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Vectors and The Geometry of Space
Vectors and The Geometry of Space
Vectors
!
§ Putting an arrow above the letter ( v )
!
v
VECTORS
§ We indicate!this
!" by
writing v = AB.
VECTORS
!!!"
Notice that the vector u = CD has the same
length and the same direction as v even
though it is in a different position.
§ We say u and v are equivalent (or equal)
and write
u = v.
ZERO VECTOR
§ If c = 0 or v = 0, then cv = 0.
SCALAR MULTIPLICATION
u – v = u + (–v)
SUBTRACTING VECTORS
Alternatively, since v + (u – v) = u,
the vector u – v, when added to v,
gives u.
SUBTRACTING VECTORS
Given the points A(x1, y1, z1) and B(x2, y2, z2),
!!"
the vector a with representation AB is:
!!"
§ By Equation 1, the vector corresponding to AB
is:
a = ‹–2 –2, 1 – (–3), 1 – 4› = ‹–4, 4, –3›
LENGTH OF VECTOR
| a |= a + a
2
1
2
2
LENGTH OF 3-D VECTOR
| a |= a + a + a
2
1
2
2
2
3
ALGEBRAIC VECTORS
a – b = ‹a 1 – b 1 , a 2 – b 2 ›
ca = ‹ca1, ca2›
3-D ALGEBRAIC VECTORS
〈 a1 , a2 , a3 〉 + 〈b1 , b2 , b3 〉 = 〈 a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 , a3 + b3 〉
〈 a1 , a2 , a3 〉 − 〈b1 , b2 , b3 〉 = 〈 a1 − b1 , a2 − b2 , a3 − b3 〉
|a| = 4 + 0 + 3
2 2 2
= 25
=5
ALGEBRAIC VECTORS Example 4
a + b = 〈 4, 0, 3〉 + 〈−2, 1, 5〉
= 〈 4 + ( − 2), 0 + 1, 3 + 5〉
= 〈 2, 1, 8〉
ALGEBRAIC VECTORS Example 4
a − b = 〈 4, 0, 3〉 − 〈−2, 1, 5〉
= 〈 4 − ( − 2), 0 − 1, 3 − 5〉
= 〈6, −1, −2〉
ALGEBRAIC VECTORS Example 4
3b = 3〈−2, 1, 5〉
= 〈3(−2), 3(1), 3(5)〉
= 〈−6, 3, 15〉
ALGEBRAIC VECTORS Example 4
2a + 5b = 2〈 4, 0, 3〉 + 5〈−2, 1, 5〉
= 〈8, 0, 6〉 + 〈−10, 5, 25〉
= 〈−2, 5, 31〉
COMPONENTS
We denote:
1. a + b = b + a 2. a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
3. a + 0 = a 4. a + ( − a) = 0
5. c(a + b) = ca + cb 6. (c + d )a = ca + da
7. (cd )a = c(da) 8. 1a = a
PROPERTIES OF VECTORS
Let i = ‹1, 0, 0›
j = ‹0, 1, 0›
k = ‹0, 0, 1›
These vectors i, j, and k are called
the standard basis vectors.
Similarly, in
two dimensions,
we define:
i = ‹1, 0›
j = ‹0, 1›
STANDARD BASIS VECTORS
a = 〈 a1 , a2 , a3 〉
= 〈 a1 , 0, 0〉 + 〈 0, a2 , 0〉 + 〈 0, 0, a3 〉
= a1 〈1, 0, 0〉 + a2 〈0,1, 0〉 + a3 〈 0, 0,1〉
STANDARD BASIS VECTORS Equation 2
For instance,
‹1, –2, 6› = i – 2j + 6k
COMPONENTS
If a = i + 2j – 3k and b = 4i + 7k,
express the vector 2a + 3b in terms
of i, j, and k.
COMPONENTS Example 5
1 a
u= a=
|a| |a|
UNIT VECTORS
§ Also, 1
| u |=| ca |=| c || a |= | a |= 1
|a|
UNIT VECTORS Example 6
| 2i − j − 2k |= 2 + (−1) + (−2)
2 2 2
= 9 =3
§ So, the unit vector with the same direction is:
1
3 (2i − j − 2k ) = 23 i − 13 j − 32 k
VECTORS AND THE GEOMETRY OF SPACE
a • b = a 1b 1 + a 2b 2 + a 3b 3
DOT PRODUCT
1. a ⋅ a =|a|
2
2. a ⋅ b = b ⋅ a
3. a ⋅ (b + c) = a ⋅ b + a ⋅ c
4. (ca) ⋅ b = c(a ⋅ b) = a ⋅ (cb)
5. 0 ⋅ a = 0
Scalar 0
Vector 0
DOT PRODUCT PROPERTIES
a·a
= a1 + a2 + a3
2 2 2
= |a|2
DOT PRODUCT PROPERTY 3 Proof
a • (b + c)
= ‹a1, a2, a3› · ‹b1 + c1, b2 + c2, b3 + c3›
= a1(b1 + c1) + a2(b2 + c2) + a3(b3 + c3)
= a1b1 + a1c1 + a2b2 + a2c2 + a3b3 + a3c3
= (a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3) + (a1c1 + a2c2 + a3c3)
=a·b+a·c
GEOMETRIC INTERPRETATION
a · b = |a||b| cos θ
DOT PRODUCT—DEFINITION Proof—Equation 4
However,
|OA| = |a|
|OB| = |b|
|AB| = |a – b|
DOT PRODUCT—DEFINITION Proof—Equation 5
§ Thus,
–2a · b = –2|a||b| cos θ
or
a · b = |a||b| cos θ
DOT PRODUCT Example 2
a · b = |a||b| cos(π/3)
=4·6·½
= 12
NONZERO VECTORS Corollary 6
The formula in Theorem 3 also enables us to find the
angle between two vectors.
| a |= 2 + 2 + (−1) = 3
2 2 2
and
| b |= 5 + (−3) + 2 = 38
2 2 2
Also,
a · b = 2(5) + 2(–3) +(–1)(2) = 2
NONZERO VECTORS Example 3
a ⋅b 2
cos θ = =
| a || b | 3 38
§ So, the angle between a and b is:
⎛ 2 ⎞
θ = cos ⎜
−1
⎟ ≈ 1.46 (or 84 )
o
⎝ 3 38 ⎠
ORTHOGONAL VECTORS
a · b = |a||b| cos(π/2) = 0
a·b=0
ORTHOGONAL VECTORS Example 4
a · b = |a||b|
DOT PRODUCT
a · b = –|a| |b|
DIRECTION ANGLES
a⋅i a1
cos α = =
| a || i | | a |
DIRECTION ANGLES & COSINES
a2 a3
cos β = cos γ =
|a| |a|
DIRECTION ANGLES & COSINES Equation 10
Therefore,
1
a = cos α , cos β , cos γ
|a|
§ | a |= 12 + 22 + 32 = 14
§ So, Equations 8 and 9 give:
1 2 3
cos α = cos β = cos γ =
14 14 14
DIRECTION ANGLES & COSINES Example 5
§ Therefore,
⎛ 1 ⎞
α = cos ⎜
−1
⎟ ≈ 74°
⎝ 14 ⎠
−1 ⎛ 2 ⎞
β = cos ⎜ ⎟ ≈ 58°
⎝ 14 ⎠
⎛ 3 ⎞
γ = cos ⎜
−1
⎟ ≈ 37°
⎝ 14 ⎠
PROJECTIONS
!!!" !!"
The figure shows representations PQ and PR
of two vectors a and b with the same initial
point P.
PROJECTIONS
The equation
a · b = |a||b| cos θ = |a|(|b| cos θ)
shows that:
Since
a ⋅b a
| b | cos θ = = ⋅b
|a| |a|
Since
| a |= (−2) + 3 + 1 = 14
2 2 2
3 a 3
proja b = = a
14 | a | 14
3 9 3
= − , ,
7 14 14
VECTORS AND THE GEOMETRY OF SPACE
a b
= ad − bc
c d
§ For example,
2 1
= 2(4) − 1(−6) = 14
−6 4
DETERMINANT OF ORDER 3 Equation 2
a1 a2 a3
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
b1 b2 b3 = a1 − a2 + a3
c2 c3 c1 c3 c1 c2
c1 c2 c3
DETERMINANT OF ORDER 3
a1 a2 a3
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
b1 b2 b3 = a1 − a2 + a3
c2 c3 c1 c3 c1 c2
c1 c2 c3
Observe that:
§ Each term on the right side of Equation 2 involves
a number ai in the first row of the determinant.
§ This is multiplied by the second-order determinant
obtained from the left side by deleting the row and
column in which it appears.
DETERMINANT OF ORDER 3
a1 a2 a3
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
b1 b2 b3 = a1 − a2 + a3
c2 c3 c1 c3 c1 c2
c1 c2 c3
For example,
1 2 −1
0 1 3 1 3 0
3 0 1 =1 −2 + (−1)
4 2 −5 2 −5 4
−5 4 2
= 1(0 − 4) − 2(6 + 5) + (−1)(12 − 0)
= −38
CROSS PRODUCT
a2 a3 a1 a3 a1 a2
a×b = i− j+ k
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
CROSS PRODUCT Equation 4
i j k
a × b = a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3
CROSS PRODUCT
i j k
a×b = 1 3 4
2 7 −5
3 4 1 4 1 3
= i− j+ k
7 −5 2 −5 2 7
= (−15 − 28)i − (−5 − 8) j + (7 − 6)k
= −43i + 13j + k
CROSS PRODUCT Example 2
(a × b) ⋅ a
a2 a3 a1 a3 a1 a2
= a1 − a2 + a3
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
= a1 (a2b3 − a3b2 ) − a2 (a1b3 − a3b1 ) + a3 (a1b2 − a2b1 )
= a1a2b3 − a1b2 a3 − a1a2b3 + b1a2 a3 + a1b2 a3 − b1a2 a3
=0
CROSS PRODUCT Proof
|a x b| = |a||b| sin θ
CROSS PRODUCT Proof
= |a|2|b|2 – (a . b)2
= |a|2|b|2 – |a|2|b|2 cos2θ [Th. 3 in Dot Product]
= |a|2|b|2 (1 – cos2θ)
= |a|2|b|2 sin2θ
Remark: |a x b|2= |a|2|b|2 – |a|2|b|2 cos2θ [Lagrange Identity]
CROSS PRODUCT Proof
0 ≤ θ ≤ π, we have:
|a x b| = |a||b| sin θ
CROSS PRODUCT
axb=0
CROSS PRODUCT Proof
!!"
PR = (1− 1)i + (−1− 4) j + (1− 6)k
= −5j − 5k
CROSS PRODUCT Example 3
i j k
!!!" !!"
PQ × PR = −3 1 −7
0 −5 −5
!!!" !!"
PQ × PR = (−40)2 + (−15)2 + 152 = 5 82
CROSS PRODUCT Example 4
j x i = -k k x j = -i i x k = -j
CROSS PRODUCT
Observe that:
ixj≠jxi
Also,
i x (i x j) = i x k = -j
However,
(i x i) x j = 0 x j = 0
3. a x (b + c) = a x b + a x c
CROSS PRODUCT PROPERTIES Theorem 8
4. (a + b) x c = a x c + b x c
5. a · (b x c) = (a x b) · c
Let
a = <a1, a2, a3>
b = <b1, b2, b3>
c = <c1, c2, c3>
CROSS PRODUCT PROPERTY 5 Proof—Equation 9
Then,
a · (b x c) = a1(b2c3 – b3c2) + a2(b3c1 – b1c3)
+ a3(b1c2 – b2c1)
= a1b2c3 – a1b3c2 + a2b3c1 – a2b1c3
+ a3b1c2 – a3b2c1
= (a2b3 – a3b2)c1 + (a3b1 – a1b3)c2
+ (a1b2 – a2b1)c3
=(a x b) · c
SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCT
a1 a2 a3
a ⋅ (b × c) = b1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3
SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCTS
V = Ah
= |b x c||a||cos θ|
= |a · (b x c)|
V = |a ·(b x c)|
COPLANAR VECTORS
are coplanar.
COPLANAR VECTORS Example 5
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