CHE417, CU O.R.

OBANLA

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING,

COVENANT UNIVERSITY, OGUN STATE

CHE417: POLYMER PROCESS ENGINEERING

Lectures 9 and 10

EXTRUSION OF THERMOPLASTICS

INTRODUCTION

Extrusion is a high volume manufacturing process. It plays a prominent part on the plastics
industry. Extrusion, is a continuous process, and can be adapted to produce a wide variety of
finished or semi-finished products, including pipe, profile, sheet, film and covered wire.

Figure 1. Extruder

In order to produce satisfactory extrudate it is necessary to apply heat to the granules in order to
soften them and make the resulting melt capable of flow under some pressure. This is carried out
by rotated screw in the barrel by means of gear box and variable screw drive or Eddy current
motor.

Therefore the screw in barrel has following functions: pumping, heating, mixing and
pressurizing. In order to make each function as effective as possible it is normal practice to
divide the screw into 3 zones:
1. feed zone at hopper end
2. compression zone (transition) at the middle

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3. melt zone (melting zone) at the die end.

Feed zone
The feed zone collects polymer granules from the feed hopper and transport them up the screw
channel. The granules are heated up and compacted, leading to pressure build up as they advance
towards screw tip (die end). The polymer is softened and melted with the heat generated by the
shearing of the material and the heat input from the heating bands attached to the barrel. For
efficient pumping the granules must not be allowed to lie in the screw channel. They must
therefore show high degree of slippage on the screw channel surface and a low degree of
slippage on the barrel.

The maximum delivery of granules by the feed section may be achieved by:
 A relatively deep channel
 a low degree of friction between the polymer granules and screw surface
 a high degree of friction between polymer granules and barrel wall surface
 an optimum helix angle (20 degree for LDPE)

With many polymers, such as polyethylene, it is found that the friction of polymer to metal
increases with temperature up to about 120 degrees C. For optimum pumping we should
therefore in theory try to have a cold screw in feed zone and hot barrel.

As the material goes from feed zone to melt zone there is an increase in the screw root diameter.
This results in the decrease in the volume of space enclosed by the thread and the surface of the
root in one complete turn of the screw.

Figure 2: Features of screw

Compression zone
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Granules melting should occur around the compression zone.

The compression zone or Transition zone could be of two type.

 gradual transition, long compression zone

 sudden transition , short compression zone

The screws with sudden transition are required for plastic material with a narrow melting range
such as nylon and screws with gradual transition are for material with wide melting range. See
Figure 3.

Screw type:
(a) suitable for polymers with very
gradual softening temperature or
shear/heat sensitive polymers,
e.g. PVC
(b) polymers with wide
melting/softening temperature,
eg. PE
(c) polymers with sharp/narrow
melting temperature, e.g. Nylons.

Figure 3: Various screw designs and zones

The ratio of the volume of the first turns of the channel of the screw (at hopper end) to the
volume of the last turn of the channel (at the die end) is known as the compression ratio. This
ratio is usually between 1.5:1 and 4:1 depending upon the material.

Table 1
Material Compression Ratio
rigid PVC 2.3
PS/HIPS/HDPE/ soft PVC 3-3.4
LDPE 4
PP/slippery material 4

Melting zone

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In the melt zone (melting zone) the polymer melt is brought to the correct consistency and
pressure required for extrusion. The melt should be pumped to the die at a constant rate,
consistently and pressure. Higher melt pressure is required in the metering zone in order to mix
the melt to a constant properties throughout, hence obtain smooth extrudate.

This pressure is generated by (a) restriction to flow in the melt zone and (b) restriction in the die
head, (c) increase in melt viscosity.

The restriction to flow in the metering zone is increased by

 Decreasing channel depth,
 Decreasing channel width,
 Water cooling of the screw. Screw cooling hardens the layer of polymer adjacent to the
surface and reduces the effective channel depth.
 Replacing all or part of the metering zone section of the screw with a smear head attached
to and revolving with the screw. It has an added advantage of increased frictional heating
thereby increasing the degree of mixing of the melt and damping out any pulsations in
output.

Breaker plate
At the end of the melt zone, there is often a breaker plate fixed between the barrel and die
adapter. The breaker plate has the following important functions:

 It helps to further increase back pressure.

 It turns rotational flow of the melt into flow parallel to the screw axis.
 It holds back impurities.
 It holds back unplasticized materials.

To make these functions more effective it may be necessary to interpose stainless steel wire
mesh screens between the breaker plate and screw.

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Output of the extruder

The output from the extruder depends on (a) screw dimensions (b) die dimensions (c) screw rpm.
It can be increased by the following factors (1) increase of screw speed (2) increase of screw
diameter (3) the helix angle up to a maximum about 30 degrees (4) an increase in die diameter

When molten polymer emerges from a die many of its molecules will have been oriented in a
direction parallel to the axis of the die orifice. When no longer constrained by die wall the
molecules tend to recoil causing a contraction in the direction of extrusion and expansion in the
iron section of the extrudate. This phenomenon is known as die swell.

Dies
The die determines the shape of an extrudate. Thermoplastic polymer molecules consist of long
chains which tend to take up a randomly coiled configuration whenever possible. When such
materials flow or forced through a die, the molecules become partially straightened or oriented.

As it emerges from the die many of its molecule will have been oriented in a direction parallel to
the axis of the die orifice. When no longer constrained in the direction of extrusion, expansion in
the iron section of the extrudate occurs. This phenomenon is known as die swell.

Die swell may be reduced by the following:

 Decreasing extrusion rate
 Increasing melt temperature (keeping extrusion rate constant)
 Increasing the length of the die land
 Increasing the draw down rate (ratio of haul off rate to natural extrusion rate) without
affecting output.

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Figure 4: Die for rod

DIE FOR ROD:

The pressure in the melt on the barrel side of the breaker plate is greater than the pressure on the
die side. At the die outlet the pressure is zero. It is however, important to have a sufficiently high
pressure in the die so that the melt is consolidated after having been strained through the breaker
plate and before emerging from the die. This is achieved by designing restrictions into the die,
therefore ratio DD / DB should be less than half.

Flow of polymer melt in the extruder

Total flow = drag flow – pressure flow – leak flow --- --- (1)

Drag flow

The drag flow effectively pumps the polymer through the extruder. It is given by

𝑸𝑫 = ½𝝅𝟐𝑫𝟐𝑵𝒔𝒊𝒏ϴ𝒄𝒐𝒔ϴ𝑯 --- --- (2)

D is the screw diameter, H is the channel depth of the scres, N is the screw rotation speed and ϴ
is the helix angle. These parameters afftects the drag flow in the barrel. In any operation, all
these parameters are constant except the screw rotation speed, whihv can be varied. Therefore
the equation becomes

𝑸𝑫 = 𝜶𝑵 --- --- --- (3)

Proportionality constant 𝞪 only depends on screw geometry.

Pressure flow:

This is the poiseuille flow suppressing the flow through the extruder

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Flow restriction usually occur at the die end of the extruder. Thus, there is pressure gradient
along the screw that works against the flow through the barrel
3𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜭 𝛽
𝑄𝑃 = − 𝜋𝐷𝐻 𝛥𝑃 ≡ − 𝛥𝑃 --- --- (4)
12𝜇 𝐿 𝜇

Again, the proportionality constant 𝜷 only depends on screw geometry.

Leak flow is given by

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𝑄 = 𝛥𝑃 𝜋𝐷 δ3 --- --- (5)
𝐿 12𝜂 𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜭 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜭

Where H=δ is the depth of the slit; e is the width of the screw flight.

The leak flow however is small compared with drag flow and pressure flow, thus, may be
neglected in the total flow.

The net volumetric flow rate is the sum of drag and pressure flow

Q = QD + QP --- --- --- (6).

There are two end points or situations

(a) no flow restriction at the end of the extruder. i.e, open discharge. QP = 0 and

Q = QD --- --- --- (7)

(b) No flow out of the extruder, i.e. closed discharge (die plugged) Q = 0, QP = QD and

𝛥P = – 𝞪𝝁N/𝜷. --- --- --- (8)

The total flow is

𝝅𝑫𝑯𝟑𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝜭 𝜟𝑷
𝑸 = ½𝝅𝟐𝑫𝟐𝑵𝒔𝒊𝒏ϴ𝒄𝒐𝒔ϴ𝑯 − --- (9)
𝟏𝟐𝝁 𝑳

For practical purposes this cumbersome expression is simplified to.

β
𝑄 = αN − ΔP --- --- --- (10)
μ

The practical variables for operating the extruder are, screw rotation speed, head pressure and
melt viscosity.

The extruder characteristics include screw characteristics, die characteristics and material
characteristics.

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Screw characteristics

For Maximum output, 𝑸 = 𝑸𝑴𝑨𝑿 = ½𝝅𝟐𝑫𝟐𝑵𝒔𝒊𝒏ϴ𝒄𝒐𝒔ϴ𝑯 (11)

At minimum output, P= PMAX and Q = 0, therefore,

𝝅𝑫𝑯𝟑𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝜭 𝜟𝑷
½𝝅𝟐𝑫𝟐𝑵𝒔𝒊𝒏ϴ𝒄𝒐𝒔ϴ𝑯 = --- --- (12)
𝟏𝟐𝝁 𝑳

6𝜋𝐷𝐿𝑁𝜇
And 𝑃 = 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = --- --- --- (13)
𝐻2𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜭

The relationship between pressure drop and volumetric flow rate in the die is given as
𝛥𝑃
𝑄=𝐾 --- --- --- --- (10)
𝝁

𝜋𝑅4
Circular die: 𝐾 = Hagen-Poiseuille Law
8𝜇𝐿

Figure 5. Screw characteristics

𝜋𝑅4
Therefore, 𝑄 = 𝐾𝛥𝑃 = 𝛥𝑃 --- --- --- (11)
8𝜇𝐿

The relationship between extruder characteristics and die characteristics is shown in the plot
below:

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Die characteristic
Qmax

Operating point (𝛥P,Q)

Extruder characteristic

Pmax P

Figure 6: Inter-relationship of the characteristics

The intersection between the die chaactristiscs and the extruder charsacteristic is the operating
point.

The effect of process variables is as shown in Figure 7 below:

a b c
Q Q R2>R1
H1> H2 and L2>L1
Q
N3> N2> N1 R2
R1
Die characteristics H1
Die characteristics

H2 L2

N3
L1
N2
N1

P P
P

Figure 7. The effect of process variables: (a) screw speed, N, (b) screw channel depth, H
and metering length L and (c) die radius, R on operating point.

From the equations of screw and die characteristics and the equation of output-pressure
relationship, it can be seen that the operating point (all the lines) can be shifted depending on the
following: Screw rotation speed (N), Die dimensions, and Polymer melt viscosity.

Material characteristics

This informed the elastic and viscous components of the polymer materials. It is determined by
evaluating the material relaxation time (tm) and processing time (tp).

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Relaxation time is the characteristic timescale for which a melt has memory. It describes the
viscous and elatic responses to an applied stress..
𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑁𝑠.𝑚2
𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑥𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = = =𝑠 --- --- (12)
𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑚2.𝑁

The ratio tm:tp gives the Deborah number.

𝑡𝑚
𝑁𝐷𝑒𝑏 = --- --- --- (13)
𝑡𝑝

When,

NDeb <1, the process is predominantly viscos.

NDeb >1, the process is predominantly elastic.

Elastic effects include die swell, sharkskin and melt fracture while the viscous effects include
temperature rise and chemical reaction related degradation.

Die swell – it is a situation in which the polymer swells as it leaves the die. The extrudate differs
in its dimension from those of the die orifice. In fact, the extruded rod is larger in diameter and
the pipe has thicker walls. This is an overall response of the polymer melt to stress, resulting
from the elastic component of the polymer. It is the recovery of elastic deformation as the
extrudate leaves the constraint of the die channel and before it freezes.

Sharkskin - it is the roughening of the surface of the exrudate caused by the tensile stresses.
Usually, the melt has maximum velocity at the center and zero velocity at the wall as it leaves
the die lips. The materials at the wall accelerate to the velocity at which the extrudate is leaving
the die. Thus, it generates tensile stress. If the tensile stress exceeds tensile strength, the
extrudate will be of irregular shape. This is called melt fracture. At extreme conditions, for
example, the pressure at the extrudate becomes excessive or the die temperature drops, a coarser
grains appearance is observed. This is called orange peel.

Tapering the die entrance can eliminate the dead spots in the corners of the die entrance, thereby
maintaining a steady heat and shear history. It could also minimize development of tensile
stresses and minimize distortion of the streamlines. Long die land will extend the process time
which helps to eliminate memory of earlier processing, such as screw turning history.

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Types of Extrusion Process.

The extrusion process is broadly classified into seven different types depending upon the specific
applications.

(a) Sheet/Film Extrusion

In this extrusion process, the molten plastic material is extruded through a flat die. The cooling
rolls are used to determine the thickness of sheet/film and its surface texture. The thickness of
sheet is in the range of 0.2 to 15 mm. The thin flat sheet or film of plastic material can be made.
Generally, polystyrene plastic is used as a raw material in the sheet extrusion process.

(b) Blown Film Extrusion

In the blown film process, the die is like a vertical cylinder with a circular profile. The molten
plastic is pulled upwards from the die by a pair of nip rollers. The compressed air is used to
inflating the tube. Around the die, an air-ring is fitted. The purpose of an air-ring is to cool the
film as it travel upwards. In the center of the die, there is an air inlet from which compressed air
can be forced into the centre of the circular profile, and creating a bubble. The extruded circular
cross section may be increased 2-3 times of the die diameter. The bubbles are collapsed with the
help of collapsing plate. The nip rolls flatten the bubble into double layer of film which is called
layflat. The wall thickness of the film can be controlled by changing the speed of the nip rollers.
The layflat can be spooled in the form of roll or cut into desired shapes. Bottom side of the
layflat is sealed with the application of heat, and cut across further up to form opening; hence it
can be used to make a plastic bag. The die diameter may vary from 1 to 300 centimeters.
Generally, polyurethane plastic is used in this process. The schematic of blown film extrusion is
shown in figure 2.

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Figure 8: Blown film extrusion.

(c) Over Jacketing Extrusion.

This is also called wire coating process. The process involves pulling a bare wire through the
center of a die. There are two different types of extrusion tooling used for coating over a wire i.e.
pressure or jacketing tooling as shown in figure 3. If intimate contact or adhesion is required
between the wire and coating, pressure tooling is used. If adhesion is not desired, jacketing
tooling is used. For pressure tooling, the wire is retracted inside the die, where it comes in
contact with the molten plastic at a much higher pressure. For jacketing tooling, the wire will
extend and molten plastic will make a cover on the wire after die. The bare wire is fed through
the die and it does not come in direct contact with the molten plastic until it leaves the die. The
main difference between the jacketing and pressure tooling is the position of the wire with
respect to the die.

Figure 9: Over jacketing extrusion process

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(d) Tubing Extrusion

In this process, the molten plastic is extruded through a die and hollow cross sections are formed
by placing a mandrel inside the die. Tube with multiple holes can also be made for specific
applications, by placing a number of mandrels in the center of the die.

(e) Coextrusion.
Coextrusion is the extrusion process of making multiple layers of material simultaneously. It is
used to apply one or more layers on top of base material to obtain specific properties such as
ultraviolet absorption, grip, matte surface, and energy reflection, while base material is more
suitable for other applications, e.g. impact resistance and structural performance. It may be used
on any of the processes such as blown film, over jacketing, tubing, sheet/film extrusion. In this
process, two or more extruders are used to deliver materials which are combined into a single die
that extrudes the materials in the desired shape. The layer thickness is controlled by the speed
and size of the individual extruders delivering the materials.

(f) Extrusion Coating

Extrusion coating is used to make an additional layer onto an existing roll stock of paper, foil or
film. For example, to improve the water resistant of paper polyethylene coating is used. The
applications of extrusion coating are liquid packaging, photographic paper, envelopes, sacks
lining for fertilizers packaging and medical packaging. Generally, polyethylene and
polypropylene are used.

Applications of Extrusion process

The extrusion process is used for manufacturing rods, plates and tubes, wire and cable coating,
hose liners, hose mandrels, filaments, sheet, multilayer film, medical packaging and food
packaging, etc.

Advantages

 High production volumes

 Relatively low cost as compared with other molding process

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 Design flexibility
 Short lead times
 Coating of wire can be done to achieves desired properties
 Continuous part can be produced

Disadvantages

 Limited complexity of parts

 Uniform cross section can only be produced

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