 5 kHz 10

-p

-2 p
2p

dB

Volts

- 10

-5
0 2 4 6 msec 8 10

power

- 10 - 20
0.1 0.2 0.5 1 frequency 2 5 kHz 10

-p

-2 p
116

phase

phase

dB

Amplitude (dB) Phase (radians)

+
10
10 2p

dB

Volts

- 10

-5
0 2 4 6 msec 8 10

power

- 10 - 20
0.1 0.2 0.5 1 frequency 10 2 5 kHz 10

-p

-2 p
2p

10

Volts

power

- 10

-5
0 2 4 6 msec 8 10

- 10 - 20
0.1 0.2 0.5 1 frequency 2 5 kHz 10

-p

-2 p
117

phase

dB

phase

Combine all frequencies in phase:

1 0.5 0 - 0.5 -1

Volts

1 2 f max
-1 - 0.5

f max = 10kHz

At time t=0 all components add in phase to produce a big pulse

0 msec

0.5

At all other times frequency components, on average, tend to cancel

Volts
1 f max
-1 - 0.5

The width of the pulse is approximately equal to 1/f max If fmax = 1 kHz, the pulse is 1 msec long
118

0 msec

0.5

The delta function

Thus as the maximum frequency gets higher, the width of the pulse get narrower In the limit, an infinitely narrower pulse can be obtained by adding all frequency components together, in phase and with equal amplitude between DC and infinity Instead of sweeping the input frequency to measure the frequency response, we can simply apply a pulse
as long as we know how to understand the output
10

Amplitude (dB) Phase (radians)

2p

Volts

power

- 10 - 20
0.1 0.2 0.5 1 frequency 2 5 kHz 10

-p

-4

-2

0 msec

-2 p

119

phase

dB

Application-the impulse response

+

Volts
-4
10

-2

0 msec

4
2p
10

Amplitude (dB) Phase (radians)

power se B pha d
0

power

- 10 - 20
0.1 0.2 0.5 1 frequency 2 5 kHz 10

-p

- 10 - 20
0.1 0.2 0.5 1 frequency 2 5 kHz 10

-2 p

-p

-2 p

We know what the frequency response of the output looks like How does the output pulse, that is, the impulse response, look?
120

phase

2p

dB

 When the single-frequency components at the output are summed the amplitude and phase have been modified. Considering first the amplitude reduction of the high-frequency components:
1 0.5 0 - 0.5 -1

Application-the impulse response-amplitude effect

Volts

-1

- 0.5

When all components are summed the impulse is distorted:

Volts

0 msec

0.5

-1

- 0.5

0 msec

0.5

1
121

Application-the impulse response-phase effect

High frequency components suffer a phase shift of p There is no phase shift for low-frequency components

The frequency components thus add as follows

1 0.5 0 - 0.5 -1

(of course, because it is an inverting low-pass amplifier, both low- and high- frequency terms suffer an additional p phase shift that is neglected below)

Volts

-1

- 0.5

0 msec

0.5

Volts
-1

- 0.5

0 msec

0.5

1
122

 High frequency components suffer a both (relative) amplitude reduction and (relative) phase shift of up to p/2
1 0.5 0 - 0.5 -1

Application-the impulse response-simultaneous amplitude and phase effect

Volts

-1

- 0.5

0 msec

0.5

-1

- 0.5

0 msec

e at an d p unds re x for So 10 slowed on pretati 0.5 sier inter1 ea

Thus, the (complex) frequency response of the low-pass filter has distorted the input pulse as shown above Can we obtain the frequency response back from the impulse response ?
123

Volts

Obtaining the frequency response from the impulse response There is an algorithm that tells us the amplitude and phase with which we need to add up the frequency components to give us the pulse we Amplitude (dB) observe.
- 10 - 20
0.1 0.2 0.5 1 frequency 2 5 kHz 10

The amplitude and phase of these components relative to the input is the frequency response (transfer function) of our filter
Volts

power

-p

-2 p

Fourier transform

-1

- 0.5

0 msec

0.5

1
124

phase

The algorithm is called a Fourier transform more about that next year

10

2 Phase (radians)p

dB

And for the inverting high-pass filter Low-frequencies are attenuated and advanced by p/2
1 0.5 0 - 0.5 -1

Volts

-1

- 0.5

0 msec

0.5

Volts
-1

10

dB

power

- 10 - 20
0.1 0.2 0.5 1 frequency 2 5 kHz 10

-p

-2 p

phase

Amplitude (dB) Phase (radians)

- 0.5
p

2p

0 msec

0.5

Fourier transform

d p e at an e ounds r 0x for S 1 slowed on pretati er s ie r in t ea

125

The impulse response So far we have used an impulse of the form

Volts

Provided it is short (much shorter than the impulse response), the result is identical

Volts

This is what is obtained from summing many sinusoids of equal amplitude, but with a finite maximum frequency As will be seen, it is more (and appropriate) to consider a rectangle impulse
time
126

time

 What does the output of a low-pass or highpass filter look like when you apply a waveform that is neither a sine wave or an impulse ?

volts

The impulse response is the response to an impulse, what does it say about the response to a more typical signal ?

time

We can approximate any signal as a sum of many impulses: In the limit of an infinitely narrow pulse the approximation becomes perfect

volts

time

volts

time
127

 To obtain the response of a circuit to an arbitrary signal we add up the impulse responses due to the individual impulses
making sure we get the right timing and the right amplitude

Input is a sum of impulses

volts

time

Response to impulse

For simplicity, let us assume the impulse response looks like a smooth bell-shaped curve This process is called convolution:

volts

time

Output is a sum of impulse responses

volts

time

128

Example applications

input
volts volts

Impulse response
volts

Output

time

time

time

Thus we have a circuit with a bell-shaped impulse response, we apply a pulse train at the output convolution of the pulse train with impulse response yields the output: a sequence of impulse responses We can represent this as

output = input * impulse response

Convolution operator
129

input

* *

Impulse response

output

= =

* *

=
130

=
131

 From page 123, the true impulse response of a low-pass filter has the form

Impulse response of a low-pass filter

Application convolution shows that a step input to a low-pass filter has the expected charging capacitor form - believe me!

There is an easy way to calculate this convolution - but this is for next year This convolution is presented only for completeness
132

 We have tacitly throughout the course that if we apply two inputs to an amplifier, the output is simply the sum of the two multiplied by the frequency response
or equivalently v(t) is convolved with the impulse response:

v1(w)+v2(w)

G(w)

G(w) (v1(w) + G(w) v2(w)

That is, that they are linear or (suppressing the w dependence for clarity): We have also assumed that the frequency response (and the equivalent impulse response) do not vary with time These systems are called Linear Time Invariant (LTI)

G v1 + v2 = Gv1 + Gv2

we used the same impulse response for at all points of our time-varying voltage

h t = h t +T

133

Examples of LTI systems Amplifiers Loudspeakers and microphones Springs Imaging devices

Examples of non-LTI systems Any system that produces distortion

the above devices in saturation magnetic materials (think of B-H curve) Auditory perception (an impulse response does not sound the same as white noise, even though they have the same frequency content - only the phase is different)
134

 Because LTI systems of many different types can be represented by the same mathematical formula It is convenient in analysis of LTI systems to represent a LTI component by a box representing the function and neglect the physical implementation (i.e. whether it is an electronic circuit, a chemical reaction, mechanical etc)
e.g. an electronic low-pass filter and a thermometer

135

Go to 78 Go to 106
apply a symmetrical impulse response to some simple inputs demonstrate an understanding of the concept of an LTI
129-131

136