Thesis of Raju Bhattarai

WATER QUALITY ASSESSMENT OF PONDS
LOCATED AT THECHO AREA OF LALITPUR

DISTRICT IN NEPAL
A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

the Degree of Master of Science (M.Sc.) In Disaster Risk Engineering
and Management Awarded by Lumbini Buddhist University
Submitted to:
Lumbini International Academy of Science and Technology
Department of Disaster Risk Engineering and Management Lalitpur,
Nepal
Submitted by
Raju Bhattarai
(Regd.No. 8-C-0177-2017)
Exam Roll N0. : 1200
February 2020
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this study entitled Water Quality Assessment of the pond
located at Thecho area of Lalitpur district in Nepal is based on my original
research work. The related works on the topic, by other researchers, have been duly
acknowledged. I owe all the liabilities relating to the accuracy and authenticity of the
data and other information included hereunder.
…………………….
Raju Bhattarai
Date: 1st February 2020
ii
PAN No. : 603651997 Reg. No. : 137108/072/073
LUMBINI INTERNATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY (LIAST)
Affiliated to Lumbini Buddhist University
Manbhawan, Jawalakhel, Lalitpur
Tel: +977-1- 5531883, 5551874,
Email: liastlalitpur@gmail.com
www.liast.edu.np
RECOMMENDATION
This is to certify that the thesis entitled, Water Quality Assessment of pond located
at Thecho area of Lalitpur district in Nepal prepared and submitted by Raju
Bhattarai in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of Master of
Science (M.Sc.) in Disaster Risk Engineering and Management awarded by Lumbini
Buddhist University, has been completed under my supervision. I would like to
recommend the thesis for final acceptance.
…………………….
K. R. Dahal, Ph.D.
Supervisor & Campus Chief
Date: 3rd February 2020
iii
PAN No. : 603651997 Reg. No. :
137108/072/073
LUMBINI INTERNATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY (LIAST)
Affiliated to Lumbini Buddhist University
Manbhawan, Jawalakhel, Lalitpur
Tel: +977-1- 5531883, 5551874, Email: liastlalitpur@gmail.com,
Web: www.liast.edu.np
CERTIFICATE OF ACCEPTANCE
A dissertation entitled Water Quality Assessment of the pond located at Thecho

area of Lalitpur district in Nepal prepared and submitted by Raju Bhattarai has
been examined and accepted for the award of the degree of Master of Science (M.Sc.)
in Disaster Risk Engineering and Management by Lumbini Buddhist University.
Evaluation Committee
Dr. K. R. Dahal Dr. Rajan Bhattarai

Supervisor and Campus Chief External Examiner
Date: 8th February 2020 8th February 2020
Dr. Narbikram Thapa Er. Prakash Upadhayaya

Academic Director, LIAST Chairperson, LIAST
Date: 8th February 2020 Date: 8th February 2020
iv
v
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Firstly, I would like to express my sincere thanks and appreciation to my advisor and
supervisor Prof. Dr. Khet Raj Dahal for his invaluable advice, guidance, and
encouragement throughout the period of research.
I am very much thankful to Er. Prakash Upadhaya Chairperson of LIAST, Prof. Dr.
Nar Bikram Thapa, Dipak Subedi, Bunu Dhakal, Govinda Ghimire, Mahesh Kafle
and all others for their direct and indirect supports in editing and finalization my
thesis. I am thankful to the Kathmandu Valley Water Supply Management Board,
Sainbu, Bhaisepati Lalitpur for providing the lab for water testing. I am thankful to
the other faculties for providing their valuable comments during the proposal, pre-
thesis, and final thesis defense. I am grateful to all the teachers for their support and
guidance during my study period at LIAST.
Finally, I would like to appreciate my family as well as my friends for their

cooperation considering the difficulties and time pressure during my study, without
which this study would not have been possible.
Raju Bhattarai
(Regd.No. 8-C-0177-2017)
Exam Roll No. : 1200
vi
ABSTRACT
Water is an important chemical without it, life is impossible. Therefore, the quality of
water in the ponds well as natural resources should be in the standard limit set by
WHO and National standards. The study focus on the assessment of water quality in
the pond of Thecho area Lalitpur district in Nepal. This study was conducted from 5
May 2019 to January 2020. Questionnaire survey, field observation, in-depth
interview (IDI), focus group discussion (FGD) and lab tests were the major tools
used in this study. The study found that the pollution level in the ponds was high.
Mostly, the pond water was contaminated with Ammonia (6.4-9.6mg/l) and fecal
coliform (180+/100ml). Besides these other chemical parameters like TDS (145-
198mg/l), Arsenic, Iron (0.22-1.76mg/l), and Conductivity (592-895µS) were below
Nepal and WHO standards.
Besides this, the ponds were not regularly cleaned as 96% of respondents agree on
survey results. Most of the ponds are covered with spirogyra, Spirudela, and Azolla
Pteridophyta. The flow of sewage is deposited into the ponds through Rajkulo was
observed during a field visit. Similarly, the status of dhungedhara (waterspouts)
seemed good with the flow of water but not with full volume.
This study has a huge significance in the analysis of the water quality in the ponds
and the status of dhungedhara (water spots) and for the preservation of the historical
royal canal (Rajkulo). It would be beneficial for policymakers, technicians, leaders,
and researchers for the preservation of historical monuments like stone spouts, ponds,
and Rajkulo. Due to the lack of aquifer recharge, the historical importance of
dhungedhara are now in the phase of defunct. The study would like to suggest that,
the flow of water on Rajkulo should be made regularly so that the flow of water to
ponds may decrease the pollution level in the ponds.
Keywords: water quality, pollution, Rajkulo, ponds, dhungedhara
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONTENTS
DECLARATION...........................................................................................................ii
RECOMMENDATION................................................................................................iii
CERTIFICATE OF ACCEPTANCE............................................................................iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENT................................................................................................v
ABSTRACT..................................................................................................................vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS.............................................................................................vii
LIST OF TABLE..........................................................................................................ix
LIST OF FIGURE..........................................................................................................x
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS.....................................................................xi
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION............................................................................1
1.1 Background of the study.......................................................................................1
1.2 Problem statement................................................................................................2
1.3 Objectives of the Research...................................................................................3
1.4 Rationale of the study...........................................................................................3
1.5 Scope and Limitation............................................................................................3
1.6 Research Questions..............................................................................................4
1.7. Organization of study..........................................................................................4
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE................................................6

2.1 Concept of Water management............................................................................6
2.2. Definition and History of ponds..........................................................................7
2.3. Sources of water to fill a pond.............................................................................9
2.4. Type of ponds and uses of pond water................................................................9
2.5. Water policy, law, and regulations of Nepal.....................................................15
2.6. Water pollution..................................................................................................21
2.7 Global Problems on water pollution...................................................................22
2.8 Regional Problems on water pollution...............................................................24
viii
2.9 National Problems of water pollution.................................................................25
2.10 Local Problems on water pollution...................................................................26
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY....................................................................28

3.1 Study Area..........................................................................................................28
3.2 Research Design.................................................................................................29
3.3 Data Collection...................................................................................................31
3.3.1 Nature of data....................................................................................................

3.3.2 Data collection technique..................................................................................
3.4 Sample size........................................................................................................32
3.5 Data analysis and presentation..........................................................................32
3.6 Methodological Framework...............................................................................33
3.7 Result, Conclusion and Recommendation.........................................................33
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULT AND DISCUSSION....................................................35

4.1 Result..................................................................................................................35
4.2 Field Observation...............................................................................................35
4.3 Lab Analysis.......................................................................................................37
4.4 Analysis of Different Parameters.......................................................................45
4.5 Questionnaire Survey.........................................................................................52
4.6 RII Analysis........................................................................................................58
4.7 Focus Group Discussion (FGD).........................................................................62
4.8 In-depth interview Analysis...............................................................................62
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION..........................63

5.1 Conclusions........................................................................................................63
5.2 Recommendation................................................................................................64
REFERENCES.............................................................................................................65
APPENDIX.....................................................................................................................I
ix
LIST OF TABLE
Table 1: Various water quality components to be sampled.........................................30

Table 2: Status of a pond and dhungedhara.................................................................35
Table 3: Water quality components measured of Phongaa Pokhari............................38
Table 4: Water quality components measured of Buddha Pokhari..............................39
Table 5: Water quality components measured of Khacha Pokhari..............................40
Table 6: Water quality components measured of Mandap Pokhari.............................41
Table 7: Water quality components measured of Mahadev Pokhari...........................42
Table 8:Water quality components measured of Fanga Pokhari.................................44
Table 9: Comparative Study of the ponds....................................................................45
x
LIST OF FIGURE
Fig. 1: Mini Pond.........................................................................................................11

Fig. 2 : Wildlife pond...................................................................................................11
Fig. 3: Fishpond...........................................................................................................12
Fig. 4 : Swimming pond...............................................................................................12
Fig. 5: Map of Thecho Area.........................................................................................28
Fig. 6: Map of Rajkulo.................................................................................................29
Fig 7: Methodological framework...............................................................................34
Fig. 8: pH.....................................................................................................................46
Fig. 9 : Conductivity....................................................................................................47
Fig. 10: Turbidity.........................................................................................................48
Fig. 11: Iron Content....................................................................................................48
Fig. 12: Ammonia........................................................................................................49
Fig. 13: Chloride content..............................................................................................50
Fig. 14: Hardness of Calcium and Magnesium............................................................50
Fig. 15: Total dissolved solids.....................................................................................51
Fig. 16: Gender.............................................................................................................52
Fig. 17: Education Status.............................................................................................53
Fig. 18: Disposal of waste............................................................................................53
Fig. 19: Source of Water Use.......................................................................................54
Fig. 20: Water Sufficiency...........................................................................................55
Fig. 21: Flow of Rajkulo..............................................................................................55
Fig. 22: Cleanliness status of Rajkulo..........................................................................56
Fig. 23: Cleanliness status of pond..............................................................................57
Fig. 24: Use of pond water...........................................................................................57
Fig. 25: Use Of pond water for various purpose..........................................................58
Fig. 26: Reason for not using pond water for bathing..................................................59
Fig. 27: Cause of pond Pollution in Thecho Area........................................................59
Fig. 28: Importance of Rajkulo....................................................................................60
Fig. 29: Rehabilitation of Rajkulo................................................................................61
Fig. 30: Solution to clean Rajkulo................................................................................61
xi
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
AD Anno Domino
BC Before Christ
GIS Geographic Information System
GOES Global Organization for Environmental Solution
IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature
IWRM Integrated Water Resource Management
Mg/l Milligram per liter
MOE Ministry of Environment
MPN Most Probable Number
pH Potential of Hydrogen
RII Relative Importance Index
TDS Total dissolved solid
TUTA Tribhuvan University Teacher Association
UN United Nation
UNEP United Nations Environment Program
UNEP United Nation Environment Program
US United State of America
USDA United State Department of Agriculture
WHO World Health Organization
xii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the study
Water is a basic need for living things around the world. It is the premise of the fluids
of living organisms. Water is an important substance on the earth, needed for plants
and animals. According to USGS, about 70 percent of the earth's surface is covered
with water. Human beings use water for drinking, cooking, washing clothes,
cleaning, and irrigation and for tourism activities. All these activities need clean and
portable water. Oxford Dictionary defines- Water is a compound composed of oxygen
and hydrogen with chemical symbol H₂O. Water has distinctive physical and
chemical properties. Water quality refers to the physical, chemical and biological
parameters of the water. It measures the condition of water and determines the water
pollution level (Tirkey et al., 2013). Therefore, the quality of water is very important
for the survival of living beings with good health. The necessities of water for health-
related purposes are to derive a figure of a suitable minimum to satisfy the wants for
consumption (hydration and food preparation) and basic hygiene (Howard &
Bartram, 2003).
The major sources of water are groundwater, surface water, ocean, natural spring,
lakes, ponds, river, and rainfall. Out of many sources of water, ponds are also major
sources. Marian dictionary defines pond, as an area covered with water that may be
filled by the natural or artificial process. From these water sources, humankind
practices various use of water. In agriculture, People use water for irrigation
purposes. For irrigation purposes, people construct a canal (Beaumont, 1971). Canal
supply water for irrigation and provide water for safe drinking. Besides this irrigation
canal helps in flood control and water supply (Cao et al., 2010). In the past, such
types of water supply practices by a canal were done in Nepal. People dig a canal
from the resource of water and bring it into their residential area and in the paddy
field (Gajmer, 2014). Out of many other canals, Rajkulo is also an ancient canal
practice of Kathmandu valley of Nepal. These canals were built in the Malla and
Lichhavi period by the king, so they were named Raj Kulo (Royal canal) (Raimund
O.A. & -Ritterspach, 1995).
1
Kathmandu valley is composed of three districts namely Lalitpur, Bhaktapur, and
Kathmandu. Each district consists of many ponds. In the Thecho area of Lalitpur
district, Rajkulo fills many small ponds. Tika-Bhairab Rajkulo mainly used for
irrigation purposes and besides this, it also fed pond in its way. This Tika-Bhairab
Rajkulo is an important source and works as an aquifer for ponds and Hiti
(waterspout) around the Lalitpur area (H. R. Joshi & Shrestha, 1970). Nowadays
water in Rajkulo has decreased. Due to this, the ponds around the Thecho area are
polluted and the quality of water in the ponds has diminished. The contamination of
other substances in water resources is known as water pollution. Water pollution
occurs when harmful substances often chemicals or microorganisms contaminate a
stream, river, lake, ocean, aquifer, or another body of water, degrading water quality
and rendering it toxic to humans or the environment (Tirkey et al., 2013).
1.2 Problem statement
Water is one of the most essential requirements for life. All living things need water
to survive. It is used for a variety of purposes including drinking to manufacturing
industries. Kathmandu, the capital city of Nepal is a crowded place where many
people live. Water supply inside the Kathmandu valley is a major problem. It does not
only include problem-related to safe drinking water but also with irrigation. For
irrigation, the canal was constructed. Out of many canals, Rajkulo is also a major
canal of a valley that was the greatest construction in the history of Nepal
(Manandhar, 2013). People construct artificial ponds and giving them religious
importance by making a temple at the center of the ponds.
With the high growth rate of population, fertile lands are used for making homes.
These days’ agricultural lands are rapidly converted into ghaderies (land fragment).
Most agricultural lands are now converted into a concrete building and formed
unmanaged urbanization. Further, People started the encroachment of Rajkulo and
pond even though By knowing the importance of Rajkulo, which not only irrigates
the field but also works as aquifers for groundwater recharge (H. R. Joshi & Shrestha,
1970). When the flow of water on Rajkulo decline, the water level in the wells and
dhungedhara decreases, local realized the importance of Rajkulo and ponds. People
are not only suffering from lack of water but also getting many problems for
irrigation purposes. The ponds, Hitis of the Thecho area are also severely affected by
2
limited water supply to them. Water in spouts starts diminished and ponds feed by
Raj Kulo become polluted. Such polluted ponds feed by Rajkulo are Buddha Pokhari,
Phonga Pokhari, Mandap pokhari, etc.in Thecho area. Besides, these ponds, Hitis
carry religious and social significance. People of the Thecho area use pond water for
various purposes. Ponds are polluted but we do not know the degree of pollution in
the ponds. Poor quality of water poses risk to human health (Pandey, 2006). To know
the degree of water pollution in ponds, I am interested to carry out this research work.
1.3 Objectives of the Research
The General objective of the study is to explore the degree of pollution in the ponds
in Thecho area. Besides these there are following specific objectives:
a. To find the major pollutants in ponds,

b. To explore the possibilities of improving the water quality status of the ponds,
and
c. To compare the level of pollution of ponds with natural water.
1.4 Rationale of the study
In the past, such type of research has not been conducted in Thecho area. The results
of the study would raise awareness to local people using the ponds water for various
purposes. It would provide a basic study for local authorities to take steps to improve
the water quality of the ponds. Thus, the findings of this study would be beneficial for
all policymakers, political leaders of Godavari Municipality -12 Thecho, water
expert, researcher, and water resource organization for the preservation of historical
royal canal, ponds, and waterspout of Thecho.
1.5 Scope and Limitation
Scope:
The main scope of the study is to observe the status of pollution and the quality of
water in ponds of the Godavari Municipality -12, Thecho area of Lalitpur district of
Nepal.
Limitation:
3
The study will be limited to the selected area of Godavari municipality-12 Thecho,
Lalitpur of Nepal. The study will mainly focus on the eleven ponds and few of the
dhungedhara (waterspout) of that locality. Furthermore, the study only focuses on the
test of certain physical, chemical and Biological parameters of seven ponds and only
the condition of the flow of water in three dhungedhara. It will not be conducted in
other areas of Nepal due to limited time and budgets. Furthermore, the study does not
involve the test of water quality of waterspout.
1.6 Research Questions
The main research questions of the study area are as follows:
a) How important are the ponds of Thecho to locals?

b) What is the present status of Rajkulo in Thecho?
c) Why Rajkulo is not properly maintained?
d) Why the Dhungedhara is drying up?
e) How farmers and Dwellers on the bank of Rajkulo are affected due to polluted
water in ponds?
f) How the pollution of water at ponds in Thecho area can be improved?
1.7. Organization of study
The study has been organized into five chapters.
Chapter 1: This chapter describes the background of the study, problem statement,
objectives, significance of the study, scope, and limitation, and research questions for
the fieldwork of this research.
Chapter 2: This chapter describes the related subject matter of the topic of research
identified by the others. In this chapter, different published works of literature such as
reports, papers, thesis, database, etc. are revised and conclusions have been drawn.
This chapter also focused on definitions, approaches, global, regional, national, and
local problems along with the gap of research.
4
Chapter 3: In this chapter, the methodology of the research has been explained.
Similarly, methods of data collection, sampling size, area of the study and data
analysis process have been explained.
Chapter 4: This chapter deals with data presentation and interpretation. The collected
primary data from the field survey have been tabulated and their interpretations have
been made thoroughly.
Chapter 5: This chapter includes conclusions from the result and recommendations
are drawn for the future.
At the end of this thesis, references and annexes are included.
5
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
2.1 Concept of Water management
Water resource management may be a multidisciplinary approach with reference to

all designing, development and operational science choices to optimize the water
cycle as mentioned by the oxford dictionary. Most significantly water cycle
management employed to confirm the handiness of freshwater for selected users and
to confirm safe unleash of treated water heater to nature. Water resource management
may be a set of water cycle management that focuses on the utilization of water
resources (Loucks & van Beek, 2017). Water may be a restricted resource and
erratically distributed globally and even domestically, and individuals for various
functions and nature alike consume it. Undefeated management of water resources
needs in-depth information on-demand, resources, and capability, offering
technology, hydrometeorology, and political factors. Recently, Integrated Water
Resource Management (IWRM) was liable to integrate these fields into one body
since these problems might not be resolved exclusively by water professionals
(Biswas, 2004).
Over the past decade, a series of major revisions to the generation and use of natural
resources management has begun to undermine basic assumptions. Numerous voices
in science and policy have promoted a model in water management from a normative
and a descriptive view. To facilitate dialogue and look at different approaches for
scientific inquiry and water management, applied research in vital reflection and
analysis is required (Pahl-Wostl et al., 2011). Irrigation is another field of water
management. It supplies controlled amounts of water to plants at required intervals.
Different types of Irrigation systems employed mainly for agriculture purposes and to
recharge the land in the dry season when there is no rainfall throughout the periods
(Dillehay et al., 2005). Canal Irrigation systems can be used for filling ponds, laundry
of ethereal, disposition, etc. For Agriculture purposes, Irrigation has been an essential
feature for over several years and is that the product of much cultural value
(Groenfeldt, 1988).
6
Another field of water management is on wetland management. Wetlands are the
parts of the landscape that can be defined by the presence of water. More specifically,
wetlands are areas where the presence of water determines or influences most of the
environmental factors. The Ramsar Convention takes a broad approach in
determining the wetlands that come under its guidance. Under the text of the
Convention (Article 1.1), wetlands are defined as: “areas of marsh, fen, peatland or
water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is
stationary or flowing, fresh, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low
tide does not exceed six meters”(Convention Ramsar, 1971). Further Ramsar
Convention Classified Wetland as human-made wetlands such as fish and shrimp
ponds, farm ponds, irrigated agricultural land, reservoirs, sewage farms, and canals.
2.2. Definition and History of ponds
Ponds are the area filled with water that may be formed from natural phenomena or
human-made. The majority of the ponds are made artificially. Ponds are frequently
fabricated or expanded beyond their original depth and bounds. It may contain
freshwater or standing water with the habitat of aquatic plants and animals (clegg,
1986). Ponds may result from a large range of natural processes. Any
depression within the ground that collects and retains a sufficient amount of
precipitation will be considered a pond, and such depressions will be formed by a
spread of geological and ecological events. Rivers often leave behind ponds in natural
floodplains after spring flooding, and these will be important to breeding fish,
particularly in large river systems just like the Amazon (Lowe-McConnell, 1975).
The pond and a lake have not been technically standardized. Limnologists and
freshwater biologists have proposed prescribed definitions for a pond, somewhat to
include 'bodies of water where light penetrates to the underside of the water body,'
'bodies of water shallow enough for rooted water plants to grow throughout,' and
'bodies of water which lack wave action on the shoreline.' Each of those definitions
has met with resistance or disapproval because the defining characteristics are each
difficult to live or verify. Accordingly, some bureaucracies and researchers have
settled on technical definitions of pond and lake that has been governed by size
(Biggs et al., 2005).
7
It is said that the Kathmandu Valley itself was born of a pond. According to
mythology, the valley was once a lake known as Nagdaha that was full of snakes. It
was believed to have been drained by the Buddhist sage Manjushree. Myths aside, in
the architecturally rich eras of the Lichhavi (second to ninth century) and Malla (14th
to 16th century), numerous ponds were constructed (MoFALD/DoLIDAR, 2013).
There is no official record from when the construction of ponds started but a
contradiction often noted about ponds is that they are in reality amongst the most
long-lived of aquatic habitats. Many temporary ponds in Britain are thought to be in
excess of 8,000 years old (Gray, 1998). Such temporary ponds are known to date
back in California at least 5,000 years and have survived many major lake basins in
the United States (Martin, 1990).
Ponds are important means to conserve precious water resources that provide water
for domestic purposes including water for livestock, washing clothes, irrigations,
protecting the local environment and sustainable water resources. Historical records,
documents, inscriptions, and writings adequately indicate that in Nepal the existence
of artificial ponds started from the Malla period and are managed by communities. In
the Shah and Rana period of Nepal, many dhungedhara, wells, and ponds were
constructed to meet the growing need for water to the population (S. Upadhaya,
2018).
Ponds are the source of wetland management. Due to the paucity of data and
information, it is difficult to provide the exact distribution of wetlands in Nepal. 163
wetland sites to date have been identified in the Terai region and 2,323 glacial lakes
from the High Himalaya region (IUCN Nepal, 2004). Wetlands have also played
important role in our culture with activities like Holy bathing, the performance of
rites and rituals, spiritual center for those who have renounced family and physical
world, and origin-point of folklore, literature, and art, a center of biological resources
(Bhandari et al., 2016). Some experts have estimated about 500 man-made ponds, of
which 100 are believed to be in the Kathmandu Valley, 150 in the Janakpur area and
the rest being distributed all over the country (Khaniya, 2005).
Some ponds inside Kathmandu valley hold very important significance in their
formation. Nagpokhari, Kamalpokhari, Ranipokhari, Gahanapokhari, Siddhapokhari,
8
Taudaha, Nagdaha Rani Pokhari, etc. are few of them. These ponds are not simply
treated as water reservoirs but they are of great religious and cultural values.
(Bastola, 2006) . There are a significant number of ponds that vary in size in
Kathmandu Valley. Taudaha pond has been the important wetland site for the birds
from the past. Most ponds in the valley are small to support birdlife. Taudaha is the
only remaining natural lake in the valley that still supports significant wetland birds
(H. S. Baral et al., 2012). The historic pond Ranipokhari at the heart of the
Kathmandu valley that is recharged through the rainwater harvested from the rooftop
of Tri-Chandra Campus (MOE & TUTA, 2012).
2.3. Sources of water to fill a pond
Ponds consists of water. The source of water that fills the ponds are especially canal
system and rainfall. The source of water that fills the ponds of the Thecho area are:
1. Rajkulo
The origin of Rajkulo is from TikaBhairab, Lele with 1.5-meter-wide and 1.3-meter-
deep and a length of around 13 kilometers that end at Bagmati River in Kupondol.
These canals were built in the Malla period by Malla king, an integrated project for
water supply with irrigation of field (Dixit, 2005). This Raj Kulo not only irrigates the
rice field but also recharge and fill water in ponds and wells along its way. It provides
a constant flow of clean water to urban areas and helps to sustain the groundwater
level by recharging aquifers on the way. Nowadays water in Rajkulo has decreased.
As a result pond, the level of water in the pond decrease as seen during field
observation.
2. Rainwater
The nature source to fill the water in the pond is rainfall. The ponds around the
Thecho area are also filled by rainfall. Rani pokhari situated at the heart of the
Kathmandu valley is also filled partially by water harvesting (MOE & TUTA, 2012).
2.4. Type of ponds and uses of pond water
For many years’ farmers have been building ponds to store water. This store water
has used for livestock and for irrigation. The demand for water has increased
9
tremendously in recent years, and ponds are one of the most reliable and economical
sources of water. Ponds water is now serving for a variety of purposes, including
water for livestock and for irrigation, fish production, field spraying, fire protection,
energy conservation, wildlife habitat, recreation, and landscape improvement.
Commonly two types of ponds have been built based on field experience and
observation of land users, engineers, conservationists, and other specialists(USDA,
1982).
Embankment pond
An embankment pond is made by building an embankment or dam across a stream or

watercourse where the stream valley is depressed enough to permit storing six feet or
more of water. The land slope may range from gentle to steep.
Excavated pond
An excavated pond is made by digging a pit or dugout in a nearly level area. Because
the water capacity is obtained almost entirely by digging. Excavated ponds are used
only when a small supply of water is needed.
Some ponds are built gently to moderately sloping areas and the capacity is obtained
both by excavating and by building a dam. Water requirements for irrigation are
greater than those for any other purpose. The area irrigated from a farm pond is
limited by the amount of water available throughout the growing season. Pond
capacity must be adequate to meet crop field requirements and to overcome
unavoidable water losses.
Types of ponds
Various types of ponds are in existence that depends on their kinds and sizes. Each of
them has its unique characteristics. Some of the ponds classified by Veda’s include.
Mini Pond
It is a small portable decorative pond basin. A mini-pond is suitable for the smallest
gardens, terraces, and balconies. It is also prepared artificially to look attractive.
10
Fig. 1: Mini Pond
Wildlife pond
This type of pond is created by nature in its charge and water is filled by rainfall. The
number of plants itself is grown and the water attracts many animals, such as frogs,
salamanders, and insects. In a wildlife pond no pump, filter, chemical means are used.
A proper number and variety of (oxygen) plants afford high-level oxygen content in
the water, this type of pond source water for wild animals.
Fig. 2 : Wildlife pond
Fish Pond
This type of pond is purely developed for the fisheries industry. In these types of
ponds, certain algae and water plants are introduced to keep the water clear and
healthy because there are no other plants to filter the water and clean the waste that is
produced by fish.
11
Fig. 3: Fishpond
Swimming pond
These types of ponds are prepared for recreation activities. These ponds are mostly
used for gaming, swimming, and pleasure for a child as well for seniors.
Fig. 4 : Swimming pond
Irrigation pond
These ponds are developed by farmers to irrigate their farms. In dry season pond
water are major sources for irrigating agricultural plots. Irrigation helps for the better
yield of crops.
Use of Pond water
Ponds water can be used for a variety of purposes. The uses of pond water are
highlighted as:
12
Livestock
Clean water is essential for livestock. If stock water requirements in pasture and range
areas are inadequate, grazing of livestock will be concentrated near, the water area
and other areas will remain to be under grazed. Near the water source, the availability
of green grass is much more. If the wetland is inadequate, it leads to serious livestock
losses and instability in the livestock industry.
Fish Production
Many executives and land users are finding that fish production is profitable. A
properly built and managed pond can yield from 100 to 300 pounds of fish annually
for each acre of water surface(Agriculture USA, 1982). A good fishpond can also
provide recreation and can be an added source of income if properly managed and
open to the public. Ponds with surface areas of a quarter of an acre to several acres
can be managed for good fish production.
Irrigation
Farm ponds are now an important source of irrigation. Water requirements for field
irrigation are greater than those for any other purpose. In the growing season, the area
irrigated from a farm pond is limited due to less availability of water.
Fire Protection
Reliable water supply is needed for fighting a fire. If a pond is located close to a
house or other buildings, it provides water to control fire. It continuously provides a
water source to fill many Damkal (fire engine).
Recreation
A pond can provide many pleasant hours of swimming, boating, and fishing. The
surrounding area can be made into an attractive place for picnics and games. It
provides additional income from water recreation. If a pond is to be used for public
recreation, the supply of enough water is needed to overcome from evaporation and
seepage losses and to maintain a desirable water level. A pond used for swimming
must be free of pollution and have an adequate depth of water near a gently sloping
13
shore. To protect public health, water supplies should meet certain prescribed
standards if they are to be used for swimming and human consumption. Generally,
water must be tested and approved before public use.
Source for Dhungedhara (waterspout)
A dhungedhara is a traditional water supply system made of stone especially found in

the Kathmandu valley of Nepal. Dhungedharas are part of a comprehensive drinking
water supply system, specially made by various rulers of Ancient and Medieval
Nepal. They consist of complexly carved stone waterways through which water flows
continuously from underground sources. Despite numerous developments to replace
this old drinking water supply system with something more modern, many people of
Nepal still depend on the old hitis on a regular basis. The history of dhungedhara
began during the lichhavi period. The first known hiti (dhungedhara in Newari
language) was built in Kathmandu at Hadi Gaun by a grandson of Lichhavi King
Mandev I in 550 AD, but there is evidence that a similar structure was built earlier
than that. Manga Hiti at Mangal Bazar in Patan was built in 570 AD. In both cases,
the dates were engraved on a stone within the hiti. Gradually more hitis started to
appear elsewhere in Kathmandu Valley (Raimund O.A. & -Ritterspach, 1995).
Groundwater has been an important source of water supply in the Kathmandu Valley
since ancient times. In 2008 the dhungedhara of Kathmandu Valley supply about 2.95
million liters of water per day (S. Shrestha et al., 2012).
Hitis were connected to a system of canals and ponds, which brought fresh water
from the foothills of Kathmandu Valley to the cities (Raimund O.A. & -Ritterspach,
1995). The spouts of one hiti can have different sources for their water. The users
have merely noticed a difference in the taste or color of the water between the spouts.
During the Lichhavi period, these ponds linked to stone spouts and dug wells to
supply water to the cities. The ponds were built higher in the settlements to feed the
shallow aquifers; water seeps away from the ponds into the ground and eventually
emerges from the spouts. Of the 389 stone spouts found in Kathmandu Valley in
2010, 233 were still in use, serving about 10% of Kathmandu’s population. 68 had
gone dry and 43 were connected to the municipal water supply instead of their
original source, 45 dhungedhara were lost entirely (NGOFUWS, 2008). In 2019, a
survey by the Kathmandu Valley Water Supply Management Board (KVWSMB)
14
found 573 dhungedhara on record in the ten municipalities of the Kathmandu Valley.
479 of these were recovered, 52 turned out to be destroyed and 42 could not be found.
More than half of the spouts were dry (Khatri, 2020).
2.5. Water policy, law, and regulations of Nepal
The government of Nepal has promulgated National Drinking water Quality

3Guidelines, which lays out plans to improve the water quality to make it safe for
drinking under a phased approach. It includes guideline values for parameters. The
acts and regulations are summarized in the tabular form as below (Wateraid, 2005).
SN Act or Regulation Areas Addressed
1. Essential Commodity It seems drinking water an essential commodity

Protection Act 1955 (2012 and strictly protects drinking water.
BS) Prohibits any unauthorized use or misuse,
stealing, damaging, etc. of drinking water.
2. Muluki Ain 1963 (2020 Sets out the order of priority of use of water for
BS) irrigation.
Regulates traditional farmer-managed irrigation
systems.
3. Solid Waste (Management Establishes the Solid Waste

and Resource Management and Resource Mobilization Center
as the responsible authority for the management
Mobilization) Center Act
of solid waste.
1987 (2044 BS)
Deals with the pollution of water by solid waste.
4. Solid Waste (Management Deals with the collection, transportation, and

and Resource disposal of solid waste.
Deals with the provision of public toilets and
Mobilization) Regulation
bathhouses.
1989 (2046 BS)
5. Nepal Water Supply Establishes the Nepal Water Supply Corporation

Corporation Act as the perpetual, autonomous government-
15
1989 (2046 BS) controlled corporation responsible for the supply
of drinking water.
Prohibits certain acts and provides
penalties/punishment for violation.
6. The Constitution of the Guarantees the right to life and property.

Kingdom of Nepal 1990 Provides for the acquisition of property under
(2047 BS) certain circumstances and for compensation.
7. Water Resource Act 1992 The umbrella Act governing water resource
(2049 BS) management.
Declares the order of priority of water use. Vests
ownership of water in the State.
It provides for the formation of water user
associations and establishes a system of
licensing.
Prohibits water pollution.
8. Electricity Act 1992 (2049 Governs the use of water for hydropower
BS) production.
Establishes a system of licensing. Sets out the
powers, functions, and duties of a license holder.
Provides certain financial incentives for license
holders.
Sets out the powers of the government.
9. Industrial Enterprises Act Requires permission for the extension and

1992 (2049 BS) diversification of environmentally sensitive
industries.
It provides financial incentives for industrial
enterprises that minimize harmful effects on the
environment.
10. Water Resource The umbrella Regulation governing water

Regulation 1993 (2050 resource management.
16
BS) Sets out the procedure to register a Water User
Association and to obtain a license.
Establishes the District Water Resource
Committee.
Sets out the rights and obligations of Water User
Associations and license holders.
Deals with the acquisition of house, land, and
compensation.
11. Electricity Regulation Sets out the procedure for obtaining a license.
1993 (2050 BS) Deals with the acquisition of house, land, and
compensation.
Sets out the powers, functions, and duties of
license holders.
12. Environment Protection Requires certain persons/bodies to conduct an

Act 1996 (2053 BS) EIA or IEE.
Deals with the prevention and control of
pollution.
13. Environment Protection Lists the water-related projects required to

Regulation 1997 (2054 conduct an EIA or IEE.
BS) Deals with the control of water pollution and
pollution control certificate
14. Drinking-Water Regulates the use of drinking water.

Regulation 1998 (2055 Provides for the formation of Drinking Water
BS) User Associations and sets out the procedure for
registration. Deals with licensing of use drinking
water.
Deals with the control of water pollution and
maintenance of quality standards for drinking
water.
Sets out the conditions of service utilization by
17
consumers.
It provides for the acquisition of houses and land
and compensation.
15. Local Self Governance Act Establishes a decentralized governance structure

1999 (2055 BS) Sets out the powers, functions, and duties of the
VDC, Municipality and
DDC in relation to water and sanitation.
Sets out which natural resources are assets of
local bodies and empowers local bodies to levy a
natural resource tax.
Source: Water law in Nepal, Water Aid 2005
16. Local Self Governance Sets out the powers, functions, and duties of VDC,
Regulation 1999 (2056 BS) Municipality, and DDC in relation to water and
sanitation.
Establishes the procedure for the formulation of the
water-related plan and project implementation
17. Irrigation Regulation 2000 Deals with Irrigation Water User Associations and
(2056 BS) the transfer of projects to Irrigation Water User
Associations
Available groundwater resources shall, be developed
and utilized as the surface water reservoirs, and
arrangements shall be made for conservation,
promotion, and control in the quality.
18
18. National Wetland Policy Defines Wetlands as perennial water bodies that
2003 originate from underground sources of water or rains.
It means swampy areas with flowing or stagnant
fresh or saltwater that are natural or man-made, or
permanent or temporary. Wetlands also mean marshy
lands, riverine floodplains, lakes, ponds, water
storage areas, and agricultural lands.
Goals are to conserve and manage wetlands
resources wisely and in a sustainable way with local
people s participation and to put the conservation and
management aspects of wetlands conservation within
the framework of broader environmental
management.
19. Water Supply Management prevents the misuse of potable water and prevent
Board Act, 2063 (2006) pollution of potable water
carried out, study, research and survey on the source,
distribution of potable water, and sanitation
20. The Constitution of the Rights regarding a clean environment

Kingdom of Nepal Policies regarding the conservation, management,
2015(2072 BS) and use of natural resources
Source: WECS Nepal
The government of Nepal has issued this notice of implementation of National

Drinking Water Quality Standards, 2062 under the provision of Water Resources Act,
2049, Clause 18 and Sub Clause 1.
(A) National Drinking Water Quality Standard
S.N Concentration
Category Parameters Units Remark
. Limits
1 Physical Turbidity NTU 5 (10)
19
2 pH 6.5-8.5*
3 Color TCU 5 (15)
None-
4 Taste and Odor
objectionable
5 TDS mg/L 1000
6 Electrical µs/cm 1500

conductivity (EC)
7 Chemical Iron mg/L 0.3 (3)
8 Manganese mg/L 0.2
9 Arsenic mg/L 0.05
10 Cadmium mg/L 0.003
11 Chromium mg/L 0.05
12 Cyanide mg/L 0.07
13 Fluoride mg/L 0.5 -1.5*
14 Lead mg/L 0.01
15 Ammonia mg/L 1.5
16 Chloride mg/L 250
17 Sulphate mg/L 250
18 Nitrate mg/L 50
19 Copper mg/L 1
20
mg/L as
20 Total Hardness 500
CaCo3
21 Calcium mg/l 200
22 Zinc mg/L 3
23 Mercury mg/L 0.001
24 Aluminum mg/L 0.2
in
systems
25 Residual Chlorine mg/L 0.1-0.2* using
chlorinati
on
MPN/
26 E. Coli 0
100 ml
Microbiologica
l
MPN/ 0 in 95%
27 Total Coliform
100 ml samples
Source: Ministry of Environment, Nepal
2.6. Water pollution
Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies, typically because of human

activities. River, lakes, ocean water, aquifers, and rainwater include Waterbodies.
When pollutants enter the natural atmosphere it case pollution. Pollution is the
leading worldwide reason for death and wellness (Utama & Suharta, 2018). The
temperature change can have an effect on water quality and even water ecosystems,
and specific effects can vary among different regions and differ for different kinds of
water bodies. The results of temperature change on different water bodies, together
with plain lakes, alpine lakes, rivers, bone lagoons, and estuaries, offer a worldwide
perspective for these effects and plays an important role to degrade the water quality
(Xia et al., 2015).
21
Water quality mainly refers to physical, chemical and biological parameters. It is
alive of the condition of water relative to utilized of humans by the relevance of
standards value that compliance, typically achieved through treatment of the water
(Gould, 1972). The terms like environmental quality, air quality, soil quality, and
water quality are outlined as measures of the condition or state of every relative to the
wants of one or a lot of organic phenomenon species or to any human would like or
purpose (Johnson et al., 1997).
2.7 Global Problems on water pollution
The progressive analysis and revision of water resource policy at the least bit levels
seem more important. It has been argued that pollution is the leading problem
worldwide for death and diseases (West, 2006). Water pollution accounted for the
deaths of Eighteen million individuals in 2015 (Kelland, 2017). One of the most
issues is that pollution destroys the environment and oversize carbon dioxide on
earth. The different organization proposes a variety of measures for fixing pollution
however; the action must be taken within years for being more effective
(Georgantzopoulou, 2019). The GOES conjointly struggles with water pollution
issues in developing countries and developed countries. For instance, a report on
water quality within the US, forty-four percentage of assessed stream, sixty-four
percentage of an assessed lake, and thirty percentage of assessed bays and bodies of
water were classified as polluted (Water, 2004).
Most of the present European pollution policies comprise persecution economic

instruments to compensate for the personal boundaries of agents imposing pollution
damages, or use public funds to investments in pollution reduction technologies.
These policies seem to be ineffective in decreasing the big nonpoint pollution in
watercourse basins round the world. The large investments ensuing from the waste
material Directive including investments in more than €100 billion, ought to have
reduced pollution in European water bodies (Esteban & Albiac, 2012).
On 26th - 29th, August 2009 the Pan Africa Chemistry Network (PACN) held the
Sustainable Water Conference forum concluding an alert regarding water quality to
the governments of the African nations. The document also serves as a roadmap for
22
the numerous scientists in African academia, government, and industry finding
solutions to issues relating to water, especially water quality. (PACN Network, 2010).
The trends of quality and quantity parameters in protecting water resources in

Australia show a reduction in concern for salinity reflecting the effects of a drying
climate in reducing groundwater levels and investment in treatment technology has
reduced the impact of eutrophication with Increased to turbidity, micro-pollutants,
and pathogens. Many rural communities have a relatively poor capacity for water and
sewerage treatment compared with larger regional centers and cities. Infrastructure
Australia reports that water utilities and regional towns are failing to produce a safe
water supply (Bowmer et al., 2012).
The Asian continent continues to face serious water quality issues that contribute to
freshwater scarcity, ill health, and even deaths. In many Asian countries, quality is
continuing to decline and insufficient efforts were made to monitor and remedy the
situation among institutional and social challenges. Several countries are
implementing ambitious programs to build wastewater treatment plants and
rehabilitate tarnished water resources. Countries like China, India, Thailand, the
Philippines, Bangladesh, and Indonesia have passed water quality acts and laws to
prevent pollution and protect waters. Unfortunately, enforcement is challenging,
especially in emerging economies where institutional capacities cannot keep speed
with rapid industrialization (Evans et al., 2012).
Brazil having 12% of the world’s available freshwater and in the world. The northeast
region of Brazil has always suffered from water shortages, severe frequent droughts,
and crop failures and pollution levels (Victor et al., 2015). The use of plastic and its
disposal on water resources makes the water bodies polluted. A United Nations
Environment Program (UNEP) focused on the minimization of plastic use and its
control on the water resource. The annual report of UNEP -2018 shows the work on
the reduction of plastic and help nations and individuals for substantial commitments
to giving up single-use plastics.
UN Environment Program (2019) calls on decision-makers to take immediate action

to address demanding environmental issues to achieve the Sustainable Development
23
Goals as well as other Internationally Agreed Environment Goals, such as the Paris
Agreement to combat the situation on pollution before it takes a hazardous situation.
2.8 Regional Problems on water pollution
Water pollution is one of the most important issues faced by Asian countries
promptly. As evident, untreated sewerage is the largest sort of pollution in the Asian
country. Different sources of pollutants like runoff from the agricultural and
businesses are more. Truly analyzing the situation, perhaps there are not any water
bodies in an Asian country that is pure. The measurement and water analysis of
Ganga and Yamuna's reflect the impurity presence in rivers of India (samudranil,
2016). Shanghai has problems with water quality in freshwater, water treatment, and
household water. Water quality data from 1979 to 2016 show that microbe’s
eutrophication, important metals, and organic pollutant contaminate the Huangpu and
Yangtze Kiang River. The analyzed parameters exceed the Chinese National tradition
(Li et al., 2019).
Drinking water quality management and monitoring seem poor in most of the
SAARC Country. Water sources of surface and groundwater measurement result in
contamination with coliforms, harmful metals, and pesticides. Human activity like
improper disposal of municipal and industrial effluents and indiscriminate
applications of agrochemicals deteriorates water quality. Water pollution is one of
the major threats to public health in Pakistan (Azizullah et al., 2011).
In Sri Lanka, Water resources in surface area are useless by various phylogenies
activities. Surface interior waters measures populated geographical areas and regions
are impure heavily with domestic sewerage, industrial effluents, and agricultural
runoff. Oil spills, the mercantilism of waste from ships, coral and sand mining, and
activities of marine pollution are at intervals (Bandara, 2003).
Dhaka is one of the world's largest groundwater-dependent cities, relying on water

withdrawn from this underlying semi-confined sand formation. Analysis of water
quality records for public-supply wells needs favorable recharge conditions to get
pure water (Morris et al., 2003).
2.9 National Problems of water pollution

24
The majority population is still lacking basic drinking water supply services,
depending on unimproved and unreliable sources of water such as a pond,
unprotected well and stream. Water pollution is the most serious environmental
quality issues in Nepal (Budhathoki, 2019). It is due to the disposal of solid and liquid
wastes on land and surface water. The major waste is sewage, industrial effluent,
agricultural residues, and chemicals. The increase in the migrant population in
Kathmandu from all parts of Nepal leads to haphazard urbanization of Kathmandu
valley resulting in heavy pressure on existing natural resources (IUCN Nepal, 1991).
The water quality of rivers within the Kathmandu valley is deteriorating due to
overpopulation and its consequent stress on the environment. Urban water quality in
the Kathmandu valley is not good enough to sustain a healthy water ecosystem.
Deteriorating quality of river water has caused frequent cases of water-borne diseases
such as diarrhea, dysentery, cholera, and skin diseases among people living in
riverside areas (Maharjan et al., 2018).
In Kathmandu valley, for Household and industrial purposes, water has been pumped
continuously surpassing the natural recharge. This situation can cause pollution and
scarcity of water near future. The majority of populations depend on groundwater
resources. Therefore, to avoid the hydrological and environmental impacts of the
rapid lower down of water table proper concern should be taken on time (Gautam &
N. Prajapati, 2014).
Several deep and shallow groundwater samples show arsenic content. The arsenic in
deep groundwater, of 52% of samples exceeded the WHO standard (Chapagain et al.,
2009). In the Terai region of Nepal, people trust groundwater to fulfill their domestic
water demands. In recent decades, groundwater irrigation practices have intensified
and become crucial for the livelihood and food security of mass people living in this
area (Malla & Karki, 2016). Water quality of the river sites from the Saptakosi river
system with altitude varied from 1300-3440m above sea level show organic pollution
analyzed by Eight different biotic indices and score methods(S. Sharma et al., 2005).
Pokhari is a city of the lake but losing its water bodies. The smaller lakes are
overtaken by farmlands and settlements. Sedimentation leads to shrinking of Phewa
Lake and other bigger lakes of this area. The pollution on lakes has affected aquatic
and birdlife (Nepali Times, 2018).
25
Drinking water in Nepal was found to be unsafe throughout the year, especially
during the rainy season the contamination levels reached up to the maximum limit.
Higher bacteriological and chemical contamination was found in water from wells,
tube wells, and stone spouts; almost all the chemical parameters tested from these
sources exceeded national and international standards (Udmale et al., 2016). The
untreated discharge from the Bhrikuti paper mill into the Narayani river and from the
Everest paper mill into the Orahi river result in more extensive damage to water
resources (IUCN Nepal, 1991). The Physio-chemical study carried out in the Tinau
river Butwal region of Nepal shows that the pollution of water exceeds the drinking
water standard due to riverbed extraction. The pH of water shows more alkaline than
other freshwater rivers ( Sharma et al., 2012). The Physio-chemical, microbial
parameters, and nutrient content of the water from Jagadispur reservoir Ramsar site of
Nepal show that the values of pH, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids,
nitrate, phosphate, bicarbonate, and chemical oxygen demand were in the permissible
range (S. Baral et al., 2015). The study on the water quality of Ranipokhari at a
different station was found to be highly contaminated with bacteria and algae. The
isolated organisms are E.coli, Citrobacter, Klebsiella, Proteus and Salmonella species
(MOE & TUTA, 2012). The study on bacterial parameters and heavy metals of the
Sundarijal reservoir and its main tributaries are found to be acceptable for human
consumption but bacteriologically they are not safe to consume without proper
treatment (Bhattarai, 2004).
2.10 Local Problems on water pollution
The surface and subsurface water of the Kathmandu valley seems brutally
contaminated by various pollutants. Many factors have played their role in polluting
the rivers and wells of the valley. The water quality monitoring of the Bagmati River
and its tributaries revealed a robust seasonal variation. Ammonia, nitrate, phosphate,
dissolved oxygen, biological oxygen demand, chemical oxygen demand, and total
suspended solids are the most determinants of river pollution (Timila Bhaba, 2004).
Most of the deep tube wells of the Kathmandu valley comprise a greater amount of
ammonia and iron yet as higher turbidity and color values than those of the WHO
guideline values. Groundwater wells of Kathmandu Valley shows that the
26
concentration of iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn) and arsenic (As) as 17.9 mg/L,
1.04 mg/L, 0.95 mg/L, and 0.143 mg/L, respectively(S. M. Shrestha et al., 2012).
The stone spout is a traditional water system in the Kathmandu Valley of Nepal. The
supply of water to Dhungedhara depends on both the ground and surface water. Most
of the stone spouts receive water either from spring or nearby aquifer. A single
aquifer may supply water to many stone spouts (J. Joshi, 2015). Due to rapid
urbanization in Kathmandu valley, the majority of the waterspout that is found in
Lalitpur areas are now in the phase of a distinct water crisis. These stone spouts are
recognized as having significant heritage conservation value and thus can contribute
to tourism and the national economy. The values of traditional spouts and their
connection shows social and cultural norms (Tripathi et al., 2018).
The fundamental requirements for potable water must be free from pathogenic
organisms, containing low concentrations of compounds that are acutely toxic (Goel,
2006). In Siddhipur, 10 km southeast of Lalitpur district a Siddhipur Water Treatment
Plant was started with the initiation of the Siddhipur drink Supply and Sanitation
Users Committee funding support from UN-Habitat and Water Aid and technical
support of Environment and Public Health Organization (ENPHO), Nepal. Water
analysis data of the Bagmati River and its tributaries like Hanumante Khola, Dhobi
Khola, Tukucha, Teku, and the Bishnumati Khola are comparatively more polluted
than that of Nakhu Khola and Balkhu Khola(Timila Bhaba, 2004). Physicochemical
analysis such as TDS, pH, Conductivity Hardness, total alkalinity of Nagdaha was
found to be ecologically sound(Pant, 2013).
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
3.1 Study Area
27
The study area is Godavari Municipality ward no 12 Thecho of Lalitpur district Nepal
as shown in figure 5. Various small ponds around Thecho were used to serve as a
source of water in the past. Rajkulo fed these ponds on its way from Tika Bhairav.
Fig. 5: Map of Thecho Area

The study focused on the study of certain ponds and hities (stone spout) of Thecho
areas. The ponds studied are Phongaa Pokhari, Pinga Pokhari, Buddha Pokhari,
Khacha Pokhari, Mandap Pokhari, Mahadev Pokhari, Fanga Pokhari, Sano Pokhari,
28
Thulo Pokhari, Swarsawati Pokhari, Balmandir Pokhari, and the dhungedhara are
Quagal, Pako, and Dhalkeshwor Mahadev.
Source: google
Fig. 6: Map of Rajkulo
3.2 Research Design
The research design of the study is of experimental as well as a qualitative type in

which samples from seven ponds were taken. The samples were analyzed to
determine the parameters as shown in Table1. Standard procedure was followed to
collect the sample and to ensure that samples be undisturbed. The samples were
analyzed in the laboratory of Kathmandu Valley Water Supply Management
Board (KVWSMB) Saibu, Lalitpur Nepal. Besides, this an interaction program with
local people and stakeholders was organized just before the sampling periods. Field
observation, focused group discussion, and key informant interview, and Questioner
survey were conducted in Thecho area.
Table 1: Various water quality components to be sampled
S.N Parameter Results WHO Nepal Method used
29
standard Standard
Physical parameters
Appearance
pH 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5 PH meter
Conductivity(µS/cm) 1000 1500 Conductivity
meter
Turbidity(NTU) 5 <5 Nephthalo meter
Total dissolved solids 500 <750 TDS meter
Color(Hazen) 5 <15 Comparator
Temperature (oc) _ _ Thermometer
Chemical parameters
Total Alkality(mg/L) EDTATitration
Total hardness (mg/L) 500 <500 EDTATitration
10. Calcium EDTATitration
Hardness(mg/L)
11. Magnesium Hardness EDTATitration
(mg/L)
12. Calcium (mg/L) EDTATitration
13. Magnesium(mg/L) EDTATitration
14. Chloride content (mg/L) 250 200 Argentometric
Titration
15. Iron content(mg/L) 0.3 0.3 Spectrometer
16. Arsenic content(mg/L) 0.001 0.05 Kit method
17. Ammonia 1.5 1.5 Comparator
Content(mg/L)
Microbiological parameters
18. E.coli(CFU/100ml) 0 0 MPN
3.3 Data Collection
30
3.3.1 Nature of data
For the study of water pollution in different ponds of Thecho, both primary and
secondary data were used. Primary data was collected from the field visit and
secondary data was collected from respected Municipality, wards office, and different
publications, reports, articles, and magazines.
3.3.2 Data collection technique
The main aim of this study is to find out the pollution of ponds by determining the
physical, and chemical parameters of water and its effect on the locals. Thus, both the
quantitative and qualitative method was applied. Some of the methods were Focus
group discussion (FGD), In-depth interview (IDI), and questionnaire survey and field
observation.
1. Focus group discussion:

Discussion with the leader and the chairperson of the Rajkulo preservation
committee and the data will be collected according to the prepared question. 5
Numbers of people of three groups were involved in FGD and responded to the
quarries.
2. In-depth interview:
An in-depth study was conducted with the head of ward no -12 Godavari
Municipality - the study areas and with the expertise regarding the water pollution.
Also with the engineers of the irrigation department of central regional office
Lalitpur.
3. Questionnaire survey:
The questionnaire survey was held in the Thecho area according to the selected
sample size and designed questionnaire.
4. Field observation:
During the study, the entire field was visited thoroughly and the status of ponds was
observed and the water sample was collected carefully from each pond.
5. Lab test:
The collected water sample was then tested in the lab of Kathmandu Valley Water
Supply and Management Board Saibu Lalitpur. The water parameters were tested on
31
the basis of the book “Standard Methods for the Examination of water and
wastewater’’ 23rd edition.
3.4 Sample size
For the study purpose, eleven ponds and few of Dhungedhara have selected from the
ward 12 of Thecho areas. For Questionnaire Survey,1% of the total population was
selected from the Thecho area. The total population of Thecho area according to
Nepal census 2011 was 10086. So 1% of 10086 becomes 100.86. with rounding off
101 samples were taken. Teacher, student, business person civil servant and farmers
were Selected in the survey.
3.5 Data analysis and presentation
Both qualitative and quantitative data were gathered together for the study.
Qualitative data were coded in an excel sheet and SPSS for the analysis and
interpretation. Qualitative data from the FGD and IDI, which are the opinion, words,
and information, were the key finding from the study and carefully interpreted. The
data obtained from the lab were carefully tabulated and analyzed. Both quantitative
and qualitative data are presented in an appropriate form. All information was
collected during fieldwork thoroughly processed and analyzed. The qualitative data
were analyzed using descriptive statistics and presented in the graphical form of
charts, figures, and tables. Computer software such as SPSS and Excel was used for
data analysis.
Weighted Mean (W.M.): The formula will be used for all respondents.
W.M. =N (V.P.) x one+ N (P.) x 2+N (F.)X 3+N (G.) x 4+N (V.G.) x
5
Total numbers of respondents
Where, N= Number of Respondents
V.P. = Very Poor P. = Poor V.G. = Very Good
F. = Fair G. = Good
32
The above expression was provided with W. M. value from 1 to 5. The ranking is
made based on these W.M. values that were presented in graphical form and analysis
has been done with these values.
3.6 Methodological Framework
Research methodology has been described as the overall method applied to satisfy the
aims and objectives of the investigation. There are various methods in use in research
depending upon the nature and standard of the research to be carried out. Research
methods are selected because they provide the data required for producing a complete
piece of research, which fulfills the aim and objectives of the study and provides an
answer to key questions. Problem identification, research objective, and research
scope are inter-related with each other. The methodology was hence designed for
fulfilling the research objectives. The outline in the chart is shown on the next page.
3.7 Result, Conclusion and Recommendation
The data obtained from different methods were analyzed and the result is displayed in
the graph as well in Pie chart. After concluding the data analysis, the finding of the
study was summarized and the thesis was prepared. Answered obtained from all
research questions and data obtained from the lab report are present in a systemic way
in the final report. The abstract is also present in the final report. Some of the annex
and field photos were also attached along with the questionnaire.
33
Methodological Framework
Research Area Identification
Problem Identification Research Objective Research Scope
Literature Review
Techniques of Data collection
Field In Depth Focus Group Questionnaire Lab Analysis

Observation Interview Discussion Survey
Types of Data
Collection
Primary Data Secondary Data
Compilation of Data
Data Analysis and Interpretation
Result, Conclusion and Recommendation
Fig 7: Methodological framework
34
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULT AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Result
The study was designed to conduct a water quality assessment of ponds of the Thecho
area. Thecho is located about 6 km south of the main Lalitpur city. The study mainly
focused on the physical, chemical and biological parameters of ponds water. These
parameters were tested in the lab of Kathmandu Valley Water Supply Management
Board and tabulated along with WHO and Nepal Standard. To support the study, field
visits, Questionnaire Survey and In-depth interviews were conducted. The result is
displayed below.
4.2 Field Observation
The field observation was carried out in Godavari municipality -12 Thecho Area,
Lalitpur on dated 5 May 2019, 8 June 2019 and 4 Jan 2020. During the field visit, the
number of ponds and their status was observed. Out of eleven pokhari selected to
study in that ward, seven ponds still contain water and are alive but four of the ponds
were distinct. During field visits on 5 May 2019 and 8 June 2019, all seven ponds are
found dirty covered with Spirogyra, Spirudela, and Azolla Pteridophyta as shown in
table 2. These algae were analyzed with the help of Botanist Pramod Sen. However,
on the visit during water sample collection 4 Jan 2020; three of the pond seems
cleaned by removing Plants. They are Phongaa pokhari, Pinga pokhari, and Buddha
pokhari. Similarly, the flow of water on the stone spout is somehow less in this
season. The GPS coordinates of the ponds and dhungedhara were also included in the
Table.
Table 2: Status of a pond and dhungedhara
S. Name of Location Picture Status

N ponds
Co-ordinates (8th June 2019)
1 Phonga N 3055769 Covered with

Pokhari Spirogyra
E 334061
35
2 Pingla N 3055801 Covered with
Pokhari Spirudela
E 333965
3 Buddha N 3055373 Covered with

Pokhari Azolla
E 334220 Pteridophyta
4 Khacha N 3055406 Covered with

Pokhari Azolla
5 Mandap N 3055439 Covered with

Pokhari Azolla
6 Mahadev N 3055543 Covered with

Pokhari Spirogyra
E 334165
7 Fanga N 3055444 Covered with

Pokhari Spirogyra
E 3341167
(Pukri )
8 Sano N 3056290 No water covered

with grass.
Pokhari E 334130
Majority area
covered by health
post
9 Thulo N 3056291 A pond filled with

Pokhari mud and converted
E 334131 to a road.
10 Saraswati N 3055502 Pond become

Pokhari playground
E 334442
36
11 Balmandir N 3056053 Balmandir build
Pokhari on pond few
E 334259 portions remaining
with dry land
Water Spout (dhungedhara)
1. Quagga N 3055801 Condition

dhungedhara
E 333965 Flow of water
2. Pako N 3055497 Condition

dhungedhara
E 335022 A constant flow of
water
3. Dhalkeshwor N 3056560 Condition

dhungedhara
E 333979 A constant flow of
water
Source: Field Observation
4.3 Lab Analysis
The water sample from various ponds was collected and tested in the lab. The
samples were analyzed in the laboratory of Kathmandu Valley Water Supply
Management Board (KVWSMB) Sainbu, Lalitpur. According to a lab test, the
following data were obtained.
4.3.1 Phongaa Pokhari
The sample of this pokhari was collected on 4 Jan 2020. The physical and chemical
parameter Analysis shows the following result.
37
Table 3: Water quality components measured of Phongaa Pokhari
S. Parameter Results WHO Nepal Method used

N standard Standard
Physical parameters
1. Appearance Hazy
2. pH 9.5 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5 PH meter
3. Conductivity(µS/cm) 668 1000 1500 Conductivity meter
4. Turbidity(NTU) 18.3 5 <5 Nephthalo meter
5. Total dissolved solid 151 500-1000 <750 TDS meter
6. Color(Hazen) 20 5 <15 Comparator
7. Temperature (oc) 7.2 _ _ Thermometer
Chemical parameters
8. Total Alkality(mg/L) 132 EDTATitration
9. Total hardness (mg/L) 140 500 <500 EDTATitration
10. Calcium Hardness (mg/L) 80 200 EDTA Titration
11. Magnesium hardness (mg/L) 60 - EDTATitration
12. Calcium(mg/L) 32.03 - EDTATitration
13. Magnesium(mg/L) 14.57 - EDTATitration
14. Chloride content (mg/L) 84 250 200 Argentometric

Titration
15. Iron content(mg/L) 0.22 0.3 0.3 Spectrometer
16. Arsenic content(mg/L) 0 0.001 0.05 Kit method
17. Ammonia Content(mg/L) 6.4 1.5 1.5 Comparator
18. Faecal coliform(CFU/100ml) 180+ 0 0 MPN
Source: Lab report KVWSMB
38
4.3.2 Buddha Pokhari
Table 4: Water quality components measured of Buddha Pokhari

standard Standard
Physical parameters
1. Appearance Hazy
2. pH 8.40 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5 PH meter
5. Total dissolved solid 145 500- <750 TDS meter

1000
Chemical parameters
10. Calcium Hardness (mg/L) 128 200 EDTATitration
11. Magnesium hardness 28 - EDTATitration

(mg/L)

Titration
39
18. Faecal 180+ 0 0 MPN

coliform(CFU/100ml)
4.3.3 Khacha Pokhari
Table 5: Water quality components measured of Khacha Pokhari

standard Standard
Physical parameters
1. Appearance Hazy
2. pH 7.51 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5 PH meter
Chemical parameters

(mg/L)
40

Titration
18. Faecal 180+ 0 0 MPN

coliform(CFU/100ml)
4.3.4 Mandap Pokhari
Table 6: Water quality components measured of Mandap Pokhari

standard Standard
Physical parameters
1. Appearance Hazy
2. pH 7.60 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5 PH meter
7. Temperature (oc) 10 _ _ Thermometer
Chemical parameters
41

(mg/L)

Titration
18. Faecal 180+ 0 0 MPN

coliform(CFU/100ml)
4.3.5 Mahadev Pokhari
Table 7: Water quality components measured of Mahadev Pokhari

standard Standard
Physical parameters
1. Appearance Hazy
2. pH 7.95 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5 PH meter
42
Chemical parameters

(mg/L)

Titration
18. Faecal 180+ 0 0 MPN

coliform(CFU/100ml)
4.3.6 Fanga Pokhari
Table 8:Water quality components measured of Fanga Pokhari
S. Parameter Results WHO Nepal Method used

N standard Standar
43
d
Physical parameters
1. Appearance Hazy
2. pH 7.75 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5 PH meter
7. Temperature (oc) 10 _ _ Thermometer
Chemical parameters

(mg/L)

Titration
18. Faecal 180+ 0 0 MPN

coliform(CFU/100ml)
Comparative Study of the ponds
44
4.4 Analysis of Different Parameters
Different parameters there were studied during an investigation are described below
respectively.
Table 9: Comparative Study of the ponds
Name of Ponds
S.N. Parameter Phongaa Pinga Buddha Khacha Mandap Mahadev Fanga

Pokhari Pokhari Pokhari Pokhari Pokhari Pokhari Pokhari
Physical parameters
Appearance Hazy Hazy Hazy Hazy Hazy Hazy Hazy
pH 9.50 7.66 8.40 7.51 7.60 7.95 7.75
Conductivity (µS/cm) 668 761 592 889 773 895 885
Turbidity (NTU) 18.3 33.6 31.7 7.41 5.82 48.5 46.5
Total dissolved 151 175 145 198 176 196 190

solid(ppm)
Color(Hazan) 20 30 25 15 20 25 20
Temperature (oc) 7.2 10.5 10.6 9.8 10 9.5 10
Chemical parameters
Total Alkality 132 180 164 216 190 224 210
Total hardness (mg/L) 140 148 156 184 186 170 164
10. Calcium Hardness 80 84 128 118 104 112 106

(mg/L)
11. Magnesium Hardness 60 64 28 66 82 58 58

(mg/L)
12. Calcium(mg/L) 32.03 33.63 51.25 47.24 41.64 44.84 42.44
13. Magnesium (mg/L) 14.57 15.54 6.80 16.03 19.91 14.08 14.08
14. Chloride (mg/L) 84 98 78 104 90 108 98
15. Iron (mg/L) 0.22 1.76 0.22 0.22 0.22 0. 22 0.22
45
16. Arsenic (mg/L) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
17. Ammonia (mg/L) 6.4 8 7.2 8.8 7.2 9.6 7.2
18. E.coli (CFU/100ml) 180+ 180+ 180+ 180+ 180+ 180+ 180+
4.4.1 Appearance
The result shows that the appearance of water in the entire pond is hazy.
4.4.2 pH
The pH of the different ponds of Thecho area is shown below in Figure 8. From the
result, it shows the entire ponds are recorded as alkaline. These data do not exceed the
limit of the national water standard. Out of seven ponds, Phongaa pokhari has
maximum pH value. The rest of the pond has almost similar value. Determination of
pH is an important part of immunological research because it determines the
conditions for chemical reactions (Phiri et al., 2005). A similar result was also
reported by Joshi in Jagadishpur lake (S. Baral et al., 2015) and in Rani pokhari of
Kathmandu (MOE & TUTA, 2012).
pH value of ponds
10 9.5
9 8.4
7.66 7.6 7.95 7.75
8 7.51
7
6
5
PH
4
3
2
1
0
Phongaa Pinga Buddha Khacha Mandap Mahadev Fonga
Ponds
Fig. 8: pH
4.4.3 Electrical Conductivity
46
The electrical conductivity ranges from 592 µS (Buddha pokhari) to 895 µS
(Mahadev Pokhari). As pollutant enters to natural water the dissolved ions increase.
Higher the value of conductivity indicates a higher value of pollution(S. Baral et al.,
2015). In the study area, higher EC was recorded in (Mahadev Pokhari). This is an
indication that the pollution in this part of the pond has increased. One of the major
reasons for the increased pollution level might be the presence of Chloride
Magnesium etc. These values are higher as compared to Rani pokhari ponds
(avg.349µS) studied in 2012(MOE & TUTA, 2012).
Value of Conductivity
1000
889 895 885
900
Conductivity
800 761 773

700 668
592
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
Ponds
Fig. 9 : Conductivity
4.4.4 Turbidity
The value of Turbidity ranges from 5.82 NTU to 48.5 NTU. In the study, higher
turbidity was observed in Mahadev Pokhari. This is an indication that the pollution in
this pond has increased. One of the major reasons for the increased pollution level
might be the addition of drainage and floodwater in the pond.
47
Value of Turbidity
60
50 48.5
46.5
40
33.6
31.7
30
Turbity
20 18.3
10 7.14 5.82
0
Ponds
Fig. 10: Turbidity
4.4.5 Iron (Fe)
The value of iron ranged from 0.22 to 1.76 mg/L but except Pinga pokhari, no
difference was observed among study. The major sources of Iron (Fe) are iron pipe
from acid rain, electric board, etc. as Fe is the most abundant metal on the Earth’s
crust (Sayato, 1989). The Fe concentration of Pond River is within the range
mentioned by the national standard.
Value of Iron content

2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
Mg/l
0.8
0.6
0.4 1.76 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.22
0.22 0.22
0.2
0
Ponds
Fig. 11: Iron Content
48
4.4.6 Ammonia
The value of Ammonia ranged from 6.4 to 9.6 mg/L. According to the National and
WHO standard, its value should be below 1.5mg/l but in these studies, it shows the
high concentration of ammonia in the water, which is not feasible for any purpose. A
high amount of ammonia is more harmful to aquatic life. Fish cannot extract energy
and nourish efficiently. If the ammonia concentration is high, fish become lazy, fall
into unconsciousness, and die(Hargreaves J. A., 2004).
value of Ammonia content

12
10 9.6
8.8
8
8 7.2 7.2 7.2
6.4
6
Mg/l
0
Ponds
Fig. 12: Ammonia
4.4.7 Chloride
The value of Chloride content ranged from 78 to 108 mg/L. According to Nepal
standard, its value should be below 200mg/l but in these studies, it shows the less
concentration of chloride in the water.
49
value of Chloride content
120
108
104
98 98
100
90
84
78
80
60
mg/l
40
20
0
Ponds
Fig. 13: Chloride content
4.4.8 Total Hardness, Calcium Hardness, Magnesium hardness, Calcium

Content, and Magnesium Content
value of total Hardness,Calcium Hardness , Magnesium

hardness,Calcium Content and Magnesium Content
200 184 186
180 170 164
156
160 148
140
140 128
118 112 Total Hardness
120 104 106
CaCO3 hardness
100 84
80
mg/l
MgCO3 hardness
80
Calcium
60
Magnesium
40
20
0
Ponds
Fig. 14: Hardness of Calcium and Magnesium
Hardness is contributed by calcium and Magnesium. Hardness usually is not regarded

as a pollutant however high level of hardness creates problems. Calcium is an
essential element of plants and animals. Similarly, Magnesium is also an important
nutrient for aquatic plants(MOE & TUTA, 2012). The pond water analysis shows that
50
the Total hardness ranges from 140 to 186 mg/l similarly, the calcium carbonate
hardness ranges from 80 to 128 mg/l and Magnesium carbonate hardness ranges from
28 to 82 mg/l. The lower value of calcium and magnesium content is 28 and 6.08
respectively whereas the highest level is 51.25 and 19.91 respectively. All these data
illustrate below the range of Nepal standards and good for aquatic plants.
4.4.9. Arsenic
The lab test report showed that the arsenic content in all the ponds is zero.
4.4.10. Fecal Coliform
The fecal coliform analysis is done by the most probable number method (MPN). The
presence of fecal coliform indicates a greater risk of diseases to human and aquatic
life. The coliform causes infection in intestine, urinary tract wound infection severe
diarrhea and also pneumonia(Stanford et al., 2018). All the ponds respond to a high
value greater than 180+. These values are the maximum limit set by the national
standard. This means the pond water is contaminated with human and birds fecal. The
source may be drainage water mixed into a pond.
4.4.11. Total Dissolved Solid (TDS)
The value of TDS ranged from 145 to 198 mg/L. According to the Nepal standard, its
value should be below 200mg/l. This value is nearer to the TDS value(130 to 179) of
Jagadishpur lake(S. Baral et al., 2015).
Value of Total Dissolved Solid

250
198 196
200 190
175 176
151 145
150
Mg/l
100
50
0
Phongaa Pinga Pokhari Buddha Khacha Mandap Mahadev Fonga Pokhari
Pokhari Pokhari Pokhari Pokhari Pokhari
Ponds
Fig. 15: Total dissolved solids

51
4.5 Questionnaire Survey
For the completion of the thesis work, a questionnaire survey was carried out. A
questionnaire survey was conducted for a week started from 31st Dec to the first week
of Jan 2020. The survey was conducted among 102 respondents. Local students,
teachers, official staff, businesspersons, and civil servants have participated in the
survey. The result below shows the detail about the survey study.
4.5.1 Gender
While carrying out the survey, the majority respondent was female. Fig. 16, shows
that 39%repondent were male while 61%were female. It shows the active
involvement of women in the study.
Pie Chart of Respondent Gender
39%
Male
Female
61%
Fig. 16: Gender
4.5.2 Education Status of the Respondent
The residence of Thecho area has also a significant education level. The result shows
Thecho is also one of the educated societies in Lalitpur. The result may be due to the
focus of study in the town area near ponds. The majority of educated household
members were found to secondary school graduates. The educational status of the
respondents is given in Fig. 17. The Fig. shows that 83 % have secondary education,
13% were university degree Education and 3% of respondents from the basic
education level only 1% of them were illiterate.
52
Simple Bar chart of Education
90
83%
80
70
60
50
Number
40
30
20
13%
10
3%
0
Illiterate Basic Secondary University
Education
Fig. 17: Education Status
4.5.3 Disposal of waste condition
The study also tried to find out the condition of waste disposal in that locality. Waste
disposal is the major source of a pollutant for water pollution. However, the result
shows the majority of them used metropolitan vehicles for waste disposal. Due to
open space and land, the locality also used to dispose of their waste in the garden as a
source of fertilizer (personal interview). The condition of waste disposal is shown in
Fig. 18. In the pie chart, 24%people used the garden as waste disposal while the rest
of them use a waste collection vehicle.
Pie Chart of Disposal of Waste
Garden
24%
Others (Collect by Munic-

ipality)
76%
Fig. 18: Disposal of waste

53
4.5.4 Source of Water
The water source in that area is distributed by pine water. The majority of the local
residents use pipe water. The status of water use is shown in Fig. 19. From the pie
chart, the percentage use of water by pine line distribution is 72%, by community dug
well 9% from waterspout 11% and by tanker 8%. From this result, we can analyze
that water scarcity in that area may increase as shown by the tanker user data. In the
future, the buying of water from the tanker might be increased. Waterspout has also
contributed 11% to the water resources. The decline in the waterfall in spout result
water crisis in that area. The use of pond water is separately displayed in another
question and can be seen from Fig.24.
Source of water use
Tanker
8%
Community Dug Well

Duhnge Dhara 9%
11%
Pipe Water
72%
Fig. 19: Source of Water Use
4.5.5 Water Sufficiency
Still, 20% of the people in the area suffer a lack of water. The majority of them are
satisfied with the water use and that was 74% while 6%population shows the
sufficient availability of water to their daily needs. The results were displayed in Fig.
20.
54
Pie Chart of Water Sufficency
6%
20%
Less
Enough
More
74%
Fig. 20: Water Sufficiency
4.5.6 Flow Period of Rajkulo
From the bar chart 21, the Rajkulo flow maximum of three months a year in Thecho
area. This result verifies that the pollution level in water is due to less flow of water in
the pond. The majority (59%) argue that the flow of Rajkulo is up to three months.
Flow time period of Rajkulo

70
60
59%
50
40
Count
30
21%
20
10
4%
0
No Flow Upto 3 months Upto 6 months Upto 12 months
Flow Rajkulo
Fig. 21: Flow of Rajkulo
55
4.5.7 Cleanness status of Rajkulo
From graph 22, only 6% of respondents agree for the regular clean of the canal but
the majority replied that it is not cleaned regularly. This status shows that people have
no interest in the preservation of the historic canal that directly affects their daily life
and agriculture production. The flow of this unclean water to pond may increase the
turbidity in the pond.
Status of Rajkulo Clean Regularly

6%
Yes
No
94%
Fig. 22: Cleanliness status of Rajkulo
4.5.8 Cleanliness Status of pond
From Fig. 23, one can argue that the pond was not clean regularly. 96%respondent
answered on not cleaned regularly. Only 4%are in the support of pond cleanliness.
The status directly affects the physical-chemical and biological parameters of the
ponds. The maximum number of fecal coliform from lab test proof the dirty level of
water.
56
Pond Clean Regularly
4%
Yes
No
96%
Fig. 23: Cleanliness status of pond
4.5.9 Use of pond water
The use of pond water in that area is only 15% that may be in the form of irrigating a
garden and for agricultural use (personal interview). The 85%of the population do not
use pond water as a reference to Fig. 24. The low use of pond water is due to the
pollution level in the pond and the status of irregular cleanliness of pond.
Use of Pond Water
15%
Yes
No
85%
Fig. 24: Use of pond water
57
4.6 RII Analysis
For the Relative Importance Index (RII), six questions were prepared with five
multiple points. The weightage marked varied from 1 -5. For the RII analysis, 102
Respondents were involved. According to their view, they have marked for the
options. The data were analyzed by taking average rank and expressed in the Pie
Graph as shown below.
4.6.1 Use of pond Water For
The weightage distribution of the use of pond water is shown in Fig. 25. The graph
shows that maximum use is in agriculture with a high rank of 30% followed by
firefighting,25% street cleaning with 19% and for livestock 14%.The use of pond
water in the past was maximum and nowadays it gets declined due to modernization
in those areas. Still 12% use pond water for washing clothes.
Use of Pond Water
Washing Bathing
Agriculture Production 11%
30%
Livestock
14%
StreetCleaning
19%
Fire Fighting
25%
Fig. 25: Use Of pond water for various purpose
4.6.2 Reason of not using pond water for bathing purpose
The main reason for not used for bathing purposes is the appearance of pond water.
The color of water seems hazy in appearance with the value ranging from 15 to 25
Hazen as the result shown by lab test in table9. The value for Skin diseases and
58
falling sick are equal with 21%, looking dirty 23%, bad smell 22% and bathing
prohibited 13% respectively.The result is displayed in Fig.26.
People not using pond water for bathing
Skin Disease
21%
Falling Sick
21%
Prohibited Bathing
13%
Looking Dirty
23%
Bad Smell
22%
Fig. 26: Reason for not using pond water for bathing
4.6.3 Cause of pond pollution in Thecho area
The cause of water pollution on ponds is also supported by the result of not cleaned
regularly by 96% from fig 24. Nevertheless, here it gets 25% weightage with
maximum value. Besides these other reasons are: mixing of drainage 22%, washing
clothes 17%, washing livestock 14% and throwing wastage 22%. The weightage
distribution is shown in Fig.27.
59
Cause of pond pollution
Not Cleaned Regularly

25% Mixing Drainage
21%
Washing Clothes
Throwing Wastage 17%
22%
Washing Livestock
14%
Fig. 27: Cause of pond Pollution in Thecho Area
4.6.4. Importance of Rajkulo
Even though the Rajkulo is not in proper condition, the importance of Raj kulo is
shown in Fig. 28. The significance of Rajkulo rank top for irrigation with 24%, pond
filling 21%, Groundwater recharge 19%, decrease in water pollution 19% and for
bathing 17% respectively. Rajkulo is the main source of irrigation in that area. People
use Rajkulo for planting rice during monsoon season.
Importance of Rajkulo
Washing Bathing
17%
Pond Filling
21%
Decrease Water Pollu-

tion
19%
Irrigation
23%
Ground Water Recharge

19%
Fig. 28: Importance of Rajkulo
60
4.6.5 Rehabilitation of Raj kulo can be done by
Historical Rajkulo is important for many purposes. The rehabilitation of this canal
should be done timely. Fig. 29 shows that Enforcing strong rules and regulations gets
24%, Government initiations 23%, Awareness to local people 22%, stoppage of
fragment land 18%, and fund generation 13% respectively. It seems that along with
enforcing strong rules and regulations, awareness programs to the local people
regarding water pollution and its effect should be done. Besides that, ponds and stone
spout preservation, and their historical importance should be clarified.
Rehabilitation of Rajkulo
Awareness Program
21%
Regular Flow Rajkulo
19%
Government Initiation
21%
Enforcing Rules and

Regulation
22%
Stoppage Land Fragmentation

16%
Fig. 29: Rehabilitation of Rajkulo
4.6.6 Ponds Water can be cleaned by
The result should that cooperation with people and the formation of an organization
on pond conversation can give a better solution. The organization can initiate for
pond protection. From Fig.30,the formation of origination scores 22%, cleaning on a
regular basis 21%, awareness program to people and stoppage of waste throwing with
an equal percentage of 20%and regular flow of Rajkulo 17%respectively. From this
analysis, people have lost their hope, that the continuity of Rajkulo takes place.
61
Cleanliness of pond water
Regular Flow Rajkulo

18%
Formation of Organiza-
tion
22%
Stoppage Sewage
Throwing
20%
Cleaning Regularly
21%
Awaring People
20%
Fig. 30: Solution to clean Rajkulo
4.7 Focus Group Discussion (FGD)
The focus group discussion was conducted in the Godavari municipality ward no 12
of Thecho area. The number of participants present in the FGD was around 15with
three groups, five people in a group. For participant different question were asked and
their conclusion was noted.
The answers to the participant were summarized below:
From the FGD, the major outcomes were that Rajkulo is an ancient canal that is very
useful for irrigation their field and important source to fill ponds in Thecho area.
Nowadays there is no flow of water in the Rajkulo and the ponds that are filled by
Rajkulo of this area get polluted. The only dependable source of water for a pond is
rainfall and its collection in the rainy season. Due to water pollution in the pond,
people left to use water for bathing, washing clothes, for livestock, washing utensils.
People still use pond water to irrigate the garden and to build a house. Instead of
flowing water in canal sewage flow on the canal and that gets mixed into pond water.
4.8 In-depth interview Analysis
The in-depth interview was carried out between a few expert and senior citizens as
well as with the head of the ward, pond conservers, and Rajkulo conservation
committee. Their views, experience, and the answer have made this study conduct
62
successfully. According to them are three Rajkulo in these areas that are originated
from TikaBhairab and Nakhu Khola. These canal fed ponds on its way to Patan.
These canals flow up to three months in a year up to Chapagaun. From Sunakothi it
gets disappear. According to them, Rajkulo is an important source to fill a pond and
source of water to dhungedhara. Nowadays Rajkulo is in the path to vanish.
63
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Conclusions
Water is important for all living beings. Therefore, water quality needs a balanced
state of its natural phenomenon. This study focused on water pollution on a pond
within the command area of Rajkulo on different Physical, chemical and biological
water parameters in the pond of the Godavari Municipality ward no 12 of Thecho
Area. The water quality of seven different ponds was analyzed. The pH of all ponds
showed alkaline(7.6-9.5) but below the national standard. Similarly, parameters like
conductivity(592-895 µS), TDS(145-198ppm), total hardness, Iron(0.22-1.76mg/l),
Chloride level(78-104mg/l)) are below the national standard as well as WHO
standards. Certain parameters like turbidity(5.82-48.5 NTU), color value are
beholding the standard value. Ammonia(6.4-9.6mg/l) and fecal coliform(180+/100ml)
have topmost value than the Nepal standard. The positive point is that there is no
content of arsenic in these ponds and seems safer than groundwater.
Similarly, from the FGD, IDI, questionnaire survey, and FO, the condition of Rajkulo
and the ponds are not in proper condition and are not maintained regularly. 96% of
respondents agree that the pond is not cleaned regularly. Even though they carry
historical and cultural importance, they have kept degradation and an increase in
pollution level. The Thecho region contains some agricultural area and for the
irrigation of purpose, the need for Rajkulo is important. 24% of RII values show the
importance of Rajkulo on irrigation. Likewise, the majority seeks the solution to the
formation of the organization and enforcing strong rules and regulations on pond
conservation. Most of the households fulfilled their water by piped water but 13%
depends on dhungedhara. Ponds are the source of an aquifer to dig well and
dhungedhara.
Activities such as household waste sewage discharge and agricultural runoff mixed in
the ponds make water polluted. Lack of other similar studies in the Thecho region
made it difficult to compare the parameters. However, this study helps to build up the
knowledge in this specific research field by providing baseline data that will be a vital
resource for future research work in the field of water quality measurement.
64
65
5.2 Recommendation
 Frequent public awareness program on water pollution and their effect on the
environment and public health should be conducted in the affected area,
 Provision of clearance of pond in a month should be made,
 The responsible body should search and plan to preserve historical Rajkulo
and made regular flow to Patan areas so that the waterspouts will get their life
and attract tourist for economic growth,
 Implementation of rules and regulations for water resources should be in an
effective way,
 Provide sufficient public awareness program about water resources so that
people will provide their effort to preserve the historical hitis, canal, and
ponds, and
 For preventing pollution on water resources, proper plan and action should be
conducted and implemented by responsible authorities before the occurrence
of a disaster.
66
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75
APPENDIX
Questionnaire for thesis purpose
1. Name and Address ……………

2. Age ……
3. The number of Family Members…
4. Gender O male. O Female
5. Marital status: O Married O Unmarried
6. Education: O Illiterate O Basic: O Secondary O University
7. What are the main sources of income to sustain the livelihood of the family?
O Agriculture O Service O Business O Private jobs O Others
8. Where do you dispose of the wastages?
O garden O Other (collect by the municipality)
9. What are the sources of water that you use?
O Community Dug Well O pipe water O Dhungedhara O Tanker
10. Is the amount of water that you used enough for your household purposes?
O less O Enough O more
11. Do you have dug well?
O yes O No
12. Does the Depletion of water on well takes place?
O yes O No
13. Availability of water in well is
O Up to 12 months O dry on summer season
14. Do you know about Rajkulo?
O yes O No
15. Does it flow regularly?
O no flow O Up to 3 months O Upto 6 months O up to 12 months
16. For what purpose the Rajkulo is used?
O agriculture O pond filling
17. Is Rajkulo cleaned regularly?
O yes O No
18. Is pond cleaned regularly?
O yes O No
19. Do you use pond water?
O yes O No
20. For what purpose the pond water is used?
O agriculture O household purpose O built house O fire O livestock
…………………………
Signature of respondent
Date:……………
I
For RII (Relative importance index)
Weightage
Components 1 2 3 4 5
1. Pond water can be used for
a. Washing and bathing
b. Livestock
c. Street cleaning
d. Fire fighting
e. Agricultural Production
2. Why people are not using pond water for bathing?
a. Afraid of skin disease
b. Prohibited for bathing
c. Due to bad smell
d. Looking dirty
e. Fall sick after bathing
3. What is the cause of pollution in these Ponds?
a. Mixing of drainage
b. Washing clothes
c. Washing livestock(animal)
d. Throwing wastages
e. Not cleaned regularly
4. Why Rajkulo is important?
a. For pond filling
b. For irrigation
c. For groundwater recharge
d. To decrease in water pollution
e. For washing and bathing
5. Rehabilitation of Rajkulo can be done by
a. Fund generation
b. Local people awareness program
c. Government initiation
d. Stoppage of land fragmentation(Kittakat)
e. Enforcing strong rules and regulations
6. Pond water can be cleaned by
a. A regular flow of Rajkulo on a pond
b. Stoppage of sewage throwing
c. Awareness and knowledge for people
d. Cleaning on a regular basis
e. Formation of an organization
II
QUESTIONNAIRE FOR FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSIONS
1. How important are the ponds of Thecho to locals?

2. What is the present status of Rajkulo in Thecho?
3. Why Rajkulo is not properly maintained?
4. Why the Dhungedhara is drying up?
5. How farmers and Dwellers on the bank of Rajkulo are affected due to polluted water
in ponds?
6. How the pollution of water at ponds in Thecho area can be improved?
III
Sample Collection
Lab test
lab Report sample Attendence
IV
Focus group Discussion
In-depth Interview

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WATER QUALITY ASSESSMENT OF PONDS

LOCATED AT THECHO AREA OF LALITPUR

A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

A dissertation entitled Water Quality Assessment of the pond located at Thecho

Dr. K. R. Dahal Dr. Rajan Bhattarai

Dr. Narbikram Thapa Er. Prakash Upadhayaya

Finally, I would like to appreciate my family as well as my friends for their

Keywords: water quality, pollution, Rajkulo, ponds, dhungedhara

1.2 Problem statement................................................................................................2

1.3 Objectives of the Research...................................................................................3

1.4 Rationale of the study...........................................................................................3

1.5 Scope and Limitation............................................................................................3

1.6 Research Questions..............................................................................................4

1.7. Organization of study..........................................................................................4

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE................................................6

2.2. Definition and History of ponds..........................................................................7

2.3. Sources of water to fill a pond.............................................................................9

2.4. Type of ponds and uses of pond water................................................................9

2.5. Water policy, law, and regulations of Nepal.....................................................15

2.6. Water pollution..................................................................................................21

2.7 Global Problems on water pollution...................................................................22

2.8 Regional Problems on water pollution...............................................................24

2.10 Local Problems on water pollution...................................................................26

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY....................................................................28

3.2 Research Design.................................................................................................29

3.3 Data Collection...................................................................................................31

3.3.1 Nature of data....................................................................................................

3.5 Data analysis and presentation..........................................................................32

3.6 Methodological Framework...............................................................................33

3.7 Result, Conclusion and Recommendation.........................................................33

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULT AND DISCUSSION....................................................35

4.2 Field Observation...............................................................................................35

4.3 Lab Analysis.......................................................................................................37

4.4 Analysis of Different Parameters.......................................................................45

4.5 Questionnaire Survey.........................................................................................52

4.6 RII Analysis........................................................................................................58

4.7 Focus Group Discussion (FGD).........................................................................62

4.8 In-depth interview Analysis...............................................................................62

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION..........................63

Table 1: Various water quality components to be sampled.........................................30

Fig. 1: Mini Pond.........................................................................................................11

1.1 Background of the study

1.2 Problem statement

1.3 Objectives of the Research

a. To find the major pollutants in ponds,

1.4 Rationale of the study

1.5 Scope and Limitation

1.6 Research Questions

The main research questions of the study area are as follows:

a) How important are the ponds of Thecho to locals?

1.7. Organization of study

The study has been organized into five chapters.

At the end of this thesis, references and annexes are included.

2.1 Concept of Water management

Water resource management may be a multidisciplinary approach with reference to

2.2. Definition and History of ponds

2.3. Sources of water to fill a pond

2.4. Type of ponds and uses of pond water