GENERAL  ARTICLE

Seven Different Proofs of the Irrationality of 2

V G Tikekar

A tiy a h (w in n e r o f A b e l p riz e fo r 2 0 0 4 , jo in tly

w ith Isa d o r S in g e r ) sa y s 1 \ A n y g o o d th e o re m
sh o u ld h a v e se v e ra l p r o o fs, m o re th e b e tte r. F o r
tw o r e a so n s: u su a lly , d i® e re n t p ro o fs h a v e d i® e r-
e n t str e n g th s a n d w e a k n e sse s, a n d th e y g e n e ra l-
iz e in d i® e r e n t d ir e c tio n s { th e y a re n o t ju st re p -
e titio n s o f e a c h o th e r " . F o llo w in g th is re m a rk b y
V G Tikekar is a former
a g re a t m a th e m a tic ia n , w e h a v e g iv e n in th is a r- professor of mathematics
tic le , s e v e n p r o o fs fo r th e irra tio n a lity o f sq u a re at IISc, Bangalore. His
ro o t o f 2 . research interests are in
mathematical program-
1 . In tr o d u c tio n ming, numerical math-
ematics, theoretical
O f a ll th e co n cep ts in M a th em a tics, th e m o st im p o rta n t computer science,
is th a t o f a p ro o f. O n e o f th e g rea test m a th em a ticia n s probability and statistics.

o f a ll tim es, G H H a rd y (1 8 7 7 { 1 9 4 7 ), th e d iscov erer o f

th e to p m o st In d ia n m a th em a tica l g en iu s S R a m a n u ja n ,
o n ce to ld [1 ] a n o th er g rea t m ath em a ticia n a n d p h ilo so -
p h er B ertra n d R u ssel: \ If I co u ld p rov e b y lo g ic th a t
y o u w o u ld d ie in ¯ v e m in u tes, I sh o u ld b e so rry y o u
w ere g o in g to d ie, b u t m y so rrow w o u ld b e v ery m u ch 1
See Notices of the American
m itig a ted b y p lea su re in th e p ro o f" . T h a t b rin g s o u t th e Mathematical Society, pp.225,
p la ce o f `p ro o f' in th e rea lm o f m a th em a tics, a n d sh ow s February 2005.
h ow m u ch sig n i¯ ca n ce w e sh o u ld a tta ch to th e p ro o fs in
o u r stu d ies.
C erta in m a th em a tica l p ro p o sitio n s (i.e., sta tem en ts), es-
p ecia lly th e im p o rta n t o n es, a re p rov ed in m a n y d i® eren t
w ay s. F o r ex a m p le, th ere is a co llectio n [2 ] o f 3 6 7 p ro o fs
o f a sin g le th eo rem th a t is fa m o u sly k n ow n in th e n a m e
o f P y th a g o ra s. T h ese 3 6 7 p ro ofs h av e b een cla ssi¯ ed a s
a lg eb ra ic, g eo m etric, d y n a m ic, o r q u a tern io n ic b y th e Keywords
Rational and irrational numbers,
a u th o r o f th is co llectio n . It is in stru ctiv e to co llect a ll
Pythagoras theorem, congruent
p o ssib le p ro o fs o f a n y p a rticu la r p ro p o sitio n to g eth er, triangles.

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 GENERAL  ARTICLE

a n d co m p a re th em fro m th e p o in ts o f b rev ity, sim p lic-

ity, eleg a n ce, g en era l a p p lica b ility etc.
2 . S e v e n P ro o fs
T o w h et th e a p p etite o f th e rea d er o f su ch a n ex
p ercise, w e
g iv e h ere sev en d i® eren t p ro o fs to p rov e th a t 2 is a n ir-
ra tio n a l n u m b er. T h is p ro p o sitio n co m es co m p a ra tiv ely
a t a n ea rly sta g e in th e m a th em a tica l p rep a ra tio n o f a
stu d en t o f m a th emp a tics. T h ere a re so m e m o re p ro o fs
w h ich p rov e th a t 2 is irra tio n a l.
P ro o f 1 . L et u s a ssu m e co n tra p ry to w h a t is to b e
p rov ed . T h u s w e a ssu m e th a t 2 is n o tp a n irra tio n a l
n u mp b er. In o th er w o rd s, w e ta k e it th a t 2 is ra tio n a l.
S o 2 b ein g ra tio n a l, w e ca n ex p ress it in th e fo rm p = q ,
w h ere p a n d q a re in teg ers, a n d q 6= 0 . L et u s, w ith o u t
lo ss o f g en era lity, a ssu m e fu rth er th a t p = q is red u ced to
its low est term s, i.e., p a n d q h av e n o co m m o n fa cto r
(o th er th a n 1 ), o r sy m b o lica lly (p ;q) = 1 . T h en
p
( 2 = p = q) = ) (2 = p 2 = q 2 ) = ) [p 2 (= 2 q 2 ) is ev en ] = )

(p is ev en ):
T h erefo re let p = 2 n , n b ein g in teg er. H en ce

(4 n 2 = 2 q 2 ) = ) [q 2 (= 2 n 2 ) is ev en ] = ) (q is ev en ):

T h is p rov es th a t b o th p a n d q a re ev en , i.e. th ey h av e
co m m o n fa cto r 2 , a co u n tra d ictio n to o u r a ssu m p tio n
th a t p a n d q h av e n o co m m po n fa cto rs (o th er th a n 1 ).
T h is im p lies th a t a ssu m in g 2 to b e ra tio n a l lea d s to
co n tra d ictio
p n a n d h en ce th a t a ssu m p tio n ca n n o t b e co r-
rect. S o 2 is n o t ra tio n a l, i.e., it is irra tio n a l. Q .E .D .
N O T E : T h e p rereq u isite fo r th is p ro o f is th a t (m is in -
teg er, a n d m 2 is ev en ) = ) (m is ev en ). It is ea sy to
esta b lish th is a ssertio n .
p
P ro o f 2 . W e a ssu m e th a t 2 is a pra tio n a l n u m b er. S o
b y d e¯ n itio n o f a ra tio n a l n u m b er, 2 ca n b e ex p ressed

32 RESONANCE  December 2007

 GENERAL  ARTICLE

in th e fo rm p = q , w h erep p a n d q a re in teg ers,p a n d q 6= 0 .

H ere q > 1 sin ce 1 < 2 < 2 im p ly in g th a t 2 is a p o s-
itiv e n u m b er b u t n o t a n in teg er. F u rth er, w ith o u t lo ss
o f g en era lity w e a ssu m e th a t p a n d q h av e n o co m m o n
fa cto rs (o th er th a n 1 ). T h erefo re 2 = p 2 = q 2 a n d so

p 2 = q = 2 q: (1 )

N ow , q b ein g in teg er, R H S o f (1 ) is a n in teg er, w h ile

L H S o f (1 ) is n o t a n in teg er sin ce q > 1 , a n d th e n u m er-
a to r, n a m ely (p 2 = p £ p ) a n d th e d en o m in a to r, v iz. q
h av e n o co m m o n fa cto r (o th er th a n 1 ). T h u s w e rea ch
a co n tra d ictio n th a t L H S a n d R H S o f th e eq u a lity (1 )
a re o f d i® eren t fo rm s. A s th e co n tra d ictio n pa rises, o u r
a ssu m p tio n ca n n o t b e g ra n ted . T h erefo re 2 is irra -
tio n a l. Q .E .D .
p
P ro o f 3 . A ssu m epth a t 2 is n o t a n irra tio n a l n u m b er.
S o w e ca n ex p ress 2 a s p = q , w h ere p pa n d q a re p o sitiv e
in teg ers, a n d p > q > 1 sin ce 1 > 2 < 2 . A ssu m e
fu rth er th a t p = q is in its low est fo rm (w h ich ca n a lw ay s
b e d o n e). N ow co n stru ct a sq u a re A B C D w ith sid e q
(F igu re 1 ).

Figure 1.

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 GENERAL  ARTICLE

T h erefo re
p
AC = q 2 (b y P y th a g o ra s th eo rem )
= q(p = q ) (b eca u se o f ou r a ssu m p tio n )

) A C = p: (2 )
T a k e A E = q a lo n g th e d ia g o n a l A C : (3 )
p
(T h is is p o ssib le sin ce A C = q 2 > q). C o n stru ct E F ?
A C w ith F o n B C . (F w ill b e o n B C sin ce A E = A B ,
\ E A B = 4 5 ± a n d \ A E B = 67 :5 ±).
U sin g (2 ) a n d (3 ) w e h av e

E C = A C ¡ A E = p ¡ q; (4 )

N ow \ A C B = 4 5 ± sin ce A B C D is a sq u a re. T h erefo re

\ C F E = 4 5 ± sin ce \ C E F = 9 0 ±. H en ce u sin g (4 ) w e
h av e
EF = EC = p¡ q (5 )
¢ A E F a n d ¢ A B F a re co n g ru en t rig h t tria n g les (sin ce
A F is co m m o n , u sin g (3 ) A E = A B = q, a n d \ A E F =
\ A B F = 9 0 ±). H en ce, u sin g (5 )

FB = EF = p ¡ q
) F C = B C ¡ F B = q ¡ (p ¡ q) = 2 q ¡ p : (6 )

A g a in sin ce E F ? A C , u sin g (5 ) w e g et ¢ C Ep F a s a n
iso sca les rig h t tria n g le. T h erefo re F C = (p ¡ q ) 2 . N ow
u sin g (6 )
p p
2 q ¡ p = (p ¡ q) 2 o r 2 = (2 q ¡ p )= (p ¡ q ):

N ow sin ce p ;q a re a ssu m ed to pb e in teg ers, so a re 2 q ¡ p

a n d p ¡ q. F u rth er, sin ce 1 < 2 < 2 , w e g et 1 < p = q <
2 , o r q < p < 2 q a n d h en ce p ¡ q > 0 , p ¡ q < q , a n d
2 q ¡ p > 0 . S im ila rly, q < p y ield s 2 q ¡ 2 p < 0 , o r
2q ¡ p < p.
p
W e h a d a ssu m ed to sta rt w ith th a t 2 = p = q is pin its
low est term s, a n d p ;q > 0 . N ow , w e n o tice th a t 2 =

34 RESONANCE  December 2007

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(2 q ¡ p )= (p ¡ q ), w ith 2 q ¡ p > 0 , p ¡ q > 0 , a n d 2 q ¡ p < p ,

p ¡ q < q . T h u s, w e n ow h av e a sm a ller n u m era to r
a s wpell a s a sm a ller d en o m in a to r in th e n ew ex p ressio n
fo r 2 , i.e.,p w e h av e b een a b le to red u ce th e fra ctio n a l
fo rm fo r 2 b ey o n d w h a t w a s a ssu m ed to h av e b een
in its low est term s, a red u ctio n th a t w o u ld b e p a ten tly
im p o ssib le. A s th e co n tra d ictio p n h a s b een rea ch ed , o u r
sta rtin g a ssu m p tio n , n a m ely 2 is n o t a n irrap tio n a l is a
m ista k e. T h is esta b lish es th e irra tio n a lity o f 2 . Q .E .D
p
P ro o f 4 . W e a ssu m e th a tp 2 is n o t a n irra tio n a l n u m -
b er. W e ca n th en ex p ress 2 a s p = q, w h ere p a n d q a re
in teg ers, a n d q 6= 0 . T h erefo re 2 q 2 = p 2 . C o n sid er th e
p rim e fa cto rs o f b o th th e sid es o f th is eq u a lity. R H S is
p 2 , a sq u a re o f th e in teg er p . T h erefo re, in th e p rim e
fa cto risa tio n o f th e R H S (= p 2 ), 2 m u st a p p ea r a n ev en
n u m b er o f tim es. (N o te th a t zero is ev en ). S im ila rly, 2
m u st o ccu r a n ev en n u m b er o f tim es in th e p rim e fa c-
to risa tio n o f q 2 . A s th e en tire L H S o f a b ov e eq u a lity is
2 q 2 , th e a d d itio n a l co e± cien t 2 in it m a k es th e p rim e
fa cto risa tio n o f th e L H S co n ta in 2 , a n o d d n u m b er o f
tim es. T h u s w e h av e th e co n tra d ictio n th a t th e p rim e
fa cto rs o f th e sa m e n u m b er (ca ll it p 2 o n ce, a n d 2 q 2 ,
th e o th er tim e a s p 2 = 2 q 2 ) co n ta in a n o d d a s w ell a s
ev en n u m b er o f 2 's. S a m e n u m b er ca n n o t h av e d i® er-
en t p rim e pfa cto risa tio n . H en ce o u r a ssu m p tio n to stap rt
w ith , v iz. 2 is n o t irra tio n a l is n o t a ccep ta b le. S o 2
is irra tio n a l. Q .E .D
p
P ro o f 5 . S u p p o se 2 is n op t a n irra tio n a l n u m b er.
T h a t m ea n s w e a re a ssu m in g 2 to b e ra tio n a l. pS o b y
th e d e¯ n itio n o f ra tio n a l n u m b er, w e ca n ex p ress 2 a s
p = q, w h ere p a n d q a re in teg ers, a n d q 6= 0 . L et u s fu r-
th er ta k e th a t th e fra ctio n p = q is ex p ressed in its low est
fo rm (w h ich ca n a lw ay s b e a ch iev ed ). T h en p a n d q h av e
n o co m m o n fa cto r (o th er th a n 1 ). S in ce p a n d q h av e
n o co m m o n fa cto r (o th er th a n 1 ), p 2 a n d q 2 a lso h av e
n o co m m o n fa cto r (o th er th a n 1 ). T h a t m ea n s p 2 = q 2 is
a fra ctio n ex p ressed in its low est term s. B u t p 2 = q 2 = 2 .

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p
Sp o q 2 = 1 , a n d h en ce q = 1 . T h erefo re p = 2. T h u s
2 is in teg ra l (a s p is in teg er), w h ich is rea
p d ily seen to
b e fa lse a s 1 2 = 1 ;2 2 = 4 g iv in gp 1 < 2 < 2. W e
th u s g et a co n tra d ictio n (n a m ely, p 2 is in teg ra l), m a k -
in g o u r sta rtin
p g a ssu m p tio n , v iz., 2 is n o t irra tio n a l,
fa lse. H en ce 2 is irra tio n a l. Q .E .D .
P ro o f 6 . A ssu m e copn tra ry to w h a t is to b e p rov ed .
T h a t is, a ssu m e th a t 2 is ra tio n a l. T h erefo rep u sin g a
p ro p erty o f ra tio n a l n u m b ers, w e ca n ex p ress 2 a s
p
2 = p = q; w h ere p ;q a re in teg ers, a n d q 6= 0 : (7 )

A ssu m e fu rth er, w ith o u t lo ss o f g en era lity, th a t p = q is

in its low est fo rm .

(7 ) = ) p 2 = 2 q 2 : (8 )

W e a lso h av e p
1< 2 < 2: (9 )
N ow (8 ) = ) (p 2 ¡ p q = 2 q 2 ¡ p q) = ) [p (p ¡ q ) =
q (2 q ¡ p )] = ) p = q = (2 q ¡ p )= (p ¡ q).
p p
U sin g (9 ) a n d (7 ), 2 = 2 : 2 < 2 (p = q)

) 2 q < 2 p ; o r q < p ; o r p ¡ q > 0 ; a n d 2 q ¡ p < p : (1 0 )

p
A g a in u sin g (7 ) a n d (9 ), p = q = 2 < 2

) 2 q ¡ p > 0 ; a n d p ¡ q < q: (1 1 )

F ro m (1 0 ) a n d (1 1 ) it is clea r thpa t w e h av e b een a b le to

red u ce th e fra ctio n a l fo rm fo r 2 , to (2 q ¡ p )= (p ¡ q)
w h ich is sm a ller b ey o n d w h a t w a s a ssu m ed to b e in its
low est fo rm (n a m ely p = q). T h u s w e rea ch to a copn tra -
d ictio n b eca u se o f o u r sta rtin g a ssu m p tio n th a t 2 is
ra tio n a l.
Tp h erefo re o u r sta rtin g a ssu m p tio n is in co rrect a n d so
2 is irra tio n a l. Q .E .D .

36 RESONANCE  December 2007

 GENERAL  ARTICLE

p
Pp ro o f 7 . T o p rov e th a t 2 is pirra tio n a l, a ssu m e th a t
2 is ra tio n a l to sta rt w ith . S o 2 ca n b e ex p ressed a s
p
2 = p = q ; w h ere p a n d q a re in teg ers, a n d q 6= 0 : (1 2 )

A ssu m e fu rth er th a t p = q is in its low est fo rm (w h ich ca n

a lw ay s b e a ch eiv ed ).
p
p = q ca n n o t b e in teg er a s 1 < 2 < 2 . N ow sin ce p = q is
2 2
in its low est fo rm , so is p = q . S o

(1 2 ) = ) (p 2 = q 2 = 2 ) = ) (q 2 = 1 ) = ) (q = 1 )

T h erefo re p 2 = 2 , im p ly in g (sin ce p is a n in teg er) th p at 2

is a p erfect sq u a re, w h ich is im p o ssib le sin ce 1 < 2 <
2 . T h u s w e rea ch a co n tra d ictio n (n a m ely, 2 is a p erfect
sq u pa re). T h erefo re o u r sta rtin g a ssu m p tio n is in co rrect.
S o 2 is irra tio n a l. Q .E .D .
3 . C o m m e n ts
B y co m p a rin g a n d eva lu a tin g th ese sev en p ro o fs, ea ch
esta b lish in g th e sa m e p ro p o sitio n , o n e sh o u ld b e a b le to
d raw th e fo llow in g co n clu sio n s:

(i) A ll th e sev en p ro o fs a re d i® eren t, b u t ea ch o f th em

is a p ro o f b y co n tra d iction (red u ctio -a d -a b su rd u m ).
T h e p ropp o sitio n u n d er o u r co n sid era tio n h ere,
n a m ely ` 2 is a n irra tio n a l n u m b er' ca n n o t b e es-
ta b lish ed b y d irect-p ro o f m eth o d ; o n e h a s to re-
so rt to p ro o f b y co n tra d ictio n . H ere o n e rem em -
b ers G H H a rd y a g a in , w h o d escrib ed th e m eth o d
o f p ro o f-b y -co n tra d ictio n [3 ] a s \ o n e o f a m a th e-
m a ticia n 's ¯ n est w ea p o n s. It is a fa r ¯ n er g a m b it
th a n a n y ch ess g a m b it; a ch ess p lay er m ay o ® er th e
sa cri¯ ce o f a p aw n o r ev en a p iece, b u t a m a th e-
m a ticia n o ® ers th e g a m e" .

(ii) P ro o f 3 is v ery len g th y com p a red to th e o th er o n es.

RESONANCE  December 2007 37

 GENERAL  ARTICLE

(iii) P ro o fs 2 , 4 , 5 , a n d 7 a re sh o rt a n d eleg a n t; th ey ra -
d ia te b ea u ty, th o u g h b ea u ty is b a sed o n su b jectiv e
a p p ea l.

(iv ) In P ro o f 6 , su b tra ctin g p q fro m b o th sid es o f (8 )

in o rd er to d eriv e n ew red u ced fo rm fo r p = q lo o k s
a rti¯ cia l.

(v ) P ro o fs 1 a npd 3 a re u sefu l fo r esta b lish in g irra -

tio n a lity o f 2 o n ly, w h ile P ro o fs 2 , 4 , 5 , 6 , a n d
7 h av e g en era l a p p lica b ility in th a t th e u n d erly -
in g m eth o d o lo g y o r th e sty le o f a rg u pm en tp ca np b e
u sed to esta b lish th e irra tio n a lity o f 2 , 5 , 7 ,
p p
:::, p (p b ein g p rim e), p 1 :p 2 :::p r , p 1 ;p 2 ;:::;p r
b ein g d istin ct p rim es.
p
T h e P ro o f 6 ca n b e g en era lised to g en era l n (n
b ein g p rim e o r p ro d u ct o f d istin ct p rim es), if (a )
w e n o tice th a t pth ere ex ists a n a tu ra l n u m b er x
su ch th a t x < n < x + 1 a n d ta k e th is p a ir o f
in eq u a lities in p la ce o f (9 ), a n d th en (b ) p ro ceed
to w rite p 2 ¡ x p q = n q 2 ¡ x p q in stea d o f p 2 ¡ p q =
2 q 2 ¡ p q.

(v i) A ll th e p ro o fs, exp cep t P ro o f 4 , a ssu m e th a t th e

rep resen ta tio n o f 2 in th e fo rm p = q is in its low est
fo rm , b u t p ro o f 4 d o es n o t req u ire th a t a ssu m p -
tio n , i.e., in p ro o f 4 , p a n d q co u ld h av e a co m m o n
fa cto r.

(v ii) P ro o f 6 lo o k s to b e a n a lg eb ra ic m a n ifesta tio n o f

th e g eo m etric a p p ro a ch in P ro o f 3 .

(v iii) P ro o fs 2 , 4 , 5 , 7 a re b a sed o n ex p ressin g th e sta rt-

2 2 2 2 2
in g eqp u a lity p = q = 2 a s p = q = 22 q , p = 2 q ,
p = 2 (n o tin g th a t q = 1 ), a n d p = 2 (n o tin g
th a t q = 1 ) resp ectiv ely, a n d n o tin g th e co n tra -
d ictio n ea ch o f th em lea d s to . It is b u t n a tu ra l

38 RESONANCE  December 2007

 GENERAL  ARTICLE

th a t th e sta rtin g a ssu m p tio n b ein g in co rrect, it

ca n lea d to va rio u s co n tra d ictio n s a n d d ep en d in g
o n th e a p p ro a ch a d o p ted in a p a rticu la r p ro o f, d if-
feren t co n tra d ictio n co m es to su rfa ce.

4 . R e m a rk s
It is h o p ed th a t th e rea d er is en co u ra g ed to co llect d i® er-
en t p ro o fs o f th e sa m e p ro p o sitio n to w eig h th em fo r d if-
feren t ch a ra cteristics. F u rth er, it is reco m m en d ed th a t
th e rea d er stu d ies th e m erits o f d i® eren t ty p es o f p ro o fs
[d irect, in d irect, red u ctio -a d -a b su rd u m , p ro o f b y co n tra -
d ictio n , co n stru ctiv e, ex isten tia l, ex h a u stiv e, p ro o f u sin g
m a th em a tica l in d u ctio n (th is a lso h a s tw o va rieties)].
S u ch a stu d y w ill h elp h im / h er a p p recia te m a th em a tics
m o re, a n d w ill im p rov e h is/ h er d ep th o f u n d ersta n d -
in g . E sp ecia lly o n e m u st ex p erien ce th e joy a n d h a p p i-
n ess em b o d ied in th e m eth o d o f p ro o f-b y -co n tra d ictio n ,
w h erein a m a th em a ticia n is rea d y to o ® er th e sa cri¯ ce
o f th e en tire g a m e, a s a p tly p o in ted o u t b y H a rd y.

Suggested Reading Address for Correspondence

[1] W Ronald Clark, The life of Bertnand Russell, Knopf, New York, p.176, V G Tikekar
1976. c/o Thakar
[2] Scott Elisha Loomis, The Pythagorean Proposition, National Council of New Mahadwar Road
Teachers of Mathematics, Washington, DC, 1968 Near Padmaraje School
[3] G H Hardy, Mathematician’s Apology, Cambridge University Press, Kolhapur 416006, India.
New York, p.94, 1967.

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