2.

08 Aerodynamic Analysis of Wind Turbines

JN Sørensen, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
© 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

2.08.1 Introduction 225

2.08.2 Momentum Theory 226

2.08.2.1 One-Dimensional Momentum Theory 226

2.08.2.2 The Optimum Rotor of Glauert 227

2.08.2.3 The Blade-Element Momentum Theory 228

2.08.2.3.1 Tip correction 229

2.08.2.3.2 Correction for heavily loaded rotors 230

2.08.2.3.3 Yaw correction 230

2.08.2.3.4 Dynamic wake 230

2.08.2.3.5 Airfoil data 231

2.08.3 Advanced Aerodynamic Modeling 231

2.08.3.1 Vortex Models 231

2.08.3.2 Numerical Actuator Disk Models 232

2.08.3.3 Full Navier–Stokes Modeling 232

2.08.4 CFD Computations of Wind Turbine Rotors 233

2.08.5 CFD in Wake Computations 234

2.08.6 Rotor Optimization Using BEM Technique 236

2.08.7 Noise from Wind Turbines 238

References 239

Further Reading 240

2.08.1 Introduction

The aerodynamics of wind turbines concerns, briefly speaking, modeling and prediction of the aerodynamic forces on the solid
structures of a wind turbine and in particular on the rotor blades of the turbine. Aerodynamics is the most central discipline for
predicting performance and loadings on wind turbines. The aerodynamic model is normally integrated with models for wind
conditions and structural dynamics. The integrated aeroelastic model for predicting performance and structural deflections is a
prerequisite for design, development, and optimization of wind turbines. Aerodynamic modeling may also concern design of
specific parts of wind turbines, such as rotor blade geometry or performance predictions of wind farms.
Using simple axial momentum theory and energy conservation, Lanchester [1] and Betz [2] predicted that even an ideal wind
turbine cannot exploit more than 59.3% of the wind power passing through the rotor disk. A major breakthrough in rotor
aerodynamics was achieved by Betz [2] and Glauert [3], who formulated the blade-element momentum (BEM) theory. This theory,
which later has been extended with many ‘engineering rules’, is today the basis for all rotor design codes in use by industry.
From an outsider’s point of view, aerodynamics of wind turbines may seem simple as compared to aerodynamics of, for
example, fixed-wing aircraft or helicopters. However, there are several added complexities. Most prominently, aerodynamic stall is
always avoided for aircraft, whereas it is an intrinsic part of the wind turbines operational envelope. Stall occurs when the flow meets
the wing at a too high angle of attack. The flow then cannot follow the wing surface and separates from the surface, leading to flow
patterns far more complex than that of nonseparated flow. This renders an adequate description very complicated, and even for
Navier–Stokes simulations, it becomes necessary to model the turbulent small-scale structures in the flow, using Reynolds-averaging
or large eddy simulations (LESs). Indeed, in spite of the wind turbine being one of the oldest devices for exploiting the energy of the
wind, some of the most basic aerodynamic mechanisms are not yet fully understood.
Wind turbines are subjected to atmospheric turbulence, wind shear from the ground effect, wind directions that change both in
time and in space, and effects from the wake of neighboring wind turbines. These effects together form the ordinary operating
conditions experienced by the blades. As a consequence, the forces vary in time and space and a dynamical description is an intrinsic
part of the aerodynamic analysis.
At high wind velocities, where a large part of the blade of stall-regulated turbines operates in deep stall, the power output is
extremely difficult to determine within an acceptable accuracy. When boundary layer separation occurs, the centrifugal force tends
to push the airflow at the blade toward the tip, resulting in the aerodynamic lift being higher than what it would be on a nonrotating
blade.
When the wind changes direction, misalignment with the rotational axis occurs, resulting in yaw error. Yaw error causes periodic
variation in the angle of attack and invalidates the assumption of axisymmetric inflow conditions. Furthermore, it gives rise to radial
flow components in the boundary layer. Thus, both the airfoil characteristics and the wake are subject to complicated
three-dimensional (3D) and unsteady flow behavior.

Comprehensive Renewable Energy, Volume 2 doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-087872-0.00209-2 225