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Procedia Computer Science 207 (2022) 692–700

26th International Conference on Knowledge-Based and Intelligent Information & Engineering

26th International Conference on Knowledge-Based and Intelligent Information & Engineering
Systems (KES 2022)
Systems (KES 2022)
What can a line of sight tell us?
What can a line of sight tell us?
Working with a gantry crane at 50 m above ground level
Working with a gantry crane at 50 m above ground level
Jun Nakamuraaa*, Sanetake Nagayoshibb
Jun Nakamura *, Sanetake Nagayoshi
a
Chuo University, Higashinakanao 742-1 Hachioji-shi, Tokyo 192-0393, Japan
abShizuokaUniversity,Naka-ku Johoku 3-5-1, Hamamatsu-shi
Chuo University, Higashinakanao 742-1 Hachioji-shi, Tokyo432-8011,
192-0393,Japan
Japan
b
Shizuoka University,Naka-ku Johoku 3-5-1, Hamamatsu-shi 432-8011, Japan

Abstract
Abstract
With the support of gantry crane operators who load and unload containers between vessels and trailers, we visualized the gap in
Withline
the theofsupport
sight of gantry beginners
between crane operators who load and
and experienced unload containers
operators. The aim between vessels training
was to explore and trailers, we visualized
methods for skillsthe gap in
transfer.
Through
the line of ansight
analysis of eye-movement
between beginners and data, we found
experienced that the
operators. Theworking
aim wasenvironment at 50 mmethods
to explore training above ground
for skillslevel was
transfer.
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psychologically of eye-movement
oppressive, so the beginnersdata, had
we anfound that the gaze
imbalanced working
to theenvironment
vital parts at
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object. levelhand,
the other was
psychologically
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operators so thetobeginners
made efforts had an imbalanced
collect information by wideninggazetheirtogaze
therange.
vital parts of the object. On the other hand,
When it comes
experienced to training,
operators in a stressful
made efforts to collectenvironment,
information by toowidening
much inputtheirmay
gaze instead
range. lead to panic for beginners. Gradually
When it comes
expanding to training,
the scope in a stressful
of the inputs becomesenvironment,
important. Intooaddition,
much input may instead
beginners leadto tocarefully
also need panic for beginners.
imitate Gradually
the experienced
expandinginthe
operators scope on
focusing of objects,
the inputs becomes
so that important.
they may In addition,
truly grasp the skills. beginners also need to carefully imitate the experienced
operators in focusing on objects, so that they may truly grasp the skills.
© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.
© 2022 The Authors. Published by ELSEVIER B.V.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0)
This
© 2022is an open
The access Published
Authors. article under the CC BY-NC-ND
byofELSEVIER license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0)
B.V.committee
Peer-review under responsibility the scientific of the 26th International Conference on Knowledge-Based and
Peer-review
This is an under
open responsibility
access article of
under the
the scientific
CC committee
BY-NC-ND
Intelligent Information & Engineering Systems (KES 2022) of KES
license International
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0)
Peer-review
Keywords: under
A line responsibility
of sight; of the
Gantry crane; scientificanalysis
Comparative committee of KES International
Keywords: A line of sight; Gantry crane; Comparative analysis

1. Introduction
1. Introduction
High freight rates, caused by a worldwide container shortage, have led to a widespread disruption of logistic
High freight
networks [1]. Therates, caused
United by Conference
Nations a worldwideoncontainer
Trade andshortage, have (UNCTAD)
Development led to a widespread disruption
has reported of logistic
that if the current
networks [1]. The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) has reported that if the
surge in container freight rates continues, global import price and consumer price levels could increase by 11% current
and
surge in container freight rates continues, global import price and consumer price levels could increase by 11% and

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +81-90-2557-9800.

* E-mail jyulis.77f@g.chuo-u.ac.jp
address:author.
Corresponding Tel.: +81-90-2557-9800.
E-mail address: jyulis.77f@g.chuo-u.ac.jp
1877-0509 © 2022 The Authors. Published by ELSEVIER B.V.
This is an open
1877-0509 access
© 2022 Thearticle under
Authors. the CC BY-NC-ND
Published by ELSEVIERlicense
B.V.(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0)
Peer-review under
This is an open responsibility
access of the
article under the scientific
CC BY-NC-NDcommittee of KES
license International
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0)
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of KES International
1877-0509 © 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0)
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 26th International Conference on Knowledge-Based and Intelligent
Information & Engineering Systems (KES 2022)
10.1016/j.procs.2022.09.124
 Jun Nakamura et al. / Procedia Computer Science 207 (2022) 692–700 693
2 Author name / Procedia Computer Science 00 (2022) 000–000

1.5%, respectively, by 2023 [1]. In maritime transport, port congestion, offshore waiting for container vessels, and
transport delays have been occurring since November 2020 [2]. In this context, quick unloading and loading of
containers using gantry cranes is required in port operations. However, one wrong move in the operation could lead
to a major accident, as the empty container weighs 2 metric tons, while a loaded container weighs up to 30 metric
tons. Hence, this research was conducted in cooperation with the Fujiki Kigyo Corporation, which is in charge of
gantry crane operation at Minami Honmoku in the Port of Yokohama, the largest trading port in Japan. We
investigated the tacit knowledge of experienced operators, called “ganmen,” and the possibility of transferring their
knowledge and skills to beginners.
Kaizen cases at manufacturing lines require efforts to disassemble the work processes and shorten their tact time.
However, instead of the work processes, this paper focuses on the human-factor aspect using an empirical approach,
in particular the ganman’s line of sight.
Lifting and unloading containers from the cockpit of a gantry crane, located about 50 m above the ground,
involves multiple factors for decision-making when the material comes into the field of view, and it is important to
visualize the right object at the right time. The 20-foot container itself is 6,058 mm long, 2,438 mm wide, and 2,591
mm high. It weighs up to 30 metric tons or more when loaded. It would, therefore, be dangerous if it were to fall
onboard or on the ground, or if it were to collide with surrounding containers or workers. Therefore, the human
factor is a very important aspect of the operation, and the Ganman is under great psychological pressure, working at
a height.
The medium-term research goal was to visualize the tacit skills of gantry-crane operators in unloading and
loading containers, and to support the transfer of these skills. As a preliminary study, the authors analyzed and
discussed the characteristics of eye-measurement data of experienced operators, focusing on tasks that required the
most attention in container operation.
The following section describes the relationship between the m-SHEL model, an important frame for human
factors, and the working field of the gantry crane. Section 3 describes the stressful environment at 50 m above the
ground. Section 4 describes the experimental method; section 5 presents the results; section 6 analyzes and discusses
the results; and section 7 summarizes the results.

2. m-SHEL model and gantry crane working field

This paper uses a hypothesis-discovery approach, based on empirical on-site observations and eye measurement,
to investigate the effects of human factors. A discussion of previous studies on human factors follows.
The human factor relates to the boundary area between machines, devices, processing, environment, and human
beings [3]. Here, the human factor is presented in a simple model, the so-called SHEL model, which stands for
Software, Hardware, Environment, and Liveware.
If the boundary area between liveware and the remaining three factors does not work well, human errors may
occur. Therefore, a harmony in this boundary area is important. Software refers to procedures and rules, hardware
refers to machines and equipment under operation, and environment refers to temperature, humidity, lighting, and
work characteristics.
Liveware refers to the physical and psychological conditions of the operator. The m-SHEL model places the
human being at the center of the model to harmonize these factors. It also takes into account the organization and
management system required to successfully intermesh each factor with liveware.

What are the origins of risk for errors in gantry-crane operation? Let us consider this from the m-SHEL model
perspective. A gantry crane is shown in Figure 1.
694 Author name / Procedia
Jun Nakamura Computer
et al. / Procedia Science 00
Computer (2019)207
Science 000–000
(2022) 692–700 3

Fig. 1. Gantry crane [4]: a: Machine room (power receiving and transforming equipment, hoisting an electric motor, and traversing the electric
motor), b: Operation room, c: Trolley, d: Girder (traversing girder), e: High legs, f: Spreader (first picture); (b) second picture.

The gantry crane is operated by a single person, unlike the two pilots of an airplane. Therefore, this paper does
not cover liveware-liveware boundaries, such as the gap of experience between the captain and the copilot and their
harmony, including communication [5].

According to Mr. Kamakutsu, the most experienced ganman working at Fujiki Kigyo, the following factors are
involved in the work process.
 The position of the containers onboard.
 The number of containers stacked on the ship, as the ship used for the experiment could carry up to seven
containers.
 The direction and strength of the surrounding wind.
 The water depth of the container ship.
 The distance between the wharf and the ship, which is not constant due to the wind force.
 The motion of the containers, which are connected by wires that swing like a pendulum with the movement
of the crane.
 The inertia of the containers.
 The rotation of the containers.

These can be considered the “Environment” in the m-SHEL model. However, the boundary between the
environment and liveware is considered a major issue because environment is affected by the speeds at which the
crane is moved back and forth on the girder, and the wire is moved up and down.
As an example, the swaying of the container could affect liveware, where the risk of collision with the container
and its surroundings would increase a ganman’s sense of tension. In addition, the operation room is 50 m above the
ground and half of its floor is glassed-environment to increase visibility, which could create fear in the liveware. As
a result, various simulations and systems have been proposed to automate the work [6–9]. However, despite gradual
automation of the gantry crane operation, the final decision-making remains under human control.
Therefore, from the aspect of liveware, it is essential to understand the psychological state that leads to a
ganman’s decision-making. We used eye-gaze measurements to understand this psychological state.

3. Environment and stress at 50 m above ground

The ganman faces a variety of stressors. Wickens et al. classified the effects of stressors into direct and indirect
stressors [10]. The former are environmental stressors, such as lighting and temperature, which can change work
procedures and impact human information processing. The latter affect human information processing but have
indirect psychological impacts, such as anxiety and fear. This paper focuses on the latter.
 Jun Nakamura et al. / Procedia Computer Science 207 (2022) 692–700 695
4 Author name / Procedia Computer Science 00 (2022) 000–000

The amount of stress varies from person to person [11]. Experienced people are better able to deal with stress,
while it may be a significant hindrance for inexperienced people. We contrast beginners with more experienced
operators later in this paper. Of course, performance also varies with the level of experience.
However, when physiological arousal, such as changes in pulse rate and pupils, exceeds a certain level, even
experienced operators experience a rapid increase in stress. Performance drops from this point onwards, i.e., the
optimum level of arousal (OLA) point (Figure 2). This phenomenon is called the “Yerkes-Dodson Law” [12].

Fig. 2 The Yerkes-Dodson law (Yerkes & Dodson, 1908).

This model is similar to the Model of the Flow State proposed by Csikszentmihalyi [13] in the sense that the OLA
is a branching point. The Model of the Flow shows how the two axes of skill and challenge are balanced. Anxiety
and worry occurs when the difficulty level of a challenge exceeds the skill level, while boredom occurs when the
skill levels exceeds the difficulty of a challenge. When the area beyond the OLA is affected by stressors, i.e., the
sense of danger and sense of threat, there is attentional narrowing and lack of attention to the surrounding
information [14].
We believe that these phenomena would have been perceived with the same sense in the operating room 50 m
above ground level, where the footprint is glass. In particular, following the trajectory of the operator’s line of sight,
we can identify the differences in characteristics between beginner and experienced operators. The purpose of this
paper was to search for implications for the training of beginners.

4. Methods

It has been suggested that attention should be directed to the thoughts of workers who are psychologically
influenced by indirect-effect stressors [15]. In this paper, we identified and analyzed the targets of operators’
attention by conducting a gaze experiment. The steps of the procedure were as follows.
Step 1: Measure the gantry-crane operators’ lines of sight in the actual working conditions.
Step 2: Target the processes that require the most attention in gantry-crane operation.
Step 3: Analyze the differences between operators by following their gaze trajectories in the same processes.

The experiment was conducted with the cooperation of Sankyo Corp. and Fujiki Transportation & Stevedoring
Co., Ltd. as below:

Date of experiment: Tuesday, November 16, 2021, 8:30–10:30 AM

Place: Port of Yokohama, Japan
Subjects: Mr. KK (first year of experience in training), Mr. MT (third year of experience), Mr. RH (10 years of
experience), and Mr. SK (25 years of experience): total 4 people
696 Jun Nakamura et al. / Procedia Computer Science 207 (2022) 692–700
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Number of operations: KK and MT lifted containers from vessels and unloaded them five times onto trailers
waiting on the wharf side, whereas RH and SK performed the operation seven times.
Eye measurement equipment and software: GLASS3 and Pro-Lab; Tobii Technology

The most important process to pay attention to in Step 2 was the moment when the container was lifted by the
spreader of the gantry crane, which is called “ground clearance.” Ground clearance is extremely important because
if the spreader does not lock the container securely at this point, the container may be displaced, posing a hazard to
the workers around the container.
In the operating room, there is a signal light that displays the connection status of the spreader and container,
indicated by a combination of two of the three lamp colors. Green is the unlocked state, yellow-green indicates the
spreader landing on the container, yellow is the state of the spreader landing, yellow-red indicates the spreader
locking with the landing, and red indicates spreader locking. Ground-clearance is the duration between the yellow-
red combination and the red state, which lasts only about 2 s.
The analysis in Step 3 was divided into two methods. One was based on the velocity detection method [16],
which visualizes the trajectory of the gaze in this short period of time in terms of instantaneous velocity and
cumulative distance, and addresses comparison analysis. The other was based on the string edit distance [17], which
visualizes scan paths and analyzes the similarity of sequences between two operators, using the following formula
(1).

d
dˆ = 1 − (1)
max(m, n)

The similarity between the operators is calculated by Eq(1), where the lengths of the scan paths of the two
operators are m and n, and the maximum string length is 0. Therefore, the similarity takes values between 0 and 1,
where 1 signifies two identical strings. Since the number of fixation † counts of each operator varies, the cases with
the same number of fixation counts were used in the above formula for comparison and analysis.
While analyzing the scan path, we defined fixation as the angular velocity of the eye within 30° per second, and
attention as the angular velocity of the eye within 100° per second. Because the head usually moves in experiments
using GLASS, the attention data were analyzed in consideration of “involuntary movements of the gaze to the
opposite side of the head movement,” called the vestibulo-ocular reflex. However, the operators were most nervous,
and safety was most important at the time of ground clearance, so the scan paths were extracted with a focus on
fixation, which is stricter than attention.

5. Results

The instantaneous velocity and cumulative distance of the line of sight based on the velocity detection method in
Step 3 are shown in Figures 3 and 4. From these graphs, we can say that experienced operators show the same
rhythm on the time axis. That is, roughly speaking, there is a tendency for the speed to increase at a certain rate in
the first half and the second half, respectively.
Next, the string edit distance was obtained. The scan path is shown in Figure 5, where all four had the same four
fixations. MT in the upper right appears to be similar to SK and RH at the first glance. However, MT had three
fixations occurring in the lower right corner of the container, whereas SK and RH both had two fixations on both
sides of the container.

†
The line-of-sight measurement extracts xy points at 50 hz. If the fixation dwells within a certain range, it is considered as “1” on the
scan path.
 Jun Nakamura et al. / Procedia Computer Science 207 (2022) 692–700 697
6 Author name / Procedia Computer Science 00 (2022) 000–000

Fig. 3. Measurement data of the beginners (KK and MT) for the upper row as instantaneous speed and the lower row as the cumulative distance.

Fig. 4. Measurement data of experienced operators (RH and SK) for the upper row as instantaneous speed and the lower row as cumulative
distance.
698 Jun Nakamura et al. / Procedia Computer Science 207 (2022) 692–700
Author name / Procedia Computer Science 00 (2019) 000–000 7

Fig. 5. Scan paths at the time of ground clearance (upper left is KK, upper right is MT, lower left is RH, and lower right is SK).

The similarity of the scan paths was calculated using Equation (1) (Table 1). As explained in the Methods, the
similarity between KK and MT, which corresponds to the most distant combination, was set as 0 because the
combination of the two was the base point.

Table 1. The string edit distance.

KK MT RH SK
KK -
MT 0 -
RH 0.21 0.33 -
SK 0.04 0.23 0.55 -

6. Discussion

First, let us consider instantaneous velocity. In Figures 2 and 3, the sharp points are evidence of a rapid increase
in line-of-sight speed, the so-called “Saccade” ‡ state. It is important to focus on the left and right corners in front of
the containers § because these are the areas where the spreader and container are locked together. The eye speeds

‡
Saccade is the rapid eye motion from one fixation to another, typically taking 30–80 ms to complete. ([17], p. 23)
§
These four corners are called "castings."
 Jun Nakamura et al. / Procedia Computer Science 207 (2022) 692–700 699
8 Author name / Procedia Computer Science 00 (2022) 000–000

increased when the operator moved his/her gaze from one end of the container to the other, and the speeds decreased
when the operator carefully checked the condition of the locking points on both sides of the container.
All three except KK show a constant rhythm, i.e., Attention → Saccade → Attention → Saccade. In particular,
the experienced operators, RH and SK, show a certain range in the time required to speed up, indicating that the
same rhythm appears on the time axis. However, KK, a newcomer, showed no rhythm in the timing of speed
increase, and data were lost around 381,400 ms. This might be because the line of sight could not be measured for
some reason **. It can also be seen that saccade occurs more frequently in experienced operators (RH and SK) when
moving between the two corner sides, compared to MT. Although it cannot be said that MT was attentively
narrowing relative to RH and SK during this saccade, the next analysis by cumulative distance and scan path
demonstrated attentive narrowing among beginners.
As for the cumulative distance, let’s look at the midpoint in the timestamp. The distances for KK and MT hardly
increased at all, while RH and SK showed a more gradual increase than KK and MT, because the cumulative
distance increased slightly, even at the two corner sides where fixation was required. Therefore, it was thought that
both experienced operators were unconsciously trying to collect some peripheral information ††.
Let’s analyze the scan paths. As shown below, both KK and MT were not balanced in their fixation to the sides.
Although KK and MT were looking at both sides, it seemed that they were preoccupied with something that was out
of balance on both sides. It would not be possible to say whether this is an information-gathering process. On the
other hand, RH and SK showed almost the same rhythm of fixation.

• KK: right → left → left → center (left 2, center 1, right 1)

• MT: right → left → right → right (Left 1, Right 3)
• RH and SK: right → left → left → right (left 2, right 2)

Based on these findings, we developed the following hypotheses:

1. Beginners tend to narrow their attention, while experienced operators may be unconsciously gathering
information (based on the cumulative distances).
2. Beginners have room for improvement in the stability of balance of views to important areas for fixation,
while experienced ones have a certain rhythm in eye movement (based on the scan path).

The similarities were based on the string edit distance, which largely reflected the years of experience of the
workers. In fact, the lowest similarity between a first-year KK and a 25-year SK was 0.04, while RH and SK, two
experienced operators, had a relatively high similarity of 0.55. This would suggest an association between the
degree of similarity and the number of years of experience.
Finally, we would like to discuss the training of beginners. This was organized as follows after several
discussions with SK (25 years’ experience), who cooperated in the experiment, and a container business director.
First, the basics must be adhered to keep both sides of the container in check.
Second, although the amount of information must gradually be increased, so the range of sight should not be
narrowed. Senior staff should watch the surroundings behind beginners and give them a heads-up until the beginners
get used to it (this is not necessarily at the time of the ground clearance).
Third, it is important to keep in mind that in an environment 50 meters above the ground, even if you give a lot of
input to young people, they will usually forget it. So, in a sense, it is important to allow the beginners some time for
learning.
Fourth, “self- awareness” is important for growth, and awareness of the gap between beginners and experienced
operators, such as eye measurement results, is a good opportunity for self-recognition.

**
The missing data were probably due to quick GLASS movements, i.e., the head was shaking strongly from side to side.
††
Even in quality inspections at factories, veterans have been found to unconsciously make reciprocal eye movements [18].
700 Jun Nakamura et al. / Procedia Computer Science 207 (2022) 692–700
Author name / Procedia Computer Science 00 (2019) 000–000 9

7. Conclusion

We visualized the eye movements and trajectories of operators handling gantry cranes, focusing on “ground
clearance,” which requires the most attention. The gaze characteristics of beginners and experienced operators were
extracted, and certain hypotheses were developed. Beginners should gradually become accustomed to the
environment by being aware of the actual differences in eye movements with experienced operators. Needless to say,
the number of measurement trials in this study was limited, and further data are required to develop effective
training methods.

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank Ms. Saito, general manager of Sankyo Corp. We were fortunate to receive the
cooperation of Mr. Ohashi and Mr. Kamiakutsu of Fujiki Transportation & Stevedoring Co., Ltd. In particular, Mr.
Kamiakutsu showed us around the site of the gantry crane. He also cooperated in the eye measurements at the
operating field. We would like to express our sincere appreciation to all those involved for their cooperation.
This paper was supported by Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number: 17K03872
and 19K03062) and Grant-in-Aid for Specially Promoted Research from Chuo University.
The English in this document has been checked by at least two professional editors, both native speakers of
English. For a certificate, please see: http://www.textcheck.com/certificate/Lph4Zi

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