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Vol. 10 No. 1: 2023 EKSU Journal of Education
ii
© Faculty of Education,
Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti
Nigeria.
Email: editor@eksujoe.com
ISSN 1119 – 4723
All right reserved. No part of this Journal may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted in any form or any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without the written permission of the Editor-in-Chief.
Printed by:
De-Divine Creation Ventures
No 1, Ifesowapo Street,
Onala, Ado-Ekiti
08034668749, 08133613720, 07030115871
iii
EDITORIAL
EKSUJOE is an official Journal of the Faculty of Education, Ekiti State University. This Journal has
been packaged with series of research findings and comprehensive theoretical analyses in various
disciplines in the field of education without losing its focus on the primary purpose of publishing
significant articles for both national and international audience.
The articles in the Journal are double blind reviwed in line with best global practices. A good number
of articles in this edition are well researched works of erudite scholars from various institutions of
learning all over the country. The articles are carefully selected from various fields of education such
as Guidance and Counselling, Psychology, Sociology, Educational Administration and Planning
Arts and Language Education, Science Education, Curriculum and Instruction, Tests, Measurement
and Evaluation, Social Science Education,Early Childhood Education,Adult Education and
Community Development. Human Kinetcis and Health Education, Vocational and Technical
Education and Philosophy. Specifically, EKSUJOE is positioned to serve as a vehicle for academics
and researchers to share ideas on current issues in the field of Education. EKSUJOE will continue
to be of immense benefit to students, researchers and educators in solving the problem of dearth of
research material in their various fields of specialisation.
The Editorial Board appreciates the efforts of all the contributions towards the successful production
of this edition. It is our fervent hope that researchers, readers and all knowledge seekers will continue
to subscribe to the Journal and find it useful in their academic endeavours. I, therefore, solicit for
your continued and unflinching support for further production.
Prof. S. A. Jegede
Editor-in-Chief
iv
EDITORIAL BOARD
Editor –in-Chief - Prof. S. A. Jegede
Dean of the Faculty of Education - Prof. S. A. Jegede
Consulting Editors
Prof. S. O. Bandele - Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti
Prof. (Mrs) G. A. Akinleye - Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti
Prof. O. V. Adeoluwa - Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti
Prof. I. A. Ajayi - Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti
Prof. J. B. Babalola - University of Ibadan, Ibadan
Prof. C. A. Daramola - Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba Akoko
Prof. M. Borode - Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti
Prof. J. B. Ayodele - Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti
Prof. F. S. Akinwunmi - University of Ibadan, Ibadan
Prof. E. B. Okunrotifa - Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife
Prof. J. B. Omonu - Ibrahim Babangida University, Lapai
Prof. C. A. Ajibola - University of Calabar, Calabar
Prof. A. O. Akeredolu - Lagos State University, Ojoo, Lagos
Prof. J. A. Abdulkareem - University of Ilorin, Ilorin
Prof. J. K. Adeyemi - University of Benin, Benin-City
Publication Committee
Prof. G. O. Ofodu - Chairman
Dr. O. B. Amoran - Member
Dr. (Mrs.) Awosusi - Member
Dr. I. O. Oginni - Member
Dr. (Mrs.)E. M. Dada - Member
Dr. (Mrs) A. O. Kolawole - Secretary
v
CALL FOR PAPERS
EKSUJOE is published annually by the Faculty of Education, Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti.
The Journal publishes research and theoretical papers.
The Editorial Board invites interested scholars and researchers to submit manuscripts for publication
volume 11 edition in the following fields:
Gender Parity,
Human Kinetics,
Science Education,
Health Education,
Counselling Education,
Educational Evaluation,
Tests and Measurement,
Educational Technology,
Educational Psychology,
Philosophy of Education
Educational Foundations,
Vocational and Technical Education,
Principles and Practice of Education,
Educational Administration and Planning
Curriculum and Instruction, Language Education,
Social Studies Education, Adult Education and Community Development
Copies of the paper are to be submitted to:
Prof. G. O. Ofodu
Managing Editor
EKSUJOE
c/o Dean, Faculty of Education, Ekiti State University
editor@eksujoe.com
08030708740
Or
Dr. (Mrs) A. O. Kolawole
c/o Dean, Faculty of Education, Ekiti State University
editor@eksujoe.com
07035732686
vi
CONTENTS
Title Page i
Copy Right Page ii
Editorial iii
Editorial Board iv
Call for Papers v
Contents vi
The Place of Non-Formal Education in the Teaching and Learning of Chemistry
in Nigeria 1
- Sam. Akin. Jegede
Discourse Markers for Writing Research Papers 6

Ofodu, Graceful Onovughe
ICT-Based Instruction and Business Education Lecturers’ Perception in South-

West Colleges of Education, Nigeria 13
- Shittu, Risikat M.; Badmus, Ayodeji M. & Ohadiugha, Marian N.
An Appraisal of Teachers’ Opinions on the Effectiveness of Accounting

curriculum for Secondary Schools in FCT, Abuja 23
- Ohadiugha, Marian N.
Effect of Osteoarthritis among the Elderly

- Francis Ajibola Olatomirin & Joseph F. Babalola 31
Enhancing the Teaching and Learning of English Vocabulary in Nigeria: An

Experience in Lexical Chunk Instructional Strategy 41
- Awolere Olumoroti Olaniyi&Olagunju Taiwo Olayemi
Knowledge and Perception of Menopause among Women of Different

Menopause Status in Ekiti State 52
- Margaret Adefiola Oluwayemi& Moyosore Racheal Aribasoye
Moral Disposition of Students Towards Examination Malpractice among 58

Secondary School Students in Ondo State
- M. S. Omirin & S. Bukola Fasoranti
Impact of Agricultural Extension Program on Sustainability of Non-Timber

Forest Products among Rural Households Farmers in Ondo State, Nigeria 64
- Idowu Israel Adewumi
Deep and Surface Pedagogical Lesson Study as Instructional Strategies on

Students’ Academic Achievements in Mathematics 70
- Oginni O. I.
vii
Assessment of Teachers’ Practices on Students’ Learning Process in Senior

Secondary Schools in Gombe Local Government Area of Gombe State 79
- Bappah, Adamu
A Speech Act Analysis of Selected Nupe Idioms

- Mohammed Alhaji Usman 90
Effects of Indigenous Language on Students’ Academic Performance in the

Learning of French Language among Undergraduates in Ekiti State, Nigeria 100
- Bakare, Bosede Elizabeth
Pragmatics of Hegemonic Ideologies in Nigerian English Usage of Subtitles in

Selected Nigerian Home Videos 110
- Lateef, Iyanda Kugbayi
Effects of Listening Method on Senior Secondary Students’ Achievement in

Reading Comprehension
- Johnson, Ojeka Ebibi 123
Ethno-Religious Misrepresentations in Nigerian Media Reports on Banditry: A

Lexical Overview 132
- Mohammed, Alhaji Usman
Flipped Classroom Instructional Strategy: An Innovative Pedagogy for

Enhancing English Language Classrooms
- Vincent, Ugah Uguma & Alexander, Essienn Timothy 140
Teachers’ Factors and Assessment Knowledge of Test Items Formats among

Teachers in Lagos State:
- Oludipe, Olajumoke S.; Oyetunji, Opeyemi S. & Bankole, Isaac S. 145
The Role of Technology in Enhancing Biliteracy in International Languages

among Nigerian Undergraduates 155
- Apata, Stella Bolanle
Reading Habits and Students’ Academic Performance in the Era of Information

and Communication Technologies 167
- Ojetunde, Cecilia Folasade
Aspects of Unethical Practices Perpetuated by Universities during NUC

Accreditation Exercises in Nigeria 175
- Louis, Okon Akpan
Exploring the Relationship between Technical Education Teachers’ Goal 216

Orientation Profiles and Participation in Professional Development Activities
- Abidemi, O. Shodeinde & Bamidele, M. Efuwape
viii
Investigating Teachers’ Perceived Satisfaction and Effectiveness of ICT 225

Utilization in Public Secondary Schools in Bayelsa State
- Gabriel Chibuzor Job & Archibong, Florence Imaobong
Influence of Social Media on Students’ Academic Performance: Implication for 234

Counseling
- Abidoye A. B.
A Case Study Survey of Students’ Perception on the Use of Mother Tongue 215
Interference in the Teaching and Learning Ofchemistry
- Oladiran, Elizabeth Titilope & Oludipe, Olajumoke Shakirat
Flipped Classroom Approachfor Bridging Skills Acquisition Gaps 223

- Oso Senny Oluwatumbi; Odeyemi Ade &Ambode Akinbiyi Benard
Information and Communication Technology (Ict) Potentials in Technical 233

Vocational Education and Training (Tvet) for Job Creation in an Era of Global
Economic Challenges
- Abidemi, O. Sodeninde; Segilola, S. Ayodele & Segilola, Victoria Omowumi
ix
THE PLACE OF NON-FORMAL EDUCATION IN THE TEACHING

AND LEARNING OF CHEMISTRY IN NIGERIA
Sam. Akin. JEGEDE

Department of Science Education,
Faculty of Education, Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti.
Abstract
Education is the provision of enlightenment for the mind leading to self-awareness and ability to
preserve and upgrade culture for human survival. The existing technological culture to which
Chemistry is highly instrumental needs to be preserved and constantly upgraded. Therefore learners
who are the agents of the very much needed preservation and productive change must have been
thoroughly been furnished with the fundamental technicalities of scientific skills in process and
method. However, most of the skills that would lead to functionalities and value addiction are better
enhanced outside the normal confines of formal education In other words, non-formal Education
significantly plays major roles in respect of this, as observed. This paper, therefore, examines
education and its types; Non-Formal Education as an innovative alternative to schooling and its
implication on teaching/learning of chemistry. It recommends among other things that teachers and
other stakeholders should play advisory role in encouraging learners to develop interest in Non-
Formal Education to boost education functionality and value addition.
Key words: Non-formal, education, culture, innovative, alternative, functionality, value.
Introduction culture. This is cultural upgrading and

Generally, education is the process could come through educational
of framing for the purpose of living a useful enlightenment. The process of providing
and acceptable way of life as a member of enlightenment for the mind in order to
the society. It is seen by Fadare, (2016), preserve and/or upgrade culture for survival
as the provision of enlightenment for the is the sole responsibility of education. This
mind, in order to preserve and upgrade is the only means by which society can
culture for survival. Culture being the develop.
general way of life of a particular society The development of a society,
must be preserved. No society can develop according to Gabby (2016), is not in the
outside its culture. Every member of the array of skyscrapers with which cities are
society needs enculturation to preserve the adored. It is neither embedded in the wave
occupation, art, craft and other materials of expatriates flooding the countryside for
and non- material aspects of culture or else aesthetic fixtures, nor in the importation of
such a society would slip into enslavement. very weighty exotic materials in their
Situation may also warrant getting soaring numbers. It is only implied in the
rid of the obsolescence of culture and extent to which the culture had been
embellish it with other necessary in-flows preserved and upgraded through
through acculturation. In this sense, such a educational enlightenment. In Nigeria, the
culture would experience a better influence abandonment of eastern region coal,
of other cultures for better living. An western cash crops and the jettisoning of
example of this is the positive influence of northern groundnut pyramids for southern
the Western technological culture on Africa oil boom has done Nigerians more bad than
1
good. The presently experienced is any organized educational activity

sophisticated life with ostentatious living outside the established formal system,
does not translate to development. It is only whether operating separately or as an
a product of economic dependence and a important feature of some broader
sheer enslavement. How then would activity intended to serve identifiable
Nigerian educational system bring about learning group with specific
the very much needed cultural objectives. Non-Formal Education can
transformation leading to the widely take different forms. Some of these
publicized strong and self-reliant with great include:
and dynamic economy? Definitely the i. Para-formal Education
presently implemented formal education ii. Popular Education
should be critically looked into, with a view iii. Personal Development
towards making it functional iv. Professional and Vocational
Training
There are three main types of v. Literacy with skill development
education. These are formal, informal and vi. Supplementary Non-Formal
non- formal. Education programmes
a. Formal Education is the type of vii. Early Childhood Care
education taking place in a relatively Development (ECCD) among
organized environment with a well- others.
planned and rigidly implemented
curriculum. It is to a very large extent Non-Formal Education as an Innovative
confined to the four walls of Alternative to Schooling.
classrooms called the school According to Rogers in Daramola,
environment. The acquired knowledge (2016), non-formal education is a learner-
is usually classified and certified at the centred, flexibly organized educational
end of the course. activity that takes place outside the formal
b. Informal Education is the type of educational system. There is no specific
education which does not culminate at target group, it could be youths, adults or
any form of certification. It has neither even be gender sensitive. In the words of
an end nor a specifically arranged Taylor, Neil, and Banz (2008), non-formal
curriculum. This type of education, education is a programme that spans across
according to Bacquelaine and a wide range of fields but distinguished
Rayhackers in Yasunaga, (2014) is a from formal education.
lifelong process whereby people Bacquelaine and Raymaekers in
acquire attitude, skills and knowledge Yasunaga, (2014) see non-formal education
from daily experiences, educative as any organized educational activities
influences and other resources in the established outside the formal system
environment. Infants and young whether operating separately or as an
children learn how to speak. They important feature of some broader activity
learn by listening and imitating. Their intended to serve an identifiable learning
trial and error efforts are augmented by clientele with specific objectives. In spite of
parents, siblings and friends who the different definitions, non-formal
encourage correct sounds and education programme has a number of
spontaneously correct errors. criteria that are shared across the
c. Non-Formal Education (NFE) is that definitions.
type of education which is spatially (i) It is learner-centred in nature
andnaturally different from either (ii) The programme is customized to
informal or formal type of education. It the learners' circumstance
2
(iii) The curriculum is very flexible with training. Therefore, the word alternative
no compulsive charge of continuity, becomes prominent in non-formal
and education owing to this dwindling interest
(iv) It is outside the formal education of youths to study physical sciences and
settings mathematics:
Bernadette, (2015) noted that Non- However, the required urgent need
Formal Education is also affected by the in education was not the provision for just
region or culture in which the programme ordinary alternative. It was an alternative
are implemented. Asia sees it as community that would bring about improvement over
development which is supported by the what was on ground, creating a better way
national authorities. America views it as of handling education, thereby making it
vocational training for modem industry functional and adding value to it.
organized by non-governmental bodies. Consequently, non-formal education did
Africa sees it as agricultural production and not just become an alternative to schooling
family support apprenticeship education. but rather an innovative alternative to
Therefore summarily put, non-formal schooling. Owing to this development,
education is a learner-centred educational many European nations in general and
programme with very flexible curriculum, Romania in particular as well as other
customized either to correct an anomaly or developed nations of the world could attest
to bridge a gap outside the formal settings. to how non-formal education as a viable,
The term, non-formal education innovative and alternative measure could
appeared (replace this with came up) in revolutionize education in terms of
1968 as a result of world's education crisis. achievement of stated objectives. The
It became the new world order until mid revolution became vividly noticeable in the
eighties after which it slipped into an sense that, as the same science was being
eclipse, only to resurface in 1990 with taught and learnt, everything wholly
greater advocacy. According to Niculae and became learner-centred and activity-based
Barna, (2000), after 1990, many studies Moreover, scientific teaching and learning
showed an alarming decline of youth was customized to learners’ specific need,
interest in learning physical sciences and in an atmosphere giving room for flexibility
Mathematics. Between 1998 and 2002, the of curricular implementation as against the
report offered to the European Commission rigidity experienced in formal education
in 2005 by the MAPS association indicated setting. Consequently, learners' interest
a 15% drop in the number of graduates in towards studying physical science subjects
the field. Most researchers agreed that the became improved, functional knowledge
decline in interest of young people for increased and societal expectation met
science study is largely due to the way
science is taught in schools. They suggested Implication of Non-Formal Education on
several ways in which the attitude could be the Teaching and Learning of Chemistry
changed. The rationale behind the
Moreover, the anger from formal evolvement of non-formal education was to
education's failure to adapt to the rapidly find an alternative but innovative substitute
changing socio-economic conditions called for the rigidly implemented, subject-
for reform. The reform was seen either centered science curricular in formal
changing formal education or totally education. This became necessary in order
abolishing schools. As a result of this, it to correct the repugnant effect of formal
became imperative to secure an alternative education not meeting societal needs as far
to schooling in form of literacy with skill as educational functionality was concerned,
development, professional and vocational which led to dwindling interest in the mind
3
of learners to study physical science (2016), asserted that the brain is not a
subjects. According to Fadare (2014), there passive consumer of information: To learn
is no subject in the physical sciences that with understanding, a learner must actively
has no prospect and that it is the ways and construct meaning. He added that learners
manner instructions are delivered in the learn science successfully by restructuring
formal educational setting that relegate the way they think about the world. After
them to mere theoretical and abstract formal education classes, learners can be
subjects, having no lucrative application. encouraged to voluntarily visit artisan
In Nigeria, Chemistry as one of the workshops in their neighbourhood for more
basic physical science subjects needs not to pragmatic and real life encounters. For
be handled in such a way it would be seen example, chemistry students can be
as a theoretical subject by learners encouraged to visit the bleach industry in
However, this observed trend of dwindling their locality, making use of the chemistry
interest, leading to poor performance is of oxidation and reduction. They can visit
neither limited to Chemistry nor to Nigeria the local soap making industry basing their
as a country. It is becoming a global issue. production on the chemistry of
In the word of Jegede (2016), the decline in saponification or nylon factory making use
students’ performance in science subjects of the chemistry of polymerization. Other
due to lack of interest is not limited to artisans like battery charger, welders, and
Nigeria alone, other countries of the world those in dye making as well those in
are also experiencing the same. This ugly fertilizer industries are making use of
development is attributed to the way and chemical actions and reactions.
manner science is being taught in schools Developing interest to boost one's
contrary to the curious nature of students formal education acquired knowledge in
From psychological evidence, some of these interest arousing activity-
youth are naturally curious, intelligent, and based, flexible curricula non-formal
wish to probe the world around them. They education would convince one about the
are much interested in attention-attracting, revolution it could bring into the teaching
activity based learning rather than passively and learning of chemistry.
listening to theories (Seweje, 2003), If the
necessary intervention needed by formal Conclusion and Recommendations
education for optimal functionality and Education being the process of
value addition (as specified by Niculae and providing enlightenment for the mind
Bama, 2010) is non-formal education; and leading to self awareness and ability to
if it did revolutionize science education in preserve and upgrade culture for survival
Romania and in other countries, it is can be in form of formal, informal and non-
believed that it would also do same in formal arrangement. Unlike the informal
Nigeria, if properly handled. type, formal education has specifically
In the senior secondary school planned curricular structure, rigidly
Chemistry curriculum, there are topics like implemented in a relatively well organized
oxidation and reduction, solubility, environment, without necessarily putting
chemical equilibrium, saponification, into consideration the interest of the
esterification, fermentation, polymerization learners for which it is planned. This and
among others which students believed are other pedagogical short-comings had
difficult to understand. All these topics, and initiated the considerable loss of interest in
a host of others are topics which should be physical science subjects by learners. This
taught adopting activity-based approach, development led to the evolvement of non-
for the learners to construct their own formal education considered to be an
personal meaning to what is taught. Jegede, innovative alternative which is learner-
4
centered, activity-based, customized to Romania primary schools. International

specific needs and flexibly implemented. Conference of the Balken Physical
Owing to the more experiential Union, Alexandropoulos, Greece. 1360-
nature and consideration for learners; 1365.
interest, non-formal education actually
Fadare, O. (2015). Non-formal education:
serves as an innovative alternative to Problems and prospect. Unpublished M.
schooling. This is so, especially when non- Ed. Thesis. University of Ibadan.
formal education is implemented either in
form of personal development, literacy with Gabby, E. W (2016), Teaching in situ non-
skills or professional and vocational formal education. The Canadian Journal
training. for the Study of Adult Education, 21(1),
It is therefore recommended that; 1-8
parents, teachers and government should
persuade and encourage students to develop Jegede, S. A. (2016) Relative effectiveness of
activity based approach and lecture
interest in non-formal education, not only
method on junior secondary school
to secure self-employment at this time of students’ achievement in Integrated
national recession, but more importantly, to Science. Journal of Research in Science
boost the functionality of their respective Education. 1(1), 20-29.
course of study, especially in the physical
sciences and particularly in chemistry. Niculae, M., Niculae C. M. & Barna, E. (2010).
Non-formal science education
promoting learning through experiment.
References Buchares: University Press.
Bernadette, B. (2015). Non-formal education
for critical media literacy: The case Seweje, R. O. (2003) Issues relating to
ofyouth in action programme in depreciating interest in science and
Lithuania. Unpublished paper. science related subjects by teachers and
pupils in primary schools. Research in
Daramola, M. A. (2016): Non-formal education Curriculum Studies 2(1), 187-191.
as an innovative alternative to schooling.
An unpublished paper presentation. Yasunaga, M. (2014) Non-formal education as
a means to meet learning needs of out-of-
Doncu, R. (2009): Acquiring knowledge of school children and adolescent.
physics by a hands-on approach in Unpublished paper.
5
DISCOURSE MARKERS FOR WRITING RESEARCH PAPERS

OFODU, Graceful Onovughe
Department of Arts and Language Education, Faculty of Education,
Ekiti State University, Ado Ekiti, Nigeria
Abstract
Writing is a fundamental aspect of the academia. An academic is often required to write, publish
quality and quantifiable research papers or perish. This herculean task of writing and publishing
has oftentimes led to demotion, demoralization and distortion of many academics. Similarly, most
postgraduate students seem unaware of the role of discourse markers in their dissertations and
theses. Those who are aware sometimes underutilize them resulting in incoherent and illogical
discourses. This present study is an answer to the many hours spent in examining, editing and fussing
the research discourses of undergraduate and postgraduate students. Therefore, this paper
explicates the meaning, types and uses of discourse markers. In this paper, two categories of
discourse markers were showcased; factual organizational and inferential ideational markers. It
concludes and recommends that the place of discourse markers cannot be glossed over in academics
and by implication; undergraduate and postgraduate students should utilize these markers for their
appropriate discourses without much ado.
Keywords: Discourse, Discourse markers, Research Paper, Writing, Inferential, Organizational
Introduction The report is examined verbally or non-

One vital language skill that often verbally for adequacy, currency and global
showcases an academic’s ability to utilize relevance in different shapes and sizes in
language efficiently and effectively is some universities. Within the space of such
writing. Writing is a psychomotor skill that examinations, so many flaws are detected.
requires lots of other cognitive skills to One prominent and observable flaw is the
capture ideas, facts, problems and inappropriate and none utilization of
emotions. It is an expressive skill that discourse markers.
academics use to present their discourses in A discourse is any write up or oral
form of academic or research papers. A presentation that is clear, unambiguous,
research paper is an academic discourse logical, coherent and comprehensible. To
that situates a problem in a specific of attain these goals, such a discourse must
study, target area and investigates such with have sufficient utilization of discourse
a view to finding probable solutions. markers. A discourse marker is a cohesive
A research paper is an academic device or words that nuptial or string words
discourse which involves the process of together coherently. It is could be sentential
investigating a particular problem, or inter-sentential or intra-sentential in
collecting data, synthesizing and analyzing nature. In writing such papers, discourse
the relevant data as a means of finding markers play germane roles in marshalling
solution to the identified problem. A the discourse appropriately. Not many
research paper is one of the requirements academic and non-academic writers are
for graduation in most universities globally. aware of these markers.
Within the academic parlance, a research In this paper, the researcher
paper is a discourse that is usually scientific addressed the following questions: What
in nature with appropriate scientific tools discourse markers should writers employ in
and methodology for appropriate reportage. writing research papers? What discourse
7
markers should writers employ in stating (97.9%), but (90.9%), and because (76%).
their opinions and organization of facts? The high occurrence of some DMs may be
considered to be a strategy adopted by
Literature Review learners to avoid using unknown DMs. In
Many studies have been conducted addition, the results showcase that a
globally on discourse markers. This is a number of factors may have influenced the
pure attempt to capture briefly some of such use of DMs such as literal translation, lack
studies with the mindset of showcasing the of knowledge of some DMs, and
gaps and justifications for this present overgeneralization. The study recommends
study. that textbooks used to teach English in
First, Fraser (2015), in his the study schools should incorporate more attention
explained that while Discourse Markers to DMs, particularly from a functional
(DMs) have been studied as individual perspective.
markers (e.g., but, so, instead), little work Second, Assassi and Merghmi
has been done on their ability to combine. (2023) studied metadiscourse markers in
This is an exploration what of combinations terms of frequency and function in the
of Contrastive Discourse Markers (CDM) abstract section of published research
occur in English (e.g., but, on the other articles in applied linguistics developed by
hand), what combinations of Implicative Algerian, Saudi, and Native researchers. 20
Discourse Markers (IDM) occur (e.g., so, as research articles for each group, with a total
a result), and what combinations occur of 60 articles have been randomly selected
when one member is taken from each class and compiled as the research corpus for this
(e.g., but, as a result; so, instead). Whereas study, then analyzed qualitatively and
the combinations of CDMs are permitted quantitatively using AntConc.3.2.4 relying
relatively often, combinations of IDMs are on Hyland’s classification of metadiscourse
fewer, and cross-class combinations of markers. The results showed how close
CDM-IDM and IDM--CDM still fewer. No were Algerian abstracts to native ones in
satisfactory explanation is available yet for terms of using endophorics, frame markers,
why certain DMs combine while others do code glosses, hedges, attitude markers, and
not. In addition, there is the possibility that self-mentions. While Saudi abstracts were
different genres, social dialects and styles close to the benchmark only in two markers
may further muddy the waters. that are transitions and engagement
Rabab'ah, Ma'touq, Alghazo (2022) markers. The rest of the devices were
examined the use and functions of shown to be far from the native norm in
discourse markers (DMs) in the narrative both cases. The findings also revealed that
essays of 85 Jordanian high school students the use of metadiscourse markers is not the
adopting Frasers’s (2006) framework. The only indicator of papers’ publication rate in
results show that the most frequently used indexed journals by comparing the corpus
DMs were elaborative (55.1%), followed analysis results to the source of the articles
by temporal (31.4%), inferential (9.3%) and (journals), to find that even if Algerian
contrastive (4%) respectively. Regarding researchers publish less in high indexed
the functions of DMs, the results reveal that journals in comparison to Saudis, they are
the participants employed elaborative still closer in using markers to the natives
markers to express addition of information, as a benchmark. This is basically a
temporal markers to sequence the events, comparative study on abstracts of research
inferential markers to introduce reasons or papers of three sets of people or researchers
results and contrastive markers to express on the use of discourse markers. The
contrast. The results also indicate that the location is quite different from this present
most commonly used DMs were and study where the author is explicating
7
discourse markers and the typologies for the latter organizes the ideas. Let us start the
researchers to learn in order to use them discussion with the latter.
effectively. 1. Factual Organizational markers
Further, Huang, Lin and Graf 2. Inferential Ideational Markers
(2021) discussed fluent L2 English
speakers frequent use discourse markers Factual Organizational Markers
(DMs) as a speech management strategy, Factual organizational markers are
but research has largely ignored how this words showing sequence, specifying,
develops across different proficiency levels exemplifying, re-expressing, referring and
and how it is related to immersive summarizing facts as presented in a
experiences. This study examines the research paper. Sequencing of events
developmental patterns of three DMs – markers can occur at the beginning, middle
well, you know and like – in the speech of or the end of the discourse. Sequencing is a
learners at A2-C1 in CEFR with and major means of organizing ideas or events
without immersive experiences in target in paper. Examples of the markers in this
language environments. The fluency-rated group are: first {of all}, first off, in the first
LINDSEI corpus (173 learners) and a place, to begin with, next, the following
parallel native corpus (50 speakers) day, at once, one, firstly. These markers
provided approximately 350,000 tokens answer the question when, order of event
and 3,395 instances of the analyzed DMs. and logicality? Consider the following
Overall, DM frequency (especially with examples from some research papers:
well and you know) among C1 speakers Over the years, the problem of
increases with rising fluency levels up to poor writing skills among
almost native-like levels. Immersive secondary school students has
experience correlates positively with persisted. One of the major
overall and individual DM frequency problems facing English
(except for like). As the skillful use of DMs language teachers is that of
results in more fluent speech production, helping students acquire
the didactic implications for L2 instructors organizational skills and
should be developed. This study examined content development. Secondly,
how research has largely ignored how DMs the issue of practical writing
develop across different proficiency levels lessons in classrooms needs to
and how it is related to immersive be addressed.
experiences of learners. Let me start by throwing some
challenges to you for
Explicating Discourse Markers, deliberations. First of all, there
Typologies and Uses is the challenge of good writing.
Discourse markers are words and It is a challenge to stop writing
phrases that show how writers and speakers to please ourselves, our ears.
deploy ideas in texts. They are semantic Second of all is the challenge of
words that string the meaning between and good books. So many literacy
among words. Broadly speaking, in this programmes have come to
present study, there are two categories of naught in Africa because after
markers that will be explicated for writing people learn to read in the
research papers. They are the inferential literacy classes, they go home
ideational markers and the factual with nothing to read. In
organizational markers. The former particular, we need to write
explicates the opinions of the writer while children’s books and to
populate them with beautiful
8
illustrations that speak to In Ado-Ekiti, it has been

African minds and observed that English as a
imaginations. Third is the Second Language (ESL)
challenge of good values. teachers teach English
Somehow, we seem to have lost Language on a daily basis. As
the moral compass that kept such, students are not exposed
African traditional societies on to diagnostic evaluation for
course and we are failing to want of time. In this
teach our children how to stay connection, the teachers may
on a moral course. A fourth not know the students at
challenge is children’s firsthand until probably the
participation. If children are to fourth week when the first test
learn to think, become morally would be conducted. This
responsible persons, they must misconception and assumption
have opportunities to think, to have great negative impact on
question and to be respected as the students. However, if the
they express their ideas. My teacher is not meticulous
fifth and last challenge is that enough to observe the students’
of good teacher. I have talked performance that is closely tied
about writing and reading but of to diagnostic evaluation, the
extreme importance is the problem would linger. Thus,
toolmaker, the teacher. teachers, need to address this
issue as early as possible.
The markers which show the Re-expressing Markers: That is to
sequence of events are in bold letters. say, or rather, to put it another way, that is,
Remember that the markers in the passage etc
answer the Wh-question of sequence? It is It is clear that the
clear that these markers make reading this interrelatedness of of
article enjoyable, comprehensible, orderly Literature and literacy cannot
and creative. be glossed over. In the first
Specifying Markers: Viz, to wit, namely, place, both Literature and
that is to say, as follows etc. This type of literacy place man as their
instance when we state our Objectives or centerpiece. In other words,
Purpose of the Study in a research paper, they are concerned with
specifying markers come handy. human beings and their
The study is designed to ascertain development generally. In
the effects of study skills development on this light, therefore, all the
students’ achievement in Economics by assumptions in this paperare
exposing them to instruction on study skills anchored on the theory of
strategy. The objectives are as follow: Social Realism. Put in
Referring Markers: In this respect, in that another form, they are social
connection, concerning this, apart from realism underscores the need
this, ignoring this, as we said, etc. Most for an investigation of the
often, referring markers are used to make social milieu in which is
reference to referents or to dissuade from created and it reflects
the referents. In discussing the Background Exemplifying Markers: To illustrate
to the Study, a researcher might explicate this, thus, for example, etc
concepts using referring markers. For To illustrate this, let us look at Zaki,
instance: one of the principal characters in The
9
Descendants asserts that ‘without sound instance, federal funding alone

education a woman has a very little chance provided for non-defence basic
to make a success of her life.’ Thus, this and applied research in US was
novel explores the extent to which $7.9 billion in 1985. More than
education with its liberalization influence half of his kind support was
could emancipate and extend freedom to given to the universities.
the woman in dealing with inhibitive Contributions of industry to
cultural and social issues national expenditures on
Summarizing Markers:To recapitulate, in research and development were
short, to sum up, etc. oftentimes, about twice the amount.
summarizing markers are used for Also, in the developed
concluding research papers or making countries, the universities
summaries of subtitles within the research assign highest priority to
paper: stimulating and nurturing
To recapitulate, it is important techno-scientific knowledge in
to state that this paper has the training of students.
examined the issues of Students are made to design and
discourse markers for writing produce certain items: light
research paper. In short, the electrical and electronic goods,
different types of discourse children toys and household
markers were explicated equipments. What emerged
elaborately. To sum up, from this kind of priority are the
students are expected to know, close relationships between
learn and utilize these markers science education and economy.
in their write-ups.
Nigeria is one such country that Inferential Ideational Markers
failed its early technologies(in Sometimes, when an author writes,
local in production, clay- he/she presents some facts or ideas and
pottery, sculptures, tie and dye, opinions to support the ideas. The author
iron smelting and bronze and expects the reader to make inferences
goldsmith works, as well as between the facts, ideas, examples and the
research in alternative opinions through inferences. The author
medicine( for are advantage. can achieve this through the use of certain
Again, the watery and discourse markers. The markers include the
flowering of science and following but not limited to these:
technology which began in Similarly, however, in any case,
Europe in the 17th century was moreover, if, although, as a matter of fact,
used to advantage to only the in order to, therefore. The use of similarly,
few countries mostly today’s for example, shows that in any opinion of
developed nations. Also, the author, the two sentences joined by the
whereas in the developed marker carry the same weight, that is, are of
nations scientific is widely equal importance, since they contain the
accepted and popularized as an same kind of facts or ideas (Arua, 2009).
important sustainable The author’s opinions can be orchestrated
investment capable of in three different ways. The three ways are:
generating wealth and Additive markers
employment opportunities, the Additive markers are used to emphasize or
reverse is the case in most de-emphasize points of view already stated
developing countries. For
10
by a writer. Additive markers include but ii. Result: these markers introduce result
are not limited to the following: arising from a fact or idea. They
a. Moreover, furthermore, etc: These include: As a result, Arising from this,
not only add to, but emphasize the From this, so that etc
points already made. iii. Purpose: these markers show the
b. Incidentally, in passing etc: These objective, aim or purpose of the subject
imply that the additional point is not matter. For example: with this in mind,
as important as the one already made. in order to, to this end, so that etc
In other words, the markers are de- iv. Condition: these markers show that
emphasizers. one idea or fact depends on another.
c. Like-wise, similarly etc: These imply Examples include: If, unless,
that the additional points are otherwise, in that case etc
comparable to those already made
(Arua 2009) Conclusion and Recommendations
Adversative markers To wrap up this discussion, it is
Adversative markers introduce salient to state that this paper has
information, points of view and ideas enunciated the concept of discourse
contrary to what a writer may have been markers. Broadly speaking, the two major
saying. Adversative markers include but are types are the organizational and inferential
not limited to the following: markers with appropriate examples to
d. On the other hand, at the same time, buttress the types. A further discussion
etc. These markers mark pure captured the other examples of discourse
contracts. That is they simply contrast markers. The paper recommends that these
one thing with another. discourse markers should be taught in
e. In any case, anyhow, either way, etc. schools especially during English language
These markers contrast, but they also classes
show in the opinion of the author that
the contrasts are not very important. Or
that they can be dismissed.
f. Rather, on the contrary, instead, etc. References
These markers help to correct an Arua, E. A. (2009). Reading comprehension
already stated fact. The stated fact is skills for colleges and university
normally the expected and the students.http://www.celeonline.com
correction the unexpected
Assassi T,Merghmi (2023). Formulaic
g. Actually, as a matter of fact
Sequences and Meta-Discourse Markers
h. Yet, though, however, nevertheless in Applied Linguistics Research Papers.
(Arua 2009). A cross-linguistic corpus-based analysis
Causal Markers of native and non- native authors’
Causal markers are markers that show the published articles. Academicus
relationship of cause and effect, result, International Scientific Journal
intention and condition. There are four
types of causal markers under causal Fraser, B., (2015) The combining of Discourse
markers. They include: Markers -- A beginning. Journal of
i. Reason: these markers introduce the Pragmatics (2015),
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2015
reason for an occurrence of an idea,
.06.007
fact or information. Examples include:
For this reason, on account of this, Ghaleb Rabab’ah & Ameena Ma’touq, Sharif
because, it follows etc Alghazo (2022). Discourse Markers in
Narrative Essays: A Case Study of
11
Jordanian High School EFL Learners. analysis . Pragmatics 33.1.49-

Jordan Journal of Modern Languages 77https://doi.org/10.1075/prag.21016.hu
and Literatures Vol.14, No. 1, 2022, pp a
203-217
Osisanwo, Wale (2003). Introduction to
Huang, Lan-fen, LinYen-liang & Graf, Tomas discourse analysis and
(2021). Development of the use of pragmaticsFemolus-Fetop Publishers,
discourse markers across different Lagos
fluency levels of CEFR: A learner corpus
12
ICT-BASED INSTRUCTION AND BUSINESS EDUCATION

LECTURERS’ PERCEPTION IN SOUTH-WEST COLLEGES OF
EDUCATION, NIGERIA
1SHITTU, Risikat Mojisola;2BADMUS, Ayodeji Muideen and 3OHADIUGHA,

Marian N.
1
Department of Vocational and Technical Education
Emmanuel Alayande College of Education, Oyo, Oyo State
2&3
Faculty of Education, National Open University of Nigeria
Abstract
This study investigated the perception of Colleges of Education (COE) Business Education Lecturers
on usefulness, ease of use, and attitude towards ICT-Based instruction in Southwest Nigeria. The
study adopted a descriptive research survey design. Four hundred and fifty lecturers participated in
the study using a purposive sampling technique. A Questionnaire tagged as the perception of
lecturers on usefulness, ease of use, and attitude towards ICT-Based Instruction (PLUEAIBI) was
subdivided into four sections used as the instrument. It was validated and has reliability coefficient
indexes of 0.73, 0.81, and 0.85 for the items stated in Sections B, C, and D respectively. Data were
analyzed using frequency counts, percentages, mean score, and t-test. The results showed that COE
lecturers have a negative perception of the usefulness of ICT-Based instruction but their perceptions
of the ease of use and attitude were positive. It was also revealed that there was no gender influence
on their perception of the usefulness, ease of use, and attitude towards ICT-Based instruction usage.
Based on the findings, recommendations were made that lecturers should be re-orientated on the
need to change their perception of the usefulness of ICT-Based instruction, and they should be
trained continuously to use ICT-Based instruction in Education.
Keywords: Perception, College of Education, Business Education Lecturers, Usefulness, Ease

of Use, Attitude, and ICT-Based Instruction
Introduction experiences and abilities both in knowledge

Business Education is a kind of and pedagogical approaches to disseminate
education that involves teaching the skills instruction. Using new approaches like
and operations of the business industry. IGI information and communication
(2023) described business education as an technology (ICT) to teach may further
education that involves teaching students strengthen effective teaching and learning
with the fundamentals, theories, and of business education particularly in
processes of business. This education has Colleges of Education (COE).
benefits to increase productivity, improve The emergency of information and
competitiveness, improve internal communication technology (ICT) has
organization, employee’s motivation, revolutionized how people deal with
problem-solving, and team spirit information globally. This can be pictorial,
(Akinyemi, 2022). Business education is textual, or numeric, ICT has gained ground
offered at secondary schools and higher in Nigeria. The ICT revolution is gradually
institutions of learning. Those involved in affecting the nature of learning and the
teaching business education in higher production of knowledge and transforming
institutions like the College of Education the world unexpectedly. This trend has
(COE) are lecturers who have had facilitated the paradigm shift from
13
traditional pedagogical methods to more and effective delivery of the instructional

modern and innovative ICT-Based teaching process (Badmus, 2022). Institutions
methods almost every aspect of education switched to using ICT for dissemination of
has metamorphosed into digital instruction. instruction via so many platforms such as
The education sector like other WhatsApp, Google Classroom, virtual
institutions has recognised the use of ICT in learning environments, education Blogs,
all its operations or practices. Using ICT and many others. The digitalisation of
has become a tool for teaching and learning instruction in education has benefited Open
in education where learning resources are and Distance learning institutions which
obtained and the development of teachers is now are enjoying the enormous potential of
improved. The role of ICT skill acquisition, ICT. Teachers use ICT-Based instruction to
utilization, and development of software in pass information, disseminate instruction,
the achievement and maintenance of global process students’ admission, collate
part partnerships development as contained student’s academic complaints, online
in the millennium development growth facilitation, online seminar presentations,
(MDGs), recommended the entrenchment online practical engagement, e-book, e-
and enforcement of training in ICT skills library, and many more.
and utilization in all levels of our The new emergence of Machine
educational system (Onwuka, 2008). Learning (ML) in education is a fresh
Generally, ICTs are technologies dimension of ICT-Based instruction to
that support communication through the improve classroom instruction. ML
use of computers, internet or local advances the learning experience for both
networking, e-mail, and World Wide Web the teachers and the learners. It makes the
(www) technologies. ICT-Based experience more effective and personal for
instruction refers to any strategy of the students while the teachers also can
disseminating or delivering teaching and grade more quickly and perfectly. Amazon
learning materials via information and (2023), described ML as a phenomenon
communication technologies such as web- that transforms education and
based, computer-based, video fundamentally changes teaching, learning,
conferencing, and many others (IGI-global, and research, it improves and helps students
2023). to learn faster and gain maximum retention.
ICT has simplified education In e-learning, the students study from home
practices through the usage of facilities like and learn conveniently. They make use of
electronic media, the Internet, and web- online learning materials like texts, audio,
based instruction. This notion has made the notes, videos, and images. Online learning
instructional process more or less digital offers a myriad of benefits for students as
and the facilities are continually gaining well as teachers because it allows flexibility
ground in every aspect of human learning. in learning. With the foregoing, there are
Subsequently, ICTs have increased speed vast and ample benefits of ICT-Based
and performance in human job analysis, instruction that may likely reduce the stress
knowledge dissemination, and acquisition. of classroom teachers to a minimal level.
Institutions in Nigeria particularly The acceptance of any instructional
higher education have come to realize the material in higher education seems to rely
enormous importance of ICT, and what it on the awareness and ability to use it.
can offer in the education sector. During the Considering the concept of ICT usage for
COVID-19 pandemic, many educational instructional process in education,
institutions suddenly switched their perception, and attitude cannot be
classroom teaching method to online overlooked. Perception refers to the way
teaching, for them to maintain continuous through which something is regarded,
14
understood, or interpreted. It is the process perception of Business Education Lecturers

of attaining awareness or understanding of on usefulness, ease of use, and attitude
sensory information. Olasedidun (2011), towards ICT-Based instructions in Colleges
defined perception as the process by which of Education.
organisms interpret and organise sensations
to produce a meaningful experience of the Objectives of the Study
world. The objective of this study was to
Attitude is also important because investigate the perception of business
of the fact that it is the controller of the education lecturers on usefulness, ease of
actual behaviour of an individual, use, and attitude towards utilisation of ICT-
consciously or unconsciously (Yusuf, Based instruction in South-West COE,
1998). Attitude is an accumulation of Nigeria. Specifically, the study examined;
information about an object, person, 1. The perception of Business Education
situation, or experience, the disposition to lecturers on the usefulness of ICT-
act in a positive or negative way toward Based Instruction usage.
some objects. According to this description, 2. The perception of Business Education
attitudes towards an object play an lecturers on the ease of use of ICT-
extremely important role in influencing Based Instruction.
subsequent behaviours towards it. In the 3. The attitude of business Education
utilisation of ICT, the gender issue in the lecturers towards using ICT-Based
education industry has become an issue that Instruction.
is not ignored, however, studies such as 4. If there is no significant difference
those of Tiamiyu, Ajayi, and Olatokun between the perception of male and
(2002); Olumorin (2008) find gender female COE Business Education
influences on lecturers’ attitude and use of Lecturers on the usefulness of ICT-
ICT. Based instruction usage.
5. If there is no significant difference
Statement of the Problem between the perception of male and
Despite the experiences and female COE Business Education
evidence by individual higher institution Lecturers on the ease of use of ICT-
lecturers in the usage and integration of ICT Based instruction.
into Nigeria’s Educational system, this still 6. If there is no significant difference
appears not adequately attended to in its between male and female COE
integration as a tool to improve student Business Education Lecturers on
performance in terms of instruction. This attitude towards the use of ICT-Based
further implies that the gross benefits instruction for teaching and learning.
associated with ICT-Based instruction will
not be accomplished in the education sector
where the end-user of ICT in the form of
instruction does not perceive it as being Research Questions
useful, if the attitude towards its usage is The following research questions
not favourable may spell doom for the total were raised for the study:
integration of it into the educational system. What is the perception of COE
The implication of this is that higher Business Education Lecturers on the
institutions like Colleges of Education usefulness of ICT-Based instructions?
might end up producing ICT-deficient What is the perception of COE
students who will not be able to compete Business Education Lecturers on the ease of
among their contemporaries globally. This use of ICT-Based instructions?
necessitates the need to find out the
15
What is the attitude of Business items on the perception of lecturers on ease

Education lecturers towards ICT-Based of use and attitude towards ICT-Based
instruction for teaching and learning? instruction for teaching and learning in
COE respectively. The questionnaire was
Hypotheses tagged Perception of Lecturers of
Ho1 There is no significant difference Usefulness, Ease of Use, and Attitude of
between the perception of male and ICT-Based Instruction (PLUEAIBI).
female COE Business Education Section B was adapted from Moo Ji-Won
Lecturers on the usefulness of ICT- and Kim (2001) while Section C also was
Based instruction usage. adapted from Chang (2004). All the
Ho2 There is no significant difference sections except Section A have 10 items
between the perception of male and each. Four Likert Scale was used to
female COE Business Education measure the respondents’ opinions ranging
Lecturers on the ease of use of ICT- from Strongly Agree (SA - 4), Agree (A -
Based instruction. 3), Disagree (D - 2) to Strongly Disagree
Ho3 There is no significant difference (SD - 1)
between male and female COE The instrument was exposed for
Business Education Lecturers on validation to ascertain clarity of language
attitude towards the use of ICT-Based and face validity. Four experts were
instruction for teaching and learning. employed for the instrument’s relevance
and suitability. Two experts from Business
Methodology Education, one from Educational
This study employed a descriptive Technology, and one from ICT. Their
research design. The target population for observations were effected accordingly in
the study consisted of Business Education the instrument.
Lecturers in Colleges of Education (COE) The reliability of the instrument was
in Southwest Nigeria. The sample used for determined using Business Education
the study comprises five hundred and lecturers of Kwara State College of
twenty (520) made up of 232 males and 218 Education in Ilorin which did not form part
females Business Education Lecturers in all of the sample. The instrument was
the Federal, State, and Private Colleges of previously exhibited in the study by Moon,
Education in the Southwest part of Nigeria. Ji-Won, and Kim (2001) with a reliability
The states are Oyo (146), Ogun (56), Ekiti index of 0.93. For this study, the reliability
(21), Osun (55) Ondo (58), and Lagos index using Cronbach alpha was carried on
(184). There are twenty-seven (27) each of Sections B, C, and D with 0.73,
Colleges of Education in the six (6) states. 0.81, and 0.85 obtained respectively.
Out of 520 lecturers, a purposive sampling The researchers with the aid of six
technique was used to select 450 lecturers (6) research assistants administered the
across the states that participated in this copies of the questionnaire to the Business
study. Education Lecture in all the institutions
The instrument used for data used for the study. Two research assistants
collection was a researchers-developed were recruited in each of the states to assist
questionnaire. The instrument contained with questionnaire administration. The
four sections (A, B, C, and D). Section A questionnaires were given to the lecturers
has information on respondents’ bio-data, by the research assistants who helped to
while Section B contained items on the collect the completed questionnaires. The
perception of lecturers on the usefulness of study took six weeks for data distribution
ICT-Based instruction for teaching and and collection from the respondents who
learning in COE. Sections C and D had participated across the selected state.
16
The data collected for the study Gender Frequency Percent

were analyzed using frequency counts, Male 232 51
percentages, mean score, standard Female 218 49
deviation, and t-test at 0.05 alpha level. Total 450 100
Table 1 shows that 232(51%) of the

respondents are male while 218(49%) are
Results females. This implies that both genders
The distribution of respondents in share an equal percentage.
terms of gender is displayed in Table 1. Research question 1s
What is the perception of COE
Table 1: Frequency Distribution of Business Education Lecturers on the
Respondents based on Gender usefulness of ICT-Based instructions?
Table 2: Mean Analysis of Respondents’ Perception of the Usefulness of ICT-Based

Instruction
S/N Items SA A D SD Mean Std. Decision
1 Using ICT-Based instruction will 56 101 147 146 2.15 1.01 Negative
improve my work in delivering lessons.
2 ICT-Based instruction usage guarantees 96 70 167 117 2.32 1.08 Negative
adequate control over my lesson.
3 ICT-Based instruction supports my 58 82 214 96 2.23 0.93 Negative
lesson and improves the difficult areas of
my tasks.
4 The use of ICT-Based instruction in 76 114 212 48 2.48 0.89 Negative
teaching will make my lesson more
diverse.
5 ICT-Based instruction usage will be 112 82 116 140 2.37 1.16 Negative
helpful to increase my daily
productivity.
6 Using ICT-Based instruction will be 101 79 135 135 2.32 1.13 Negative
counter–productive due to unavailable
technical instructors.
7 ICT-Based instruction usage will reduce 72 101 191 86 2.35 0.97 Negative
anxiety relating to large classes.
8 ICT-Based instruction will teacher- 134 65 120 131 2.45 1.19 Negative
student interaction and reduces students’
seriousness.
9 ICT-Based instruction will make me 134 101 106 109 2.58 1.15 Positive
finish the content of my lesson quickly
10 The teaching-learning process will 173 85 103 89 2.76 1.16 Positive
become easier with the use of ICT-Based
instruction
Grand Mean 2.40 Negative
Table 2 revealed that the perception benchmark of 2.5. This implied that
of Business education lecturers on the Business education lecturers in COE do not
usefulness of ICT-Based instruction for have total acceptance of ICT-Based
teaching and learning was negative because instruction for teaching and learning.
the grand mean score obtained was 2.40 out
of 4, which was also lower than the average Research question 2
17
What is the perception of COE

Business Education Lecturers on the ease of
use of ICT-Based instructions?
Table 3: Mean Analysis of COE Business Education Lecturers’ Perception of the Ease
of Use of ICT-Based Instruction
1 Using ICT-Based instruction my lesson 97 183 94 76 2.67 0.99 Positive
will be great and more effective
2 ICT-Based instruction usage is 184 138 66 62 2.99 1.05 Positive
convenient enough to handle my class
3 Carrying out my lesson work using 140 199 45 66 2.92 0.99 Positive
ICT-Based instruction is easy and
exciting
4 Using ICT-Based instruction is 223 116 78 33 3.18 0.97 Positive
effortless
5 Network problems will hinder the ease 106 77 108 159 2.29 1.18 Negative
of use of ICT-Based instruction to
disseminate knowledge.
6 The use of ICT-Based instruction 134 123 80 113 2.62 1.16 Positive
improves lesson task collaborations
with lesser stress
7 ICT-Based instructional usage is always 73 105 137 135 2.26 1.06 Negative
a difficult process
8 Navigation on ICT-Based instruction is 130 71 136 113 2.48 1.15 Negative
very easy.
9 It is easy to become skillful at using 108 102 160 80 2.53 1.04 Positive
ICT-Based instruction in teaching
10 Different platforms available on ICT- 115 157 105 73 2.70 1.02 Positive
Based instruction make the lesson to be
too complex
Grand Mean 2.66 Positive
Table 3 showed that the grand mean Research question 3

obtained was 2.66. The implication of this What is the attitude of Business
is that perception of COE Business Education lecturers towards ICT-Based
Education Lecturers toward ease of use of instruction for teaching and learning?
ICT-Based instruction for teaching and To answer research question three,
learning is positive. The grand means score Table 4 displayed the mean score analysis
was also greaterthan the 2.5 average to find out the attitude of COE Business
benchmark. Education lecturers toward the utilisation of
ICT-Based instruction for teaching and
learning.
Table 4: Mean Analysis of Respondents’ Attitude toward ICT-Based Instruction

Usage
1 ICT-Based instruction is good to 201 101 84 64 2.97 1.10 Positive
deliver lessons effectively.
19

will make my professional and
personal development a great one.
3 ICT-Based instruction is not as 105 170 71 104 2.54 1.15 Positive
relevant to my work.
4 I achieve positively by using ICT- 165 142 36 107 2.81 1.17 Positive
Based instruction
5 I will be proud of using ICT-Based 189 121 96 44 3.01 1.01 Positive
instruction for my lesson delivery
6 ICT-Based instruction is not meant 112 172 87 79 2.70 1.03 Positive
for social interaction but for
teaching and learning
7 I wish that all my lesson are ICT- 92 110 142 106 2.42 1.06 Negative
Based instruction, and there be
more time for research.
8 Using ICT-Based instruction has 83 104 143 120 2.60 1.19 Positive
been a pleasant experience.
9 ICT-Based instruction will make 211 102 91 46 3.06 1.04 Positive
lecturers become effective and
confident.
in teaching will make many
students skillful in computers.
Grand Mean 2.76 Positive
Table 4 revealed that all the items Based instruction for teaching and learning
have mean scores that are above 2.5 except of Business Education in COE in South-
item 7 which was negatively worded has West, Nigeria.
2.42, meaning that the respondents were not
in support of the statement. With these Hypothesis 1
results the grand mean score obtained was There is no significant difference
2.76. Using a benchmark of 2.5, it could be between the perception of male and female
inferred that the respondents generally had COE Business Education Lecturers on the
a positive attitude towards the use of ICT- usefulness of ICT-Based instruction usage.
Table 5: t-test Analysis of the perception of male and female COE Business
Education Lecturers on the usefulness of ICT-Based instruction usage
Perception of N Mean Std. D. df. T Sig. of T
Usefulness
Male 232 29.99 7.676 448 -225 0.822
Female 218 30.14 7.607 p=0.05
Table 5 revealed a non-significant is not significant. Therefore, the null

outcome t(448)=-225, <p0.05. This implied hypothesis formulated is accepted.
that the observed difference between the Hypothesis 2
perception of male and female COE There is no significant difference
Business Education Lecturers on the between the perception of male and female
usefulness of ICT-Based instruction usage COE Business Education Lecturers on the
ease of use of ICT-Based instruction.
19
Table 6: t-test Analysis of the perception of male and female COE Business Education
Lecturers on the ease of use of ICT-Based instruction
Ease of Use N Mean Std. D. df. T Sig. of T
Male 232 29.81 5.773 448 .366 0.714
Female 218 29.61 6.323 p=0.05
Table 6 showed a non-significant null hypothesis of no significance is

outcome where t=-0.366, p>0.05. The accepted.
implication of this is that the observed Hypothesis 3
difference between the perception of male There is no significant difference
and female COE Business Education between male and female attitudes of COE
Lecturers on the ease of use of ICT-Based Business Education Lecturers toward the
instruction is not significant. Hence, the use of ICT-Based instruction for teaching
and learning.
Table 7: t-test Analysis of the perception of male and female COE Business Education
Lecturers on the ease of use of ICT-Based instruction
Perception of N Mean Std. D. df. T Sig. of T
Usefulness
Male 232 29.99 5.933 448 -1.026 0.305
Female 218 29.43 6.418 p=0.05
Table 7 revealed a non-significant that Web 2.0 technologies foster teaching

outcome (t=-1.026, p>0.05). This implied and learning. In addition, the result of Liaw
that the observed difference between male and Huang (2013), found that teachers
and female Business Education lecturers’ perceived the use of ICT as useful.
attitudes towards ICT-Based instruction is The study also revealed that
not statistically significant. Hence, the respondents have a positive perception of
formulated null hypothesis is hereby the ease of use of ICT-Based instruction
retained. usage. This cannot be separated from the
fact that most of the COE lecturers have
Discussions familiar with ICT tools like computers,
The findings revealed that the telephones, videos, smart boards, mobile
majority of Business Education Lecturers technologies, and many others. This finding
have a negative perception of the usefulness is similar to the report of Samuel,
of ICT-Based instruction. This could be so Onasanya, and Olumorin (2018), who
because most of the lecturers have not used found that university lecturers had positive
it to teach or are not familiar with the perceptions of the usefulness of mobile
benefits attached to the use of ICT-Based technologies.
instruction. In addition, the low availability This further established that the
of ICT tools in most institutions could be majority of the sampled Business
justified by this. This result is in line with Education Lecturers in Colleges of
the work Siddiq and Scherer (2015) who Education have positive attitudes towards
stated that teachers have a negative the use of ICT-Based instruction usage.
perception of the usefulness of ICT in the This might be because ICT has been used in
teaching-learning process. However, on the many ways to support education even
contrary, Kazoka and Mwantimwa (2019) during the COVID-19 pandemic period.
affirmed that the majority of faculty The enormous advantages attached to the
members and postgraduate students agreed use of ICT-Based instruction have been
2
recognised by these lecturers hence Conclusion

justifying their attitude. This finding was in In view of the findings of this study,
line with the work of Badmus (2022), who it is obvious that ICT-Based instruction
found the perception of teachers toward the usage in COE especially in teaching and
ease of use of e-learning positive. learning Business Education courses has
In this study, it was revealed that not been properly entrenched. It is also
there is no significant difference between established that all forms of teaching and
male and female Business Education learning via ICT are useful and easy to use.
Lecturers on the perception of the The attitudinal disposition of lecturers
usefulness of ICT-Based instruction usage. toward ICT-Based instruction is positive.
This means that the respondents do not
perceive the usefulness of ICT differently Recommendations
based on gender. This finding is similar to Based on the major finding of this
the finding of Hammer and Hammer study, the following recommendations
(2014), who reported no significant were made:
difference between male and female Lecturers in Business Education
Business Education lecturers on their should continue to develop an interest to
perception of the usefulness of ICT-Based integrate ICT-Based instruction for
instruction usage. instructional delivery.
Further findings revealed no Training should be employed to
significant difference in the males and make the use of ICT-Based instruction
females Business Education Lecturers' possible COE.
perceived ease of use of ICT. This implies Business educators should
that the perception of male respondents on personally indulge in using ICT-Based
the ease of use of ICT does not differ from instruction to further enhance the ease of
that of female. This is likely so because it is use.
the same factors that affect both sexes on The government should endeavour
ICT. This finding is at variance with the to provide necessary motivators like
findings of Stone (2005), who submitted incentives, facilities to further enhance
that gender difference does not matter in the positive attitude among the lecturers.
perceived ease of use of ICT.
The last hypothesis revealed no
significant difference in the attitude of
Business Education lecturers based on
gender. This implies that the attitude of the
respondents did not significantly differ References
towards ICT usage. This finding however is Adetimirin, A. E. (2008). Factors affecting
not in agreement with the finding of Nam undergraduate’s use of information and
and Smith-Jackson (2007) who reported communication technology. Doctoral
that while females used e-mail more than Dissertation, University of Ibadan,
males; the latter used the web more. This Nigeria.
was corroborated by Chen and Tsai (2005) Akinyemi, O. (2022). What is business
who reported that males exhibited more education.
favourable attitudes toward web-based https://www.experts.ng/blog/business-
learning than females. However, Olumorin education/
(2008) could not find any form of gender
influence on lecturers' attitude and use of Amazon (2023). Machine learning in education
ICT. in improving students’ outcomes and
acceleration research.
21
Httpsllaws.amazon.com/education/ml- Technology (ICT) on the reading habit of

in-education. College of Education Students. Being a
paper in the proceedings of the 32nd
Badmus, A. M. (2022). Teachers received International Conference of Nigeria
usefulness, ease of use and challenges Association for Education Media and
with e- learning utilisation sustainability Technology (NAEMT).
after covid -19 pandemic in Oyo State,
Nigeria. Journal of Education in Black Olumorin, C. O (2008).Lecturers’ attitude to,
Sea Region.8(1), pp. 38-45. competence in, and use of computer in
Tertiary Institutions in Kwara State
Davis, F. Bagozzi, R.P & Warsha, P. R. (1989). Doctoral Dissertation. University of
User acceptance of computer Ilorin, Nigeria.
technology: A Comparison of two
theorical models. Management Science, Onwuka, I. (2008) Educational reforms the
35(8), 982-1003. attainment of MDGs the Nigerian
experience. In B. G. Nworgu (ED),
Falade, A. A. (2013). Stakeholders perception information and communication
of the integration of Information and technology (ICT) and Millennium
communication Technology into Development Goals, the Nigerian
distance learning in Nigeria. Doctoral Experience. Nsukka: University Trust
Dissertation, University of Ilorin, Publisher.
Nigeria.
Samuel, N. S., Onasanya, S. A. & Olumorin, O.
Jegede, P. O. (2009). Assessment of Nigeria O. (2018).Perceived usefulness, ease of
Educators (ICT) Training. Issues in use and adequacy of use of mobile
Information Science and Technology, 6, technologies by Nigerian university
415-420. lecturers. International Journal of
Education and Development using
IGI, Dictionary (2023). What is business Information and Communication
education.https://www.igi- Technology (IJEDICT), 14(3), 5-16
global.com/dictionary/business-
education/72829 United Nations Education and Cultural
Organization, UNESCO. (2002).
Kazoka, J. E. and Mwantimwa, K. Information and Communication
(2019).Perceived usefulness and ease of Technology in Teacher Education: A
use of Web 2.0 tools in university planning guide Paris: UNESCO.
teaching and learning in Tanzania.
University of Dar es Salaam Library Yusuf, M. O. (1998). A study of the dimension
Journal, 14(2) 19-37 of teachers’ attitude towards computer
Education in Nigeria Secondary school.
Olasedidun, O. K. (2011). The effect of Nigeria Journal of Computer Literacy,
Information Communication 29(1), 47-58.
22
AN APPRAISAL OF TEACHERS' OPINIONS ON THE

EFFECTIVENESS OF ACCOUNTINGCURRICULUM FOR
SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN FCT, ABUJA
OHADIUGHA, Marian N.
Faculty of Education, National Open University of Nigeria
Abstract
Accounting is a subject taught in secondary and tertiary institutions in Nigeria, imparting
accountability skills to students. This study aims to assess the adequacy of the secondary school
accounting curriculum in developing accounting skills and evaluate teachers' perceptions of its
effectiveness in schools within the Federal Capital Territory (FCT), Abuja. The study utilized a
descriptive survey research design and formulated four research questions. The target population
consisted of 220 accounting teachers in public secondary schools in FCT, Abuja. The sample size
included 100 teachers, 52 males and 48 females, who taught accounting at the senior secondary
level. Data were collected using the Content Adequacy Questionnaire on Secondary School
Accounting Skills (CAQSSAS), demonstrating a high internal consistency reliability coefficient of
0.91. The collected data were analyzed using mean and standard deviation. The study findings
indicated adequate curriculum content for secondary school bookkeeping accounting and financial
accounting skills. However, the content for cost and management accounting and ICT accounting
skills was insufficient. Therefore, based on the findings, it is recommended that a comprehensive
reassessment and restructuring of the secondary school accounting curriculum take place to
encompass vital fundamental accounting proficiencies, especially in cost and management
accounting, along with ICT accounting skills.
Introduction encounters meticulously crafted to

The curriculum forms the empower students to achieve the goals
foundation of any educational program, and outlined in the accounting education
the selection and implementation of program. The researcher perceives the
curriculum content significantly impact the educational accounting curriculum as a
program's effectiveness. The curriculum path of academic instruction that equips
encompasses the why, what, and how of individuals with the necessary skills for a
teaching and learning (Akudolu, 2010). career in accounting.
Through the curriculum, teachers are Accounting skills are built at the
equipped with the necessary tools to plan tertiary level of education, which also
their classroom lessons and make serves as a major foundation for
thoughtful selections of teaching strategies advancement and specialization in
that will enable them to impart instructional accounting. In any country’s educational
goals to students effectively. The system, secondary education holds
curriculum plays a key role in significant importance by serving as a key
systematically organizing co-curricular and preparatory stage that enables students to
extracurricular activities that foster the acquire the necessary skills and
development of students' cognitive, competencies for subsequent enrollment in
physical, psychomotor, and affective universities, colleges of education, and
abilities (Offorma, 2002). polytechnics. These institutions are
Hence, the accounting curriculum is responsible for equipping individuals with
a structured series of educational specialized skills and knowledge,
23
contributing to the development of the incorporates a range of accounting skills,

workforce in a particular economy including managing personal and official
(Iwuagwu and Akuta, 2018). records, interpreting and analyzing
Abdul, Mohammad, and Faiza business documents from a consumer's
(2004) noted that secondary school is vital perspective, and comprehending record-
to the education system. Its structure and keeping techniques for operating small-
terminology may differ from one country to scale businesses.
another, but it generally caters to students The National Educational Research
aged between 12 and 16 years old and Development Council (NDDC, 2012)
(Iwuagwu & Akuta). This stage primarily also identifies key secondary school
focuses on adolescents, a critical phase in a accounting curriculum components,
child's development. The education including bookkeeping, financial
received during this period is crucial for a accounting, cost and management
nation's progress, as the curriculum is accounting, auditing accounting, and
designed to provide students with the integrating Information and
necessary knowledge, attitudes, and skills Communication Technologies (ICT). It is
to confront the challenges they will worth noting that ICT plays a crucial role in
encounter as they advance, adapt, and accounting in the 21st century, as it is
specialize in various fields, such as widely applied and intricately linked to the
accounting. It is important to recognize that field.
any deficiencies in the accounting
education provided at the secondary school Statement of the Problem
level can significantly impact students' Secondary school accounting was
future academic pursuits. Such introduced to inculcate among the
shortcomings may hinder their ability to recipients’ requisite skills for accounting
effectively grasp and master accounting vocation and to provide the fundamentals of
skills when they proceed to higher levels of accounting experiences and skills for
education, leading to difficulties in coping advanced accounting skills. It serves as a
with the demands of the subject. Ifeanyi significant foundation for advancement and
&Okolocha (2020) define a skill as specialization in the accounting career.
proficiently performing a specific task. It Evidence abounds that some aspects of
represents the capacity to carry out a task accounting are seen to be difficult for new
with expertise. Bolt-Lee and Foster (2003) university students. Hence fresh university
define skill as the ability, power, authority, students have shown a lack of the requisite
or competence required to perform a job- knowledge and skills to advance in the
related task successfully. (Iwuagwu 2017) accounting profession. This manifests as
noted that skills are not inherent but recurrent struggles and poor performances
acquired through deliberate observation of among new accounting students in
specific algorithms over time. universities and other higher institutions.
Conversely, skills acquisition refers Sometimes students have to enroll in
to the process of learning a skill. Its private remedial classes to make up for
development encompasses the practical required skills, while many drop out. This
growth and acquisition of expertise, worrisome situation may be the resultant
knowledge, specific competencies, and effect of the curriculum design at the
technical aptitude in learners, enabling secondary school level or perhaps a
them to contribute to the economic carryover effect of the curriculum gap.
advancement of their local community Hence the researcher deemed it necessary
actively. According to Udo and Bako to investigate the content adequacy of the
(2014), the secondary school curriculum secondary school accounting curriculum.
24
Purpose of the Study The study adopted a descriptive

The primary objective of this study survey design and targeted 220 Public
is to assess the adequacy of the accounting Senior Secondary School Accounting
skills content in the secondary school Teachers in FCT, Abuja. To ensure a
curriculum in FCT, Abuja. Specifically, the probability sample with a reasonable size, a
study aims to evaluate the extent of: dual-stage sampling technique was
➢ Content adequacy of secondary employed to select a sample of 100
school accounting curriculum for teachers. In the first stage, 18 senior
bookkeeping accounting skills; secondary schools were randomly chosen,
➢ Content adequacy of secondary with three from each of the six area councils
school accounting curriculum for in FCT. In the second stage, all accounting
financial accounting skills; teachers from the selected schools were
➢ Content adequacy of secondary purposively included, resulting in 100
school accounting curriculum for cost teachers being part of the study.
and management accounting skills; For data collection, the researcher
➢ Content adequacy of secondary developed an observational schedule called
school accounting curriculum for ICT the “Content Adequacy Questionnaire on
accounting skills; Secondary School Accounting Skills”
(CAQSSAS). The CAQSSAS consisted of
Research Questions two parts: Part A collected demographic
The following research questions information of the senior secondary school
will guide the study on teachers’ opinions accounting teachers, while Part B contained
on the effectiveness of accounting 52 items grouped into four clusters and
curriculum for secondary schools. rated on a four-point scale (VA- Very
1. How do teachers assess the content Adequate = 4 points, AD-Adequate = 3
adequacy of the secondary school points, IA-Inadequate = 2 points, VIA-Very
accounting curriculum concerning the Inadequate = 1 point).
development of bookkeeping To validate the instrument’s
accounting skills based on the mean reliability, 20 copies of the final CAQSSAS
rating? were used to collect data from 20 senior
2. What is teachers' average rating on high school accounting teachers in Niger
the content adequacy level in the state. The collected data underwent trial
secondary school accounting testing using the Cronbach Alpha statistical
curriculum for financial accounting method, resulting in a high-reliability
skills? coefficient of 0.91. Additionally, six
3. How do teachers assess the content research assistants from the University of
adequacy of the secondary school Abuja were recruited and trained for three
accounting curriculum for acquiring days on how to rate the teachers. After
cost and management accounting obtaining prior written notification from the
skills based on the mean rating? schools, they visited each sampled senior
4. What is the teachers’ mean rating on secondary school in the six area councils of
the extent of content adequacy of FCT for data collection. The data collection
secondary school accounting process took place over six weeks, with one
curriculum for ICT accounting skills? week dedicated to each area council.
The collected data were analysed
using mean and standard deviation, and the
Statistical Package for Social Science
Methodology (SPSS) was employed to ensure accuracy.
The research questions were evaluated
25
using predefined ranges of real numbers. Results:

Mean scores between 1.00 and 1.49 were Research Question one
categorized as Very Inadequate, 1.50 to What is the average rating given by
2.49 as Inadequate, 2.50 to 3.49 as teachers regarding the adequacy of content
Adequate, and 3.50 to 4.00 as Very in the secondary school accounting
Adequate. curriculum for developing bookkeeping
accounting skills?
Table 1: Mean Ratings on the extent of content adequacy of secondary school

accounting curriculum for bookkeeping accounting skills.
S/N Secondary School Accounting Curriculum Content Mean SD DEC
(Bookkeeping)
1 Evolution of bookkeeping 3.26 0.96 Adequate
2 importance of bookkeeping 3.12 1.08 Adequate
3 Distinction between bookkeeping and account 3.19 0.92 Adequate
4 Subsidiary books and methods of keeping them 3.24 0.94 Adequate
5 Ledger and its classification and records 3.28 0.88 Adequate
6 Preparation of trial and suspense balance 3.35 0.86 Adequate
7 Preparation of single, double and three-column cash book 3.48 0.76 Adequate
8 Preparation of petty cash book 3.47 0.78 Adequate
9 Preparation of trading, profit and loss account and balance sheet 3.49 0.69 Adequate
10 Preparation of year-end adjustments 3.39 0.79 Adequate
11 Introduction and computation of depreciation 3.24 0.94 Adequate
12 Preparation of accounting entries for sales, repairs, renewals
3.28 0.88 Adequate
and replacement of assets
13 Preparation of bank reconciliation statements 3.35 0.86 Adequate
Cluster means 3.32 0.34 Adequate
Table 1 displays the study's these results, it can be concluded that the
findings, presenting teachers' mean ratings secondary school accounting curriculum in
and standard deviations regarding the FCT adequately covers the content related
extent of content adequacy in the secondary to bookkeeping accounting skills.
school accounting curriculum for
bookkeeping accounting skills in FCT. The Research Question Two
results indicate that the mean ratings for What is the teachers’ mean rating on
items 1-13 fall within the range of 2.50- the extent of Content adequacy of
3.49, which aligns with the criterion for secondary school accounting curriculum
content adequacy. The cluster mean is 3.32, for financial accounting skills?
with a standard deviation of 0.34. Based on
Table 2: Mean Ratings on the extent of Content adequacy of Secondary School

Accounting Curriculum for Financial Accounting Skills.
S/N Secondary School Accounting Curriculum Mean SD DEC
Content (financial accounting)
14 Accounting conventions and concepts 3.26 0.96 Adequate
26
15 Account of non-profit making organizations 3.12 1.08 Adequate

16 Preparation of control accounts 3.19 0.92 Adequate
17 Preparation of incomplete or single entry records 3.24 0.94 Adequate
18 Preparation of bill of exchange 3.28 0.88 Adequate
19 Preparation of manufacturing accounts 3.35 0.86 Adequate
20 Preparation of partnership accounts 3.48 0.76 Adequate
21 Preparation of joint venture accounts 3.47 0.78 Adequate
22 Preparation of stock valuation 3.49 0.69 Adequate
23 Preparation of company accounts 3.39 0.79 Adequate
24 Accounts of limited liability companies 2.00 0.69 Inadequate
25 Purchase and amalgamation of business account 2.02 0.77 Inadequate
26 Interpretation of accounts 3.12 0.88 Adequate
27 Preparation of departmental accounts 3.20 0 .88 Adequate
28 Preparation of hire purchase accounts 2.27 0.10 Inadequate
29 Preparation of consignment accounts 2. 20 0. 66 Inadequate
30 Introduction to public sector accounts 2.24 0.92 Inadequate
Cluster means 2.96 0.71 Adequate
Table 2 shows the teachers’ mean accounts, preparation of consignment

ratings and standard deviations on the accounts, and introduction to public sector
extent of content adequacy of the secondary accounts are rated as inadequate for
school accounting curriculum for financial secondary school financial accounting
accounting skills. The study result showed skills. However, the cluster means of 2.96
that the mean ratings for items 14 – 23; 26 with a standard deviation of 0.71 shows that
and 27 were 3.12, 3.19, 3.24, 3.28, 3.35, the overall mean ratings and standard
3.48, 3.47, 3.49, 3.39; 3.12 and 3.20. These deviation of secondary school accounting
mean ratings are within the range of 2.50- teachers on the extent of content adequacy
3.49, set as criterion for content adequacy. of the secondary school accounting
While items 24, 25, 28, 29, and 30 showed curriculum for financial accounting skills in
inadequate content for secondary school FCT is adequate.
accounting curriculum for financial
accounting skills, below 2.50 set as Research Question Three
criterion for content adequacy. This implies What is the teachers' mean rating on
that accounts of limited liability companies, the extent of Content adequacy of
purchase and amalgamation of business secondary school accounting curriculum
accounts, preparation of higher purchase for cost and management accounting skills?
Table 3: Mean Ratings on the extent of Content adequacy of secondary school

accounting curriculum for cost and management accounting skills.
(cost and management accounting)
31 Definition of cost and cost accountancy 2.50 0.96 Adequate
32 Element of cost 2.12 1.08 Inadequate
33 Desirability of a costing system 2.19 0.92 Inadequate
27
34 Costing methods and techniques 2.24 0.94 Inadequate

35 Material procurement and storage of stock 2.50 0.88 Adequate
36 Labour remuneration 2.35 0.86 Inadequate
37 Collection and methods of absorbing overheads 2.48 0.76 Inadequate
38 Elementary computation and uses of break-even-point 2.47 0.78 Inadequate
39 Elementary variance analysis 2.49 0.69 Inadequate
40 Budgeting and budgetary control 2.39 0.79 Inadequate
41 Contract accounts 2.24 0.94 Inadequate
Cluster means 2.36 0.34 Inadequate
Table 3 presents the study's reveal that the secondary school accounting
findings, displaying teachers' mean ratings curriculum in FCT lacks sufficient content
and standard deviations regarding the in cost and management accounting skills.
extent of content adequacy in the secondary
school accounting curriculum for cost and Research Question Four
management accounting skills. The results, What is the average rating teachers
specifically for items 31-41, indicate a provide regarding the adequacy of content
cluster mean of 2.36 and a standard in the secondary school accounting
deviation of 0.34. Notably, this mean falls curriculum for developing ICT accounting
below the criterion of 2.50 set for content skills?
adequacy. Consequently, the findings
Table 5: Mean Ratings on the Extent of Content Adequacy of Secondary School

Curriculum for Information Communication and Technologies
(ICT)Accounting Skills.
(ICT in accounting)
42 Overview of computer hardware and their characteristics 2.60 0.76 Adequate
43 Overview of computer software and their characteristics 2.12 0.18 Inadequate
44 Historical evolution of computers 2.52 0.72 Adequate
45 Computer techniques 2.14 0.84 Inadequate
46 Programming languages 1.50 0.88 Inadequate
47 Concept of information technology 2.56 0.56 Adequate
48 Role of computer in information technology in accounting 2.49 0.86 Inadequate
49 Word processing: Concept and application areas 2.47 0.98 Inadequate
50 Electronic data application systems for accounting 2.49 0.69 Inadequate
51 Electronic communication systems 2.39 0.79 Inadequate
52 ICT accounting software packages 1.42 0.65 Very inadequate
Cluster means 2.23 0.79 Inadequate
The findings of the study, displayed the range of 2.50-3.49, which was
in Table 4, illustrate the mean ratings and established as the criterion for content
standard deviations provided by teachers adequacy. Therefore, based on this result, it
regarding the extent of content adequacy in can be concluded that the secondary school
the secondary school accounting accounting curriculum for ICT accounting
curriculum for information communication skills in FCT is inadequate.
and technologies (ICT) accounting skills.
Specifically, the mean ratings for items 42- Discussion
45 were analysed. The cluster mean was The study's findings indicated that
determined to be 2.23, with a standard FCT's secondary school accounting
deviation of 0.79. These values fall within curriculum is fully adequate for
28
fundamental accounting skills. The study nurturing competent and skilled

revealed adequate secondary school accountants who possess the necessary
accounting curriculum content for capabilities to navigate the complexities of
bookkeeping and financial accounting the accounting profession successfully.
skills. However, cost and management
accounting, auditing, and ICT accounting Recommendations
skills were inadequate. Nonetheless, this Based on the study's findings, the
study's findings agree with the findings of researcher suggests that a review of the
Ifeanyi and Okolocha (2020), who reported secondary school accounting curriculum is
content inadequacy of teacher education necessary to address the following skills
curriculum on cost and management adequately:
accounting skills, auditing accounting skills ➢ Enhancing the inclusion of cost and
and ICT accounting skills. management accounting skills.
➢ Strengthening the focus on auditing
Conclusion accounting skills.
Given the study's findings, the ➢ Incorporating comprehensive ICT
researcher opines that some difficulties accounting skills and incorporate
experienced by accounting students in technology-based accounting tools
higher institutions may result from the and software into the classroom to
carryover effect of content inadequacy of familiarize students with the digital
some parts of secondary accounting aspects of accounting.
curriculum content. This study has ➢ Establish a system for on-going
established that secondary school teachers monitoring and evaluation of the
play a crucial role in shaping the foundation accounting curriculum and teaching
of accounting knowledge for students methodologies in senior secondary
entering higher institutions. The researcher schools within the FCT. Regularly
asserts that the identified content assess the effectiveness of
inadequacies in the secondary accounting interventions and make necessary
curriculum have a lasting impact on adjustments to ensure continual
students’ abilities to comprehend and apply improvement.
advanced accounting concepts at the
tertiary level.
Furthermore, the study reveals that References
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from additional training and support to (2004).Inequality, poverty and
enhance their understanding and delivery of development. UK: Macmillan
accounting topics, by improving Press.
instructional techniques in secondary
Boltlee, C. & Foster, S. (2003). The core
schools, it is possible to mitigate the competency framework: A new element
difficulties faced by accounting students in in continuing call for accounting
higher institutions. education change in the United States.
To summarize, this study emphasizes the Accounting Education, 12(1), 33-47.
significance of thoroughly redesigning the
secondary school accounting curriculum to Ifeanyi, E. and Okolocha. C. C. (2020).
ensure it effectively equips students for the Assessment of the Adequacy of
rigours of higher education. By addressing Curriculum Content of Business
the carryover effect of content inadequacy, Education for Skills Acquisition in
Colleges of Education in Edo and Delta
educational institutions have the
States. IOSR Journal of Research &
opportunity to play a pivotal role in
29
Method in Education (IOSR- Business Education, Ahmadu Bello

JRME)10(1); 01-12. University, Zaria.
Iwuagwu, G.C., Iwuagwu, F. O. & Akuta, F.O National Educational Research and
(2017).Assessment of teachers’ level of Development Council (NERDC) (2012).
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skills among primary school teachers.
Journal of Educational Research and Nworgu, B.G. (2015). Educational Research:
Development, 11 (1); 37-42. Faculty of Basic Issues and methodology(3rd Ed).
Education, ABU, Zaria. Nsukka: University Trust Publishers.
Iwuagwu, G.C., Iwuagwu, F. O. & Akuta, F.O Offorma, G. C. (2002). Evaluation and
(2018). Assessment of dropout rates curriculum In G.C. Offorma, (Ed.)
among Senior Secondary School Curriculum theory and planning. Enugu:
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Council of Educational psychologist, Udo, M.P., & Bako, D.H. (2014).Acquiring
12 (1); 15-26. maximum vocational business education
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Teaching Business Education. A Paper 53-60.
presentation at Advance Seminar in
30
EFFECT OF OSTEOARTHRITIS AMONG THE ELDERLY
1Francis Ajibola OLATOMIRIN and 2Joseph F. BABALOLA
Abstract
The prevalence of osteoarthritis among the elderly is high and it majorly affects the quality of life of
such individuals. Presence of osteoarthritis in older adults has been associated with pain, functional
limitations and a lower quality of life. Osteoarthritis, though having a huge burden among the
elderly, is not given the importance it deserves in public health. Osteoarthritis of the knee joint
contributes to nearly 80% of total osteoarthritis burden. It may not directly lead to mortality, but
influences the Quality of Life (QoL) largely. Timely diagnosis using clinical criteria and effective
intervention is of utmost importance. Radiological assessment remains the mainstay of diagnosis of
osteoarthritis of the knee. Most of the cases of osteoarthritis seek treatment very late, only when the
condition hampers with the physical activity. Definitive treatment in form of total knee replacement
is expensive and, unaffordable for many. Thus, costly treatment and delayed diagnosis hampers the
effective intervention for osteoarthritis of the knee joint. However clinical assessment for diagnosis
of osteoarthritis of knee joint is of utmost importance. Thus, prevention and early diagnosis remains
the most cost-effective strategy for its management.
Keywords: Osteoarthritis of the Knee, Zuality of Life, Radiological Assessment
Introduction in number of the elderly thus, the

The prevalence of osteoarthritis prevalence and magnitude of osteoarthritis
among the elderly is high and it majorly may increase. Osteoarthritis of the knee
affects the quality of life. Knee joint contributes to nearly 80% of total
osteoarthritis is the most common form of osteoarthritis burden (Hunter, Gerstenfeld,
osteoarthritis. Timely diagnosis using & Bishop, et al. 2009). Radiological
clinical criteria and effective intervention is assessment remains the mainstay of
of utmost importance. Osteoarthritis, diagnosis of osteoarthritis of the knee. Most
though having a huge burden among the of the cases of osteoarthritis seek treatment
elderly, is not given the importance it very late, only when the condition hampers
deserves in public health. Osteoarthritis with the physical activity. Moreover,
may not directly lead to mortality, but elderly persons residing in urban slums are
influences the Quality of Life (QoL) likely to have even worse health seeking
largely. Presence of osteoarthritis in older behaviour. Definitive treatment in form of
adults was associated with more pain, total knee replacement is costly, and
functional limitations, a lower Quality of unaffordable in Indian setting. Thus,
Life and physical component (Muraki, Oka, prevention and early diagnosis remains the
& Akune, 2009). After achieving high life most cost-effective strategy.
expectancy for the country, the next Thus, costly treatment and delayed
responsibility of public health is to provide diagnosis hampers the effective
good quality life without any disability intervention for osteoarthritis of the knee
Kuhn, D’Lima, & Hashimoto et al. 2014). joint. In wake of this, clinical assessment
Nigeria like other developing for diagnosis of osteoarthritis of knee joint
countries of the world is experiencing a is of utmost importance. The American
very quick demographic transition leading College of Rheumatology clinical
to proportionate as well as absolute increase classification is one of most widely used
31
clinical diagnosis of osteoarthritis of knee advanced glycation end-products that affect

joint in epidemiological studies. the mechanical properties of joint tissues.
Symptoms of Osteoarthritis Understanding Arthritis in the Elderly

Symptoms range from stiffness and The population of adults over 65
mild pain that comes and goes to severe years old is expected to increase to 22% by
joint pain. Common signs include joint the year 2050. In addition to other chronic
pain, swelling, and tenderness; stiffness conditions - such as diabetes, hypertension,
after getting out of bed; and a crunching and heart disease, the elderly is more likely
feeling or sound of bone rubbing on bone. than other segments of the population to
Not everyone with osteoarthritis feels pain. suffer from rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and
Osteoarthritis most commonly affects the osteoarthritis (OA). Arthritis can result in
hands, lower back, neck, and weight- chronic pain (common in older people) and
bearing joints such as knees, hips, and feet. can lead to depression and sleep
Osteoarthritis affects just joints, not internal disturbances, as well as increased health
organs. American College of care costs. Managing arthritis, or managing
Rheumatology (ACR) criteria: ACR chronic pain in general including choosing
criteria for diagnosing osteoarthritis of knee an appropriate therapy regimen in the
joint is presence of pain in knee joint plus elderly can be complicated due to many
any three of six factors listed below. factors. Among these factors are multiple
1. Presence of crepitus on active motion drugs, multiple diseases, potential drug
2. Less than 30 min of morning stiffness interactions, a decrease in cognitive
3. Bony tenderness function, and altered pharmacokinetics. All
4. Bony overgrowth these factors lead to challenges in achieving
5. No palpable warmth of synovium. good therapeutic outcomes (Pelegrin,
2003).
Although older age is the greatest
risk factor for osteoarthritis (OA) is not an Types of Arthritis in the Elderly
inevitable consequence of growing old. 1. Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA)
Radiographic changes of Osteoarthritis, Parsch, Brummendorf, Richter, et
particularly osteophytes, are common in the al. (2002) opined that rheumatoid arthritis
aged population but symptoms of joint pain (RA), a chronic autoimmune disease, is a
may be independent of radiographic systemic inflammatory condition that
severity in many older adults. According to causes joint destruction, pain, swelling, and
Kant, Misra & Goswami (2004), aging stiffness. The progressive deterioration of
changes in the musculoskeletal system the joints can lead to permanent damage
increase the propensity to Osteoarthritis but and deformity and is a common cause of
the joints affected and the severity of disability. Yet, the underlying cause of this
disease are most closely related to other autoimmune disorder is unknown. The
Osteoarthritis risk factors such as joint cardinal symptoms of RA usually begin
injury, obesity, genetics, and anatomical between the ages of 25 and 50 In addition
factors that affect joint mechanics. The to swelling and stiffness; they include
aging changes in joint tissues that bilateral pain for example, in the feet,
contribute to the development of hands, and wrists initially. Pain also can
Osteoarthritis include cell senescence that develop in other areas, such as the hips,
results in development of the senescent knees, shoulders, and neck. Because RA
secretory phenotype and aging changes in affects the body as a whole, other symptom
the matrix, including formation of such as fever, weight loss, fatigue, and loss
of appetite may be present. The diagnosis
32
of RA comprises a physical examination (Jordan, Helmick & Renner et al. 2009).

along with a blood test for the presence of Symptomatic hip osteoarthritis appeared to
rheumatoid factor (an antibody found in be more common in African Americans and
patients with RA) the presence of creative women. The prevalence and incidence of
protein (responsible for some inflammatory hip osteoarthritis in women over age 65 has
disorders) and an elevated erythrocyte now been well defined with the recent
sedimentation rate. analysis from the Study of osteoarthritis
Fractures cohort (Arden, Lane, & Parimi et
2. Osteoarthritis al. 2009).
Osteoarthritis, a common form of
joint disease, generally afflicts persons over 4. Hand Osteoarthritis
the age of 60years. It often is associated The hand is the appendicular joint
with pain, limitation of motion, and most commonly affected by osteoarthritis
disability. Osteoarthritis most commonly in the aging population and although it
affects weight-bearing joints and usually is often not as disabling as osteoarthritis of the
associated with the deterioration or knee or hip, it can interfere with hand
breakdown of the joint. Unlike RA, there is function. Estimates from the Zoetermeer
no specific diagnostic test for survey found that radiographic involvement
Osteoarthritis. The usual clinical of the distal inter-phalangeal joint (DIP)
presentation is pain initially when the joint affected more than half of men over the age
is used, later pain may occur at rest. of 65 and more than half of women over the
Prolonged activity may aggravate the age of 55 (Verzijl, DeGroot& Thorpe,
condition, and rest may ease the pain. The (2000). Thirteen percent of men and 26% of
goal of therapy is to reduce pain and its women over the age of 70 were found to
impact on the patient and his or her quality have symptomatic hand osteoarthritis
of life (Parsch, Brummendorf, Richter, et involving at least one joint in the
al. 2002). Framingham study (Zhang, Niu, &Kelly-
Hayes, et al. 2002). Yearly incidence rates
3. Hip Osteoarthritis from the Fallon Community Health Plan for
Hip osteoarthritis appears to be hand osteoarthritis were 0.35% and 0.21%
somewhat less common in the aging for men and women over the age of 60
population than knee osteoarthritis but is respectively. The incidence rates for those
still quite prevalent. A recent systematic younger than 60 were dramatically lower.
review of the prevalence of primary hip A less common form of hand osteoarthritis
osteoarthritis detected a clear trend toward that is found mainly in the older adult
increasing prevalence with age (Ding, population is erosive osteoarthritis. Erosive
Cicuttini, &Scott, et al. 2005). The osteoarthritis is characterized by central
prevalence of primary radiographic hip erosions in distal and/or proximal inter-
osteoarthritis increased from 0.7% in the phalangeal joints accompanied by other
40–44 age group to 14% in the 85+ age typical changes of osteoarthritis such as
group (Ding, Cicuttini, & Scott, et al. joint space loss, osteophytosis, and sub-
2005). Analysis of symptomatic hip chondral sclerosis (Punzi, Ramonda &
osteoarthritis from the Johnston County Sfriso 2004).
group published just after the systematic
review by Ding, Cicuttini, & Scott, et al.
(2005) also reported a higher prevalence of Management of Arthritis
symptomatic hip osteoarthritis in their The goal of treatment in arthritis is
population of 5.9% in the 45–54 age group generally achieved through a combination
increasing to 17% in the 75+ age group of pharmacologic and non-pharmacologic
33
therapy aimed essentially at minimizing Management of Osteoarthritis

pain and making an impact on a patients’ Pharmacologic therapy in
daily function and quality of life. Non- osteoarthritis consists of acetaminophen,
pharmacologic approaches consist of NSAIDs, and often opioids to treat
patient and caregiver education, exercise, moderate-to-severe pain. The use of
weight control, and thermal modalities NSAIDs in the elderly can result in GI
(heat or cold applications). Effective pain adverse effects. With the use of histamine2
management is mostly achieved by way of receptor antagonists, proton pump
analgesic drugs (non-steroidal anti- inhibitors, or misoprostol, these negative
inflammatory drugs [NSAIDs] and symptoms can be alleviated. Nevertheless,
acetaminophen); invasive techniques acetaminophen in adequate doses can be a
(corticosteroid injections); and even safer alternative. Another option for
opioids (Parsch, Brummendorf, Richter, et pharmacists to recommend would be
al. 2002). The use of opioids in the elderly, topical therapy with capsaicin, which
however, remains a controversial subject inhibits substance P, a pain mediator.
due to the fear of addiction or illicit drug Patients should be counselled that optimal
use. Nevertheless, the recent guideline from results with capsaicin are achieved when it
the American Pain Society sanctions the is used on a regular basis (Parsch,
use of opioids in instances of severe Brummendorf, Richter, et al. 2002).
arthritis pain. Hunter and Eckstein (2020)
emphasized the importance of exercise as a
Management of Rheumatoid Arthritis cornerstone intervention for managing
Pharmacologic treatment of RA osteoarthritis. Their study highlights that
consists of NSAIDs, with emphasis on the exercise interventions, such as aerobic
new cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors, which exercise and strength training, lead to
control inflammation with less risk of significant improvements in pain relief and
gastrointestinal (GI) toxicity. Oral and physical function in individuals with
intra-articular corticosteroids have been osteoarthritis. They further suggest that
used with success, but the side-effect exercise has long-term benefits in
profile must be considered, especially in the preserving joint integrity and reducing the
elderly. Also used in RA are the disease- risk of disability. Bennell et al. (2018)
modifying antirheumatic drugs conducted a randomized controlled trial
(DMARDs), which have been widely investigating the effects of exercise on pain
utilized to control disease progression. and physical function in individuals with
Some of the early agents include knee osteoarthritis. Their findings
hydroxychloroquine, sulfasalazine, and demonstrate that exercise interventions,
methotrexate, traditionally the gold including land-based and aquatic exercises,
standard and first line therapy due to its have substantial benefits in reducing pain
once-weekly dosing and efficacy. The new- and improving physical function. They
generation DMARDs exert their effect by recommend exercise as a non-
antagonism of the tumor necrosis pharmacological approach to manage knee
factoralpha that is involved in the osteoarthritis effectively. Fransen et al.
inflammatory process leading to RA. These (2015) found consistent evidence
newly developed agents include infliximab, supporting the positive effects of exercise
etanercept, and adalimumab. In addition, on pain reduction in osteoarthritis. The
anakinra (Kineret), an anti-inflammatory study highlighted that exercise
cytokine, is available for once-daily dosing interventions, including both land-based
via subcutaneous injection. and aquatic exercises, led to significant
improvements in pain levels. The authors
34
attributed this effect to various shown through their work with the Knee
mechanisms, such as improved joint Clinical Assessment Study cohort that as
stability, increased muscle strength, and the severity and persistence of knee pain
reduced inflammation due to increases, the degree of discordance
exercise.Regular exercise was associated between symptoms and radiography
with enhanced mobility, increased range of diminishes due to the discrepancies
motion, and improved overall physical between pain and radiographic evidence of
performance in individuals with osteoarthritis, most current epidemiological
osteoarthritis. They emphasized the studies define osteoarthritis by a
importance of exercises targeting specific combination of clinical and radiographic
joint areas to optimize functional outcomes. criteria (Parsch, Brummendorf, Richter, et
al. 2002).
Relationship between Musculoskeletal Sarcopenia is the loss of skeletal
Aging and the Development of muscle mass and strength as a result of
Osteoarthritis aging. It is, like osteoarthritis, very terrible
Epidemiology of osteoarthritis condition among the elderly. If an elderly
Relevant to Aging osteoarthritis is the most person is sick and hospitalised, it is not
common joint disorder in the world and one advisable to keep him in bed without
of the most common sources of pain and moving around. This is because study
disability in the elderly. While there discovers that lying down for a week leads
remains considerable heterogeneity in to loss of musculoskeletal strength and
defining OA among epidemiological muscle mass by 5%. Sarcopenia was even
studies, the evidence is conclusive that age said to be more terrifying that osteoporosis.
remains the single greatest risk factor for Therefore, osteoarthritis is the fallout of
the development of osteoarthritis in both osteoporosis and sarcopenia. In order
susceptible joints. Radiographic changes, in to combat osteoarthritis, it is advisable to
particular osteophytosis, are very common first combat both sarcopenia and
in the aging population and when used osteoporosis.
alone may provide an overestimation of the
true prevalence of symptomatic Risk Factors for Development of
osteoarthritis. Defining osteoarthritis solely Osteoarthritis in the Elderly
as joint pain occurring in an older adult The common risk factors for
without evidence for another form of osteoarthritis such as obesity, joint injury,
arthritis is also inaccurate as there are many genetics, and anatomical abnormalities are
causes of non-articular pain, such as important in the elderly just as they are in
bursitis, that are common in older adults. In younger adult populations. There is some
a study of 480 adults over the age of 65 evidence to suggest that after an acute joint
years who reported chronic knee pain, only injury, such as an anterior cruciate ligament
about 50% had radiographic evidence of tear, that older adults will develop
knee osteoarthritis (Zeng, Zang, Li, Dong, osteoarthritis faster than younger adults
Zhang & Lin, 2006). A recent systematic (Roos, Adalberth, & Dahlberg, et al.1995).
review by Johns Hopkins Arthritis Centre Some contributing factors to the
ACR (2013), comparing the prevalence of development of osteoarthritis, including
knee pain and radiographic knee degenerative changes in the meniscus and
osteoarthritis found considerable joint ligaments, increased bone turnover, as
discordance between the two, adding well as calcification of joint tissues appear
further evidence that joint pain and severity to be more common in older adult
of radiographic changes of osteoarthritis do populations. These contributing factors will
not correlate. However, Duncan et al have be discussed further. Meniscal damage is
35
increasingly being appreciated as a major important contributors to the development

risk factor for the development of of osteoarthritis in older adults.
osteoarthritis. Results from the Multicentre Bone is clearly involved in the
Osteoarthritis Study (MOST) study showed development of osteoarthritis, although the
an odds ratio of 7.4 for the development of mechanism by which changes in bone
RKOA, after 30 months, in symptomatic influence the development or progression
subjects with significant meniscal damage of osteoarthritis is not clear (Felson, D. T.
(Englund, Guermazi, & Roemer, et al., 2009). An increase in either bone turnover
2009).Englund et al also recently reported or regional bone remodelling may be a
that incidental meniscal damage on MRI is factor in osteoarthritis progression and
quite common in the elderly (Englund, these processes are potentially affected by
Guermazi, & Gale, et al. 2008). In aging. Bone marrow lesions detected by
participants ranging from 50 to 90 years of MRI may represent areas of localized
age, the prevalence of meniscal tears was abnormal bone remodelling (Hunter,
lowest (19%) in women aged 50–59 and Gerstenfeld, & Bishop, et al.2009). These
was highest (56%) in men in the 70–90 age lesions are associated with knee pain, limb
group. The prevalence increased to 63% in mal-alignment, and meniscal derangement,
symptomatic subjects with KL >2 RKOA and may predict osteoarthritis progression
(Englund, Guermazi, & Gale, et al. 2008). (Felson, Chaisson, & Hill et al.2001)
These studies suggest that age-related (Loeser, &Shanker, 2000). Recently,
changes in the meniscus may contribute to increasing age has been shown to be a risk
meniscal degeneration that in turn may factor for the development of bone marrow
contribute to the development and lesions in asymptomatic individuals
progression of knee osteoarthritis. (Baranyay, Wang, &Wluka, et al., 2007).
Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) This is another area where future research
injury is also known to be a risk factor for may help elucidate how aging changes in a
the development of knee osteoarthritis and tissue outside of cartilage contributes to the
is a common cause of post-traumatic risk of osteoarthritis progression in older
osteoarthritis developing in young adults as adults.
a result of sports injuries. The prevalence of Calcification and crystal formation
acute ACL injury in the elderly is not well within joint tissues, most notably the
known and although the incidence is cartilage and menisci, are known to
reported to be low, the latter likely increase with age. Calcium
represents a bias towards reporting athletic pyrophosphate’s association with the
injuries (Clayton & Court-Brown 2008). A presence of radiographic osteoarthritis has
recent MRI study in people without a been well established (Rosenthal, 2006).
known history of an acute injury found that Although it is known that the prevalence of
ACL disruption associated with chondrocalcinosis increases with age as
osteoarthritis may be more common than does osteoarthritis, the role of calcium
appreciated (Hill, Seo & Gale et al., 2005). crystals in the progression of osteoarthritis
The changes which occur in aging is not clear Rosenthal, 2006.). Some
ligaments are not entirely known, though investigators believe that they are common
increasing stiffness from collagen cross but separate age-related conditions and
linking combined with decreasing fibril others believe that the two are closely
diameter may increase the risk for ACL connected (Dowthwaite, Bishop, &
tears (Strocchi, Pasquale & Facchini et al., Redman, et al. 2004). Since osteoarthritis
1996). Studies are needed to determine if and calcium pyrophosphate are equally
aging changes in joint ligaments are associated with osteophyte formation, it has
been suggested that mechanical stress may
36
induce release of chemokines which therapy and education about exercise are
encourage both proliferative bone changes recommended to decrease fear of activity
and calcium pyrophosphate formation. and improve patient engagement in
exerciseprograms. The pain in
Summary osteoarthritis is frequently activity related;
Osteoarthritis (OA) is a painful and constant pain frequently becomes a feature
debilitating joint disease and is a leading later in the disease (Collins et al., 2014).
cause of disability (Villafañe et al., 2015). Pain in osteoarthritis is not simply
The socioeconomic cost and burden of attributable to the structural changes in the
symptomatic osteoarthritis are growing affected joint, but the result of interplay
with the ageing population globally. between structural change, peripheral and
Clinically, the condition is characterized by central pain processing mechanisms.
joint pain, tenderness, crepitus, stiffness Neuroplastic changes in the
and limitation of movement with nociceptive system such as peripheral and
occasional effusion and variable degrees of central sensitization facilitate pain
local inflammation, especially if those processing (Clauw and Hassett, 2017). This
patients are older than 50 years (Felson, mechanism encompasses distorted sensory
Zhang, Hannan, et al. 1995). This condition processing in the central nervous system,
is progressive and leads to functional malfunctioning of descending pain
decline and loss in quality of life, with inhibitory mechanisms, enhanced activity
important health care and society costs. of pain facilitatory mechanisms, and long-
osteoarthritis prevalence differs by physical term potentiation of the neural synapses in
activity. General joint hyper-mobility may the anterior cingulated cortex that can
be associated with osteoarthritis, but amplify pain experiences by increasing its
differences by physical activity are not degree, duration, and spatial extent
known. Particular repetitive activities (Arendt-Nielsen, 2017).
inherent in certain occupations have long Osteoarthritis pain may also be
been, and continue to be, associated with aggravated by general factors such as
greater risk of osteoarthritis (Ebell, 2018). metabolic changes and diabetes mellitus,
This editorial highlight new genetic and psychological factors
research findings.The conclusion of recent (Schaible, 2018). The weight of such
systematic reviews (Hurley et al., 2018; factors may determine the pain pattern in
Schiphof et al., 2018) is that exercise individual patients. Osteoarthritis poses a
therapy has moderate positive benefits for substantial and increasing burden on
people with symptomatic osteoarthritis. individuals and society. There is no
Muscle strengthening and programs resolutory therapy for this complicated
that include combinations of strength, disorder and there is still a crucial need to
flexibility, and aerobic exercises, are more identify new non-pharmacological
beneficial for pain and disability than interventions for Osteoarthritis.
general activity (walking). The majority of Multimodal exercise-therapy has a positive
studies involve people with osteoarthritis of impact on quality of life for people with
the knee (Schiphof et al., 2018), however, symptomatic Osteoarthritis and the
beneficial effects of exercise therapy are condition shares several aspects of other
also noted in studies of hand osteoarthritis. chronic pain conditions. The understanding
The benefits of exercise therapy extend of osteoarthritis and its manifestations has
beyond pain and physical function with expanded in recent years; so has the
moderate effects on depression in people therapeutic and treatment options to
with hip and knee osteoarthritis (Hurley et manage the disease.
al., 2018). Programs that include exercise
37
Conclusion 4. The elderly should not rely only on

Osteoarthritis is the most common doing single activities but vary it.
form of arthritis among older people, and it 5. Consistent exercise regimen should
is one of the most frequent causes of be adhered to by the elderly.
physical disability among older adults. The 6. There is need to encourage the elderly
disease affects both men and women. to do reasonable exercises and use the
Before age 45, osteoarthritis is more functional muscles to forestall
common in men than in women. After age sarcopenia. Osteoporosis should be
45, osteoarthritis is more common in discouraged because it leads to
women. Osteoarthritis (OA) is a classic osteoarthritis in the elderly. The
age-related disorder. It is often described as elderly should be encouraged to walk,
a chronic degenerative disease and thought cycle and swim. These activities can
by many to be an inevitable consequence of help to reduce the spate of
growing old. In osteoarthritis, degradation osteoarthritis. They should however,
and loss of the articular cartilage is a central vary the activities to avoid monotony.
feature that is sometimes attributed to "wear
and tear". Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL)
injury is also known to be a risk factor for
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accumulation of advanced glycation end
products. J Biol
40
ENHANCING THE TEACHING AND LEARNING OF ENGLISH

VOCABULARY IN NIGERIA: AN EXPERIENCE IN LEXICAL
CHUNK INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGY
1AWOLERE Olumoroti Olaniyi&2OLAGUNJU Taiwo Olayemi

1
Department of Primary Education,
2
Department of General Studies
1&2
Emmanuel Alayande University of Education, Oyo
Abstract
The study determined the effects of Lexical Chunks Instructional Strategy on SS1 students’
achievement in English vocabulary in Ibadan North Local Government of Oyo State, Nigeria. The
pre-test-posttest, control group quasi-experimental design was adopted in the study with a 2x2
factorial matrix. The participants in the study were two hundred and six (206) SS1 students
purposively and randomly selected from public schools in Ibadan North Local Government Area of
Oyo State. Two intact classes, one for each school were randomly assigned to each of the treatment
groups and control groups. The instruments used for this study were Students’ Achievement Test in
English Vocabulary (r=0.788), Teacher’s Instructional Guide on Lexical Chunks Strategy,
Teacher’s Instructional Guide on Modified Conventional Strategy, Research Assistants Teaching
Performance Evaluation Checklist, and Lesson Notes on Lexical Chunks Instructional Strategy. One
null hypothesis was tested at 0.05 level of significance. Data collected were analysed using the
analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) and estimated marginal mean. The result showed that there is a
significant effect of treatment on students’ achievement in English Vocabulary (F(1,202) = 177.177; P
< 0.05; partial η2 = 0.467). Students from the Lexical Chunks had higher achievement score(38.14)
than their counterpart in the control group. Based on these findings, it is recommended that English
Language teachers should adopt the use of Lexical Chunks strategy in the teaching of English
vocabulary because it exposes students to the knowledge of which words to use and when, not only
in grammatical terms, but in lexical terms. The government should, therefore, among others,
organize workshops for teachers to be taught how to use the lexical chunks strategy in the effective
teaching of English vocabulary.
Key words: Effect, Lexical Chunks, Achievement, English Vocabulary, Strategy
Introduction language to the human body; language

A vital aspect of language structure can be seen as its skeleton, then
acquisition and learning is to have vocabulary as an important organ such as
sufficient vocabulary or to know the blood and flesh for the body of language.
meaning of words. Osman (2011) says “the One can express little without grammar; but
more one considers the manner, the more nothing can be conveyed without
reasonable it seems to suppose that lexis is vocabulary (Wood, (2009). So learning a
where we need to start from, syntax needs language is to learn its vocabulary first. The
to be put to the service of words and not the acquisition of vocabulary is the central to
other way round”. Without vocabulary, second language acquisition, and the
there would be no words to form syntax, nor language learners' vocabulary competence
words to pronounce. Vocabulary is such an takes a great impact on the development
indispensable constituent of language that it and improvement of their ability to listen,
is impossible for a language system to speak, read and write (Emanor 2015).
succeed without them. 1f we compare Vocabulary takes an extraordinarily
41
important position in language learning, Through an extensive review of

and vocabulary teaching is more of the related literature and available research
same in language teaching. work on vocabulary learning strategies,
The knowledge of vocabulary past researchers have given little attention
surpasses mere reading or studying of and so little importance to vocabulary
individual words and vocabulary learning learning when compared with other aspects
cannot occur in a vacuum; the meaning of a of the language, such as grammar
word cannot be acquired in isolation. phonology or discourse analysis. In the
Learning words is multi-dimensional and context of English as a Foreign Language
the process occurs over time. Meaning (EFL) in Thailand, it is found that very few
resides in the intentional problem solving, empirical research works have been
thinking process of the reader that occurs conducted to investigate vocabulary
during an interaction with the text. learning strategies employed by students at
Therefore, effective instruction and any level of education. There might be a
assessment in vocabulary depends largely few researchers who carried out research
on the students' development in reading works on vocabulary learning strategies at
words correctly, knowing the meaning of a the tertiary level in Thailand; however, very
word within several different contexts little empirical evidence has been found.
using word in reading as well as writing. This also includes the newly-designated
Thus, vocabulary is seen as a Rajabhat Universities. To the researcher's
developmental skill that cannot be fully knowledge, the only available research
mastered. The expansion and elaboration of work on vocabulary learning strategies
vocabularies is something that extends conducted with Thai students, whose major
across a life time. Adeyemi (2014), points subject is not English, has been carried out
out that strategies are essential tools for by Intaraprasert (2004).
developing communicative competence. Osman (2011) asserts that choosing
Appropriate language learning strategies words carefully in certain situations is more
result in improved proficiency and greater important than choosing grammatical
self-confidence. structures because language learners cannot
Similarly, vocabulary learning, it is use structures correctly if they do not have
not easy for all language learners to learn enough vocabulary knowledge. This means
and acquire the meanings of new words to that vocabulary is more important than
store them in their memory and recall them grammar, and it is vital for comprehension
at will, to use them in appropriate in language skill in any situation Regarding
situations, or to expand their vocabulary vocabulary in communication, it is apparent
size. Therefore, in order to help learners’ that vocabulary is basic in learning to
vocabulary and become self-directed communicate effectively while listening,
learners of vocabulary, they must be taught speaking, reading, and writing. This is
and appropriately trained on the various asserted by many scholars. For example,
kinds of vocabulary learning strategies. To Emanor (2015) views the importance of
be precise, they must learn different vocabulary as being a basis for daily
appropriate strategies for coping with communication. He indicates that if
unknown or unfamiliar words. As discussed language learners do not recognise the
above, it is obvious that in language meanings of the key words used by those
learning, it is unavoidable for language who address them, they will be unable to
learners and language teachers to deal with participate in the conversation, even if they
vocabulary and vocabulary learning know the morphology and syntax. Krashen
strategies. & Terrell (2000) indicate that if language
learners wish to express some idea or ask
42
for information, they must be able to express their real thoughts, ideas, and
produce lexical items to convey their feelings. It is clear that vocabulary plays a
meaning. Besides, Richards preface in dominant role in learning and
Schmitt's (2000) “vocabulary in Language understanding a language as well as in
Teaching" indicates that vocabulary is communication situations.
central to communicative competence and Despite the enormous role which
to the acquisition of a second language. vocabulary plays in the learning of a second
Vocabulary and lexical items are at the core language such as English in Nigeria, most
of learning and communication. No amount students tend to approach it passively due
of grammatical or other type of linguistic to several factors ranging from students’
knowledge can be employed in inability to take risk in applying what they
communication or discourse without the have learnt to the various strategies
mediation of vocabulary because employed by the teacher in vocabulary
vocabulary is shown to focus much more lessons. This has led to difficulties in
than knowledge of single words. In students learning of vocabulary and by
communication situations, Dahunsi (2004) extension, poor performance not only in
also points out that vocabulary is often literacy but also in content area of studies.
more important than grammar. It is Students find it difficult to develop
frustrating for language learners when they new vocabularies. They lack a stock of
discover that they cannot communicate lexical sequence such as phrasal verbs,
effectively because they do not know many idioms, collocations and sentence frames.
of words they need. This has a major effect on their ability to
The above is also affirmed by convey ideas in appropriate terms. They
McCarthy (1990) who points out the also find it a serious challenge assigning
importance of vocabulary that no matter correct meaning to words and phrases even
how well the student learns grammar, no when such words and phrases are used
matter how successfully the sounds of L2 contextually.
are mastered, without words to express a According to Schmit (2009), most
wide range of meanings, communication in students, especially in the secondary school
an L2 just cannot happen in any meaningful level, do not have good knowledge of
way. Since learners not only communicate words association. As a result, they often
in words but also they do most of their use words indiscriminately such that what
thinking in words because words are the they write is way different from their
tools they use to think, to express ideas and intended meaning
feelings, as well as to explore and analyse Vocabulary teaching and learning
the world around them, therefore, Wrong continues to pose a constant challenge to
vocabulary frequently interferes with teachers and students. There has been
communication, and communication breaks minimal focus on vocabulary instruction in
down when learners do not use the right language learning classrooms. According
words (Fakeye 2001). to Almela & Sanchez (2007), the average
In summary, the importance of native speaker enters nursery school
vocabulary lies in the fact that language knowing at least five thousand words while
learners with vocabulary knowledge can the average English learner may know five
achieve a great deal success in their thousand words in his or her native
classrooms, their social life, and in their language but only a few words in English.
continued acquisition of the target The reality is that the native speaker
language. A large, rich vocabulary gives continues to learn new words while the ESL
language learners the right words to use at learner faces double challenge of building
the right time, and also enables them to that foundation and closing the language
43
gap. This is the case in Nigeria where one (2006) uses componential analysis as a
needs to learn every English word one second language vocabulary instructional
knows. strategy. In addition, Olurankinse (2011)
From the on-going, acquiring and studies the impact of content based
using an extensive range of vocabulary is, instruction on students' English vocabulary
therefore, a great challenge for second achievement in some selected schools in
language learners due to the huge amount Ibadan metropolis and discovered that
of words the learner has to acquire. Worse vocabulary forms the foundation upon
still, the strategies used in schools to teach which other aspects of English language are
vocabulary are not really effective as built. Also, Adeyemi (2014) carries out a
teachers barely stimulate students to give study on the effect of semantic gradients
positive response and apply specific strategy on senior secondary school
reading techniques based on students' student's achievement in English
needs, interests and habits. The teacher only vocabulary in Akinyele Local Government
focuses on giving writing tasks from of Oyo State and he found out that students
students' textbooks without guiding them in exposed to semantic gradients performed
comprehending the text and knowing better than those taught with the modified
whether the students were able to do the conventional lecture method. In the same
task or not (Almela & Sanchez, 2007). The vein, Emanor (2015) also researches on the
resultant effect of this is students’ inability effect of vocabulary self-collection strategy
to answer questions and difficulty in getting All the aforementioned researchers
meaning or main ideas from text. have contributed immensely to the
In an attempt to adequately address development of vocabulary instructional
these issues, many research findings have strategies to enhance students"
been made. For instance, Dahunsi (2004) achievement in English vocabulary, but it
while considering some vocabulary was discovered that none of these strategies
problems of English language encountered considered vocabulary in terms of lexical
by senior secondary school students said structures that commonly occur in the
that aspects of our knowledge are built language. They were limited to the learning
through the knowledge of vocabulary. of words in isolation they have also not
Blachowiez & Fisher (2006), in their own allowed language users to process language
study titled "Teaching Vocabulary in all more efficiently. According to
Classrooms" rightly observed that the size Lackman (2007), since secondary school
of an individual's vocabulary is a powerful students lack adequate exposure to lexical
predictor of how well that person chunks and find it difficult to appropriately
comprehends. While studying the use of combine individual words to build coherent
memorization in learning English structures like phrases, expressions and
vocabulary, Fadimilehin (2010) also claims whole sentences, language teachers should
that vocabulary is not stored only as focus not on the tiny portion of the lexicon
individual words but also as parts of but on strategies to make the acquisition of
phrases and larger chunks which can be the bulk of the lexicon more effective. This
removed from memory vocabulary informs the need for a research on lexical
strategies. For instance, Mukoroli (2005) chunks as an instructional strategy for
identifies guided interaction strategy, English vocabulary.
metacognition and authentic assessment A lexical chunk is a sequence of
strategy, explicit instructional strategy, words or other meaning element stored and
meaning-based context & universal themes retrieved as a whole without creation or
strategy, modeling, graphic organizers, and invention according to grammatical rules.
visuals instructional strategy. Fakeye According to Lackman (2007), lexical
44
chunks are combinations of fixed or semi- collocate not only with teeth, but also with
fixed multi-word units which occur appearance.
recurrently. A lexical chunk should at least Institutionalized utterances:
contain two morphemes and be coherent in Institutionalized utterances mainly refer to
phonology. Lexical chunks can be defined the spoken languages which have certain
from different perspectives so that they can pragmatic functions. For instance, I'm
also be further classified in different ways afraid of... I'm sorry but...
according to their structures, functions and Sentence frames and heads: this sort of
semantics. chunks is nearly the same as the third type.
Lexical chunks facilitate clear, The only existing difference between them
relevant and concise language use and are is that: institutionalized utterances are
stored as individual whole units. These spoken languages used in oral speech while
units can be easily retrieved and used sentence frames and heads, for example, on
without the need to compose on-line the one forth hand...on the other hand... arc
through word selection and grammatical written language used to organize text.
sequencing. This means there is less An important argument for the existence
demand on cognitive capacity because the and importance of lexical chunks has been
lexical chunks are ready to go-and require that they allow language users to process
little or no additional processing. Baoliang language more efficiently, both in
(2003) states that once a chunk is known it production and incomprehension. Given a
can be analyzed and broken down into natural language grammar and its
constituent words. This can occur when corresponding lexicon, the set of
some variability is noticed in a lexical Sentences one could hypothetically
chunk. Concerning classifications of lexical generate is infinite, yet, as Pawley and
chunks, DeCarrico (2001), is the most Synder note, “Native Speakers do not
typical and representative. Lexical chunks exercise the creative potential of syntactic
are classified into four types according to rules to anything like their full extent, and
Emanor (2015): that, indeed, if they did do so they would
Words and poly-words: the former is the not be accepted as exhibiting native-like
traditional word with no space within it; the control of the language”
latter is the rather fixed combination of
words, that is to say, each part of a poly- Statement of the Problem
word cannot be replaced by others, Vocabulary is an indispensible
although there is space within it. For constituent of language learning. A good
instance, out of the question, this poly-word knowledge of vocabulary is essential for
consists of four words, none of which can students to function effectively in the four
be changed by others without changing its language skills of listening, speaking,
meaning. reading and writing, as well as in their
Collocations: collocation refers to the co- overall language proficiency. However, it
occurrence relationships between words has been observed that students lack
because we know a word by the word it adequate knowledge of vocabulary as
keeps. For example, vice president, deputy reflected in essay, summary writing,
manager, associate professor etc.. We use comprehension and other forms of
different words "vice", "deputy" and expression in English language.
“associate” to express the same meaning of. Previous studies have been
However, the relationship between words conducted to address these issues which
within a collocation is more flexible than have led scholars to work on strategies such
those within a poly-word, e.g. false can as Self-Collection, Graphic organizer,
semantic gradient, contextual redefinition
45
and morphemic analysis. Despite the quasi-experimental design. The design is as

insights provided by these strategies, follows:
students are still deficient in vocabulary as 01 x1 03 - Experimental group
none of them considered vocabulary in 02 x2 04-Control group
terms of lexical structures that commonly
occur in the language. They were limited to Where 01 and 02 are the pretest
EFL situation and the learning of words in measures for both experimental group and
isolation. They did not allow language the control group respectively; the 0s and
users to process language more efficiently. 04 are posttest measures for both the
Studies have shown that the lexical chunks experimental group and control group
strategy is highly effective in vocabulary
instruction. However, these studies were X1 - The use of Lexical Chunks
carried out in other countries like China, Strategy to teach the students
Thailand and Japan where English is taught English vocabulary
as a foreign language; none of them X2 - Using the Modified Conventional
considered Nigeria, an ESL context. Strategy to teach English
Against this background, this study vocabulary
determined the effects of lexical chunks
instructional strategy on students' Selection of Participants
achievement in English vocabulary in From the schools that fulfilled the
Ibadan North Local Government of Oyo criteria, four schools were randomly
State. selected. In each of the four schools, one
intact class was selected and assigned to
Research Hypothesis treatment groups. The treatment groups
There is no significant main effect were randomly assigned such that two
of treatment on SS1 students’ achievement groups are experimental (Lexical Chunks
in English vocabulary, Strategy) and two are control (Modified
Conventional Strategy). In all, a total of two
Scope of the Study hundred (206) senior secondary school
This study determined the effect of students from four intact classes of senior
lexical chunks instructional strategy on secondary school one (SSI) participated in
students’ achievement in Ibadan North the study.
Local Government Area of Oyo state. The
study covers four (4) selected senior Research Instruments
secondary schools in Ibadan. It focused on One instrument was used for data
the teaching of collocations, synonyms and collection, namely:
antonyms, registers, phrasal verbs and Students Achievement test in English
idiomatic expressions based on the Oyo Vocabulary (SATEV)
State third term scheme of work for
SSI. Test items were drawn from the New Validation of the Instruments
Concept English Language textbook for A test blue print was articulated to
Senior Secondary Schools (Book 1), by perfect the different levels of bloom's
Eyisi. J. et al. taxonomy of the cognitive domains-
knowledge, comprehension, application,
Methodology analysis, synthesis and evaluation. The
Research Design instruments was presented to the
The research design adopted for this researchers’ colleagues for evaluation of
study was the pretest posttest control group the suitability for the target population in
46
terms of content, form, level, behavioural classes to be used. They also trained and
objectives and the face validity tested the research assistants for a week.
Pretest was administered on students (i.e.
Reliability of the Instruments the control groups and the experimental
The students’ achievement test in groups) in the second week.
English vocabulary was trial-tested on a The experimental treatment
sample respondent in an intact class from a commenced in the third week, where the
school outside the schools used or the study experimental groups were exposed to the
using test-retest method at 0.05 level of Lexical Chunks Instructional Strategy and
significance. the control groups were taught using the
Modified Conventional Strategy for a
Procedure for Data Collection period of six weeks. At the end of the six
The researchers visited the weeks, the researchers administered the
principals of the schools where the study posttest on both the experimental and the
was to be carried out. The principal then control groups.
handed the researcher over to the Head of
Language Department. The Heads of Results
Departments then introduced the researcher H01: There is no significant main effect of
to the English language teachers of the treatment on students’ achievement in
S.S.S 1 classes. English vocabulary.
The researchers identified the arms
of the senior secondary school one (SS 1)
Table 1: Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) of Post-Achievement Scores by

Treatment
Source Type III Sum dƒ Mean ƒ Sig. Partial Eta
of Squares Square Squared
Corrected model 5082.043a 4 1270.511 141.098 .000 .736
Intercept 2876.098 1 2876.098 319.409 .000 .613
Pretest 3002.194 1 3002.194 333.413 .000 .623
Achievement Treatment 1595.325 1 1595.325 177.171 000* .467
Home background Treatment .824 1 .824 .091 .763 .000
Home background .090 1 .090 010 .921 .000
Error 1818.894 202 9.004
Total 234242.000 207
Corrected Total 6900.937 206
R Squared = .736 (Adjusted R Squared = .731) *significant at P<0.05
Result in Table 1 showed that there significant main effect of treatment on

is significant main effect of treatment on students’ achievement in English
students’ achievement in English vocabulary was rejected.
vocabulary (F (1,202) = 177:177; P<0.05; In order to show how the groups
partial 2 = 0.467). The P - value 0.004 is performed and to determine the magnitude
less than 0.05 level of significance and the of the significant main effect across
effect size is 46.7%. This means that there treatment groups, the Estimated Marginal
is a significant difference in the mean post- means of the treatment groups were carried
achievement scores of students. Thus, out and the result is presented in table 2
hypothesis I which states that there is no
Table 2: Estimated Marginal Means for Post-Achievement by Treatment and
Control Group
47
Std. 95% Confidence Interval

Treatment Mean
Error Lower Bound Upper Bound
Lexical Chunks Instructional
38.44 .354 37.746 39.143
Strategy (LCIS)
Conventional Strategy 28.15 .657 26.853 29.445
Results in table 2 revealed that the Mukoroli (2011). Fakeye (2006), Kieffer &
students taught with Lexical Chunks Lesaux (2007), Dahunsi (2004), Adeyemi
Instructional Strategy (LCIS) has a higher (2014) and Emanor (2015) who all found
adjusted post-achievement mean score out in their various studies that their
(38.14) than their counterparts who were experimental groups performed better than
taught with the Modified Conventional students in their control groups. More
Strategy having a post-achievement mean significant is the findings of Li (2014) who
score (28.15) in vocabulary achievement. carried out an empirical study on the
This order can be represented as LCIS > application of lexical chunks strategy to a
MCS. group of college students. He used lexical
chunks strategy to teach English language
Discussion to a group of ESL students and found out
Main effect of Lexical Chunks that students taught with the Lexical
Instructional Strategy on Students’ Chunks strategy performed better than
Achievement Vocabulary students taught with the Conventional
The result showed that the lexical Strategy.
chunks instructional strategy had a
significant main effect on students’ Conclusion
achievement in English vocabulary. A It is reasonable to conclude that the
credible explanation for this result is that result of the students taught with the lexical
this finding might be attributed to the fact chunks strategy performed significantly
that the Lexical Chunks strategy exposed better than those taught with the modified
students to the knowledge of which words conventional strategy. This has shown that
to use and when, not only in grammatical the lexical chunks instructional strategy is
terms, but in lexical terms, thus, it allows more effective in teaching English
students to process the language more vocabulary than the modified conventional
efficiently. This makes students to be strategy.
actively involved in the teaching and
learning process because it is learner- Recommendations
centred thereby offering students’ greater Based on the finding of this study, it
opportunity to perform more than their was recommended that English language
colleagues in the Modified Conventional teachers should adopt the use of lexical
Strategy which is teacher-centred. chunks instructional strategy in the
Also, since lexical chunks are stored teaching of English vocabulary because
and retrieved automatically as a whole unit exposes students to the knowledge of which
in the process of language acquisition, words to use and when, not only in
learners did not have to analyse and focus grammatical terms, but in lexical terms,
on the individual words of the phrases, but thus, it allows students to process the
to pay more attention to the whole chunks. language more efficiently thereby
This enhances both their fluency and enhancing their vocabulary proficiency.
vocabulary knowledge as well as promotes School should provide students with
learners’ efficiency of the language English texts which contain enough
production. This finding tallies with passages and exercises on lexical chunks
49
order to help students from poor home Fadimilehin, E. (2010). Students perception of
background who cannot afford to buy memorization strategy in the study of
books and to imbibe good reading habit in English vocabulary in selected senior
the students, thereby enhancing their secondary schools in Akure township.
vocabulary acquisition. Unpublished M.Ed Project, University of
Ibadan, Nigeria.
Textbook writers and publishers
should also ensure that they pay adequate Fakeye, D. O.(2001). Relative effect of
attention to lexical chunks and enough instruction in componential and
exercise for students to master the form and rhetorical strategies on secondary school
the use of chunks. students’ achievement in essay writing.
Curriculum planners and policy Unpublished Ph.D thesis, University of
makers should embrace the lexical chunks Ibadan.
strategy as one of the strategies for teaching
vocabulary by entrenching it in the school 2006. Basic Principles of English Language
Testing. Ibadan: Resource Centre for
curriculum.
Arts, Culture and Communication
Development.
Intaraprasert, C. (2004). ESL students and

References vocabulary learning strategies: A
Adeyemi, O. (2014). Effect of semantic preliminary investigation. Unpublished
gradients vocabulary strategy on research, Suranarce University of
students’ achievement in English Technology, Nakhon Ratchasima,
vocabulary.Unpublished M.Ed Project. Thailand.
University of Ibadan.
Krashen, S. and Terrell, T. (2000).The Natural
Almela, M. & Sanchez, A. (2007).Words as Approach: Language Acquisition in the
“Lexical units” in learning/teaching Classroom. New York: Longman
Vocabulary. International Journal of
English Studies (IJES), Vol. 7 (2), pp. 21 Lackman, K.( 2007). Lexical Approach
– 40. Activities: A Revolutionary Way of
Teaching. Ken Lackman & Associates
Blachowicz, C. Z. and Fisher, P. J. (2006). Educational Consultants at Pacific
Teaching vocabulary in all classrooms, Resources for Education and Learning.
Upper Saddle River NJ: Pearson Vol. 2(4) pp. 19.
Education.
McCarthy, M. (1990). Vocabulary. Oxford
Dahunsi, O. (2004). Some Vocabulary University Press.
problems of English language of Senior
Secondary School Students. Mukoroli, J. (2011). Effective Vocabulary
Unpublished B.Ed Project, University of Teaching Strategies For The English for
Ibadan. Academic Purposes in ESL Classroom
MA TESOL Collection. Paper
Emanor, R.( 2015). Effects of vocabulary self- 501.Digitalcollections.sit.edu>SIT
collection and graphic organizer Graduate Institute>IPP Collection.
vocabulary instructional strategies on
students’ achievement and attitude to Olurankinse, O. (2011). The impact of content-
English reading comprehensive in Udu based Instruction on Senior Secondary
Local Government in Delta State. An School Students’ English Vocabulary
unpolished M.Ed thesis, University of Achievement in Selected Secondary
Ibadan, Ibadan. Schools in Ibadan Metropolis.
Unpublished M.Ed Project, University of
Ibadan, Nigeria.
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Osman, N. B. (2011). Routinizing Lexical Wood, D. (2009). Effects of focused

Phrases on Spoken Discourse. instructional of formulaic sequences on
International Education Studies 2(2), fluent expression in second language
188-191. Oxford Collocations narratives: A case study, Canadian
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Schmitt, N. (2000). Vocabulary in Language
Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
50
KNOWLEDGE AND PERCEPTION OF MENOPAUSE AMONG

WOMEN OF DIFFERENT MENOPAUSE STATUS IN EKITI STATE
1Margaret Adefiola OLUWAYEMIand 2Moyosore Racheal ARIBASOYE

1&2
Department of Human Kinetics and Health Education, Bamidele Olumilua University of
Education, Science and Technology, Ikere, Ekiti State, Nigeria.
Abstract
This study investigated knowledge and perception of menopause among women in Ekiti state,
Nigeria. The descriptive survey research design was used for the study. Two hundred and forty-six
women were randomly selected through household survey from Ado-Ekiti metropolis and used for
the study. A self-structured questionnaire was used for data collection and the collected data were
coded and entered into SPSS version 23 for descriptive and inferential statistical analysis.
Menopause symptoms identified in order of prevalence were vaginal dryness (44.3%), hot flashes
(38.6%), loss of sexual desire (36.2%), weight gain (31.7%), sleep disturbance (31.3%), joint pain
(29.7%), mood swing 28.5 difficulty in concentration 27.6 and irregular heart beat (26.8%). Total
knowledge score was 46.1% which indicated moderate knowledge of menopause. However, the study
found positive perception with total score of 68.8%. Also, the study found no significant relationship
between menopause status and menopause knowledge. Based on the findings of the study, it was
recommended that menopause education should be encouraged among women of reproductive age.
Government should incorporate reproductive and family education in the curriculum of higher
institutions so that young women will have knowledge about menopause.
Key words: peri-menopause, post-menopause, climacteric, knowledge, perception and

reproductive age
Introduction menopausal phase (UN, 2019). This make

Menopause heralds the end of menopause research a very relevant issue
fertility in women. It is a condition Transition into menopause most of
characterized by complete cessation of the time bring along some nasty symptoms
monthly period (Mohamad Ishak, et al., which occur in many systems of the body
2021). The diagnosis is retrospective and it some of the symptoms include hot flushes,
is made after a woman has missed her sleep disturbance, dizziness, loss of libido,
period for twelve consecutive months, night sweat, urinary incontinent and many
Naturally, menopause occur as a result of others. Many women are not aware that
aging; when there is declination of these symptoms come as a result of
hormones estrogen and progesterone menopause, therefore, most of the time
butcan also be induced through surgical when women suffer from these symptoms
removal of both ovaries, or through the use they may not link their experience to
of chemotherapy and radiotherapy for the menopause (Bello & Daramola, 2016).
treatment of cancer.(Borker, Venugopalan, Thus, many women become confused and
& Bhat, 2013). Global improved health care some relate the symptoms to spiritual or
delivery has resulted into global increase in demonic attack which increase the
life expectancy which implies that many tendency to seek help in odd places outside
women will attain menopause (Lee, et al., of hospital setting. (Ibraheem, Oyewole, &
2010), and many women are expected to Olaseha, 2015) Although the symptoms of
spend one quarter of their life in post- menopause are biological, the
51
understanding of the phenomenon and the Two research questions were raised
interpretation given to those symptoms will and one hypothesis was generated to guide
determine the steps women will take in in the study they are as follows:
search of solutions to the symptoms.
Previous studies of menopause in Research Questions
Nigeria indicate the common occurrence of What is the Knowledge level of women
menopause symptoms. A study in Ekiti about menopause symptoms?
state found over 95% prevalence of What is the perception of women in Ekiti
menopause symptoms among post- state towards menopause?
menopausal women in the state (Olajubu,
Olowokere, Amujo, & Olajubu, Research Hypothesis
2017).These scholars also found that Menopause status will not significantly
menopause symptoms affect the ability of influence the knowledge of menopause
menopausal women to cope with their daily among women in Ekiti State
activities. Those women who though are
still having regular monthly menstruation Methodology
but are close. If menopause symptoms have The study adopted a descriptive
such prevalence and great ability to affect research design where survey was used to
work, and there seems to be limited study explore knowledge, attitude and practices
indicating the knowledge and perception of of women towards menopause in Ekiti
menopause among women in the state, State, Nigeria. The population for the study
then, understanding what women knew consisted of all women in three stages of
about menopause will provide a good menopause in Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State. Two
platform for health educators to prepare hundred and forty-six (246) women were
health promotion and disease prevention randomly selected through household
counseling for women at this vulnerable survey; a self-designed structured pre-
stage. Since menopause is inevitable in tested questionnaire containing two
women’s life as they age, knowledge of sections was used for the study. Section A
menopause symptoms and perception of contain questions on demographic data of
such symptoms may go a long way to the respondents which included 6 items
determine how and where a woman will questions finding information about age,
seek care. Thus, the index study is pertinent level of education, religion, marital status,
as it seeks to understand the knowledge and menopause status and employment status.
perception related to menopause across the Section B contains items to elicit
stages of menopause among women in Ekiti information on knowledge and perception
State. Those women who though are still of women about different areas of
having regular monthly menstruation but menopause and its symptoms on four points
are close to menopause, those with irregular Likert type scale with options ranging from
menstruation and those who had stopped strongly disagree to strongly agree. The
having menstruation. The study also instrument was pilot tested and subjected to
compared the differences in knowledge of Cronbach Alpha reliability test which
menopause across these three stages with yielded a reliability coefficient of 0.78
the aim of providing baseline
understanding about women knowledge Procedure for Data Collection
about menopause which could be useful for After the respondents were fully
health educators and others stake holders informed about the purpose of the study and
who can plan for health education method of data collection, verbal consent
programme that will make life better for were taken. Anonymous questionnaire
women at menopause. were distributed by the researcher and one
52
trained research assistant. Respondents Descriptive analysis of socio-

were given time to fill the questionnaire demographic variables revealed that the age
which were collected immediately. of the respondents range from 40-69 with
mean of 41.7. years. More than three
Data analysis quarter 206 (83.7%) were married. Among
Collected data were entered into these women 120 (48.8%) were in pre
SPSS version 23 and descriptive statistics menopause stage, 52 (21.1%) were at peri-
were computed to describe the socio- menopause stage while 74 (30.1%) were at
demographic characteristics of the post menopause stage. 219 (89%) were
respondents, while responses related to Christians while the remaining 27 (11%)
knowledge and perception were presented were either Muslim or traditional
as frequencies and contingency tables. The worshipers, 33 (13.4%) were unemployed
responses were dichotomized as "agreed" while the remaining were either civil
and "disagreed" Analysis of Variance servants, petty traders or workers of private
(ANOVA) was used to find the differences institutions
of menopause knowledge across the three Research Question 1: What is the
stages of menopause status. Knowledge level of women about
menopause symptoms?
To answer this question, the
response categories were reduced to two;
agree and disagree and were subjected to
Results and Discussion frequency counts and percentages. Results
Descriptive analysis are presented in table 2 below;
53
Table 2: Analysis of knowledge of women in Ekiti state about menopause knowledge

Items Response score percent
1. Menopause occurs naturally Agreed 201 81.7
Disagreed 45 18.3
2. Menopause occurs when ovaries of a woman are Agreed 20 8.1
removed surgically Disagreed 226 91.9
3. Menopause sometimes occurs after treating a woman Agreed 21 8.5
for cancer Disagreed 225 91.5
4. Menopause symptoms include Agreed 95 38.6
Hot flashes Disagreed 151 61.4
5. Vaginal dryness Agreed 109 44.3
Disagreed 136 55.7
6. Irregular heart beat Agreed 66 26.8
Disagreed 180 73.2
7. Loss of interest in sex Agreed 89 36.2
Disagreed 157 63.8
8 Sleep disturbance Agreed 77 31.3
Disagreed 169 68.7
9. Joint pain Agreed 73 29.7
Disagreed 173 70.3
10 Mood swing Agreed 70 28.5
Disagreed 176 71.5
11 Difficulty in concentration Agreed 68 27.6
Disagreed 178 72.4
12 Weight gain Agreed 78 31.7
Disagreed 168 68.3
13 Menopause symptoms can be treated with Agreed 70 28.5
Hormonal Replacement Therapy (HRT) Disagreed 176 71.5
Table 2 revealed that the knowledge mention joint pain as a menopause

of menopause symptoms was relatively low symptom 70 (28.5%) mentioned mood
among the respondents regardless of their swing and 68 (27.6%) knew difficulty in
menopause status. 201 (81.7%) of the concentration. 78 (31.7%) knew weight
respondents indicated that menopause gain as part of menopause symptoms. On
occurs naturally, only 20 (8.1) knew that treatment of menopause symptoms, 70
menopause could occur when a woman’s (28.5%) knew that menopause symptoms
ovaries are removed surgically, also only could be treated.
21(8.5%) are aware that menopause could The scoring system was also used to
be induced after a woman has been treated categorize the women's knowledge level.
for cancer. On menopause symptoms, 95 The scores ranged from strongly disagree =
(38.6%) respondents knew hot flashes as a 1, disagree = 2, agree = 3 and strongly agree
menopause symptom while the remaining = 4. The total knowledge score level was
61.4% knew not. Also, 109 (44.3%) knew calculated to be 52, knowledge level was
vaginal dryness could be a symptom of categorized to poor knowledge, moderate
menopause, 66 (26.8%) knew irregular and good knowledge, scores between 13
heart beat could be associated with and 20(25-38.5%) were categorized as poor
menopause and 89 (36.2%) claimed to knowledge, score between 21 and 29(40 –
know that loss of interest in sex is one of 55.8%) were categorizes as moderate
menopause symptoms. 77 (31.3%) knowledge while scores between 30 and 52
respondents knew that sleep disturbance is (57.7-100%) were regarded as good
a menopause symptom and 73 (29.7%) knowledge. The study got a total
54
knowledge score of 24 (46.1%) which To answer this question, the

indicated moderate knowledge of responses were also reduced into two
menopause among the study respondents. categories of agree and disagree and were
Research Question 2: What is the subjected to frequency counts and
perception of women in Ekiti state towards percentages. Results are presented in table
menopause? 2 below;
Table 2: Analysis of perception of women in Ekiti state towards menopause
Items Response Score Percent

1. Menopause is normal part of aging process Agreed 209 85.0
Disagreed 37 15.0
2. Menopause is freedom from monthly stress of Agreed 183 74.4
menstruation Disagreed 63 25.6
3. Menopause is freedom from fear of pregnancy Agreed 174 70.7
Disagreed 72 29.3
4. I am happy when I think about menopause Agreed 137 55.7
Disagreed 151 44.3
5. Having sex after menopause is good Agreed 197 80.1
Disagreed 49 19.9
6. Menopause symptoms are too difficult to cope with Agreed 88 33.0
Disagreed 158 67.0
Table 2 revealed that 209 (85%) of level was calculated to be 32, perception
the respondents considered menopause a levels were categorized to negative
normal part of aging. Also, 183 (74.4%) perception and positive perception. Scores
viewed menopause as freedom from between 8 and 16 (25-50%) were
monthly stress of menstruation while 174 categorized as negative perception while
(70.7) agreed that menopause is freedom score between 17 and 32 (52 – 100 %) were
from fear of pregnancy. 137 (55.7%) categorizes as positive perception. The
claimed that they are happy about study got a total score was 22 (68.8%)
menopause and 197 (80.1%) agreed that it which indicated that Ekiti women
is good to have sex after menopause and demonstrated positive perception towards
158 (67%) agreed that menopause menopause
symptoms are not too difficult to cope with.
The scoring system was used to Hypotheses Testing
categorize the attitude of Ekiti women Hypothesis 1: Menopause status will not
towards menopause. The scores range from significantly influence the knowledge of
strongly disagree = 1, disagree = 2, agree = menopause among women in Ekiti State
3 and strongly agree = 4. The total score
Table 5: Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) showing difference between menopause

status and menopause knowledge level
Source df Sum of square Mean square f-ratio p-value
Between groups 2 .186 .993 .563 .570
Within groups 243 40.240 .166
Total 245 40.427
Table 5 showed the ANOVA of all that there was no significant relationship
age groups in the study. The table revealed between menopause status and menopause
55
knowledge, p-value of .570 was greater poor knowledge; only a little above a
than 0.05 level of significant, the quarter of the study participants knew about
hypothesis was therefore upheld. The poor treatment of menopause symptoms. This
knowledge of menopause was finding is an important eye opener to why
demonstrated among the three stages of many women will not seek care for
menopause status, even women at post- menopause symptoms within hospital
menopause stage have poor knowledge of settings. This study further revealed that
menopause symptoms. there is no significant difference between
menopause status of the respondents and
Discussion knowledge of menopause. The moderate
This study revealed moderate knowledge cut across the three menopause
knowledge of menopause symptoms among groups in the study.
women across the three stages of Furthermore, this study found that
menopause; pre-menopause, peri- women have positive perception of
menopause and post-menopause stages. menopause. Most women in the study
This finding has revealed a better perceived menopause as normal part of
knowledge compared with some studies in aging process, many viewed menopause as
developing countries where poor freedom from monthly stress of menses,
knowledge of menopause were reported and freedom from fear of pregnancy. These
(Ikeme, Okeke, Akogu & Chinwuba, 2011; findings connote positive perception of
Jin, et al., 2015; Han, Chang, Ige& Ige, menopause. As opined by Bello &
2022; Mohamad Ishak, et al., 2021).The Daramola, (2016) ‘For women who still
difference in the findings may be because desire to have more children, menopause
of years lag and the advent of improved will not be a welcome event”, otherwise,
technologies, people now have better most women seem to have positive
access to information more than it used to perception of menopause as also
be. Although women in this study knew demonstrated by this study.
menopause occur naturally as part of aging It is also imperative to note another
process, majority were not aware that important finding of this study on sexual
menopause could be artificially induced. relation after menopause, respondents in
The finding is similar to the findings of this study opined that sex after menopause
other studies in developing countries which is good even most women in this study did
revealed that women did not regard not know that women may lose interest in
menopause as a medical problem but as a sex after menopause. This finding is
natural event Han, Chang, Ige & Ige, 2022; contrary to reports of other studies in
Mohamad Ishak, et al., 2021). This finding Nigeria. Studies have consistently found
could also be one of the reasons why loss of interest in sex to be a predominant
seeking health care in hospital for symptom among Nigeria women. For
menopause symptoms is low in developing example, Dienye, Judah &Ndukwu, (2013)
countries including Nigeria (Bello& found 92.5 % of women having loss of
Daramola, 2016). libido during menopause transition and post
The most frequently identified menopause stage. Other studies found
menopause symptoms in the study was negative perception of sex after menopause.
vaginal dryness which is not one of the As it is a common believe among Nigerian
commonly identified symptoms as reported women that sexual intercourse after
by many Nigeria studies (Ikeme et al., menopause will make a woman sick.
2011; Olajubu, et al., 2017; Bello & (Ibraheem, et al., 2015; Bello & Daramola,
Daramola, 2016). On treatment of 2016). Although the finding of their studies
menopause symptoms, the study found may be due to the fact that majority of
57
women in their study were widows and Han, M., Cheng, Y., Ige, G. A.& Ige, O (2022).
post-menopausal women but the index Attitude and Knowledge of women
study included some sexually active between 45 and 65 years on menopause
women of reproductive age. Yet it is an syndrome at the University College
important finding which may also be Hospital, Ibadan, Nigeria.African
Journal of Reproductive Health 26 (5)
because of improved knowledge of 57-62
menopause in this study. It implies that
tradition of abstaining from sexual Ibraheem, O. M., Oyewole, O. E., &Olaseha, I.
intercourse after menopause may change if O, (2015). Experiences and perceptions
women have better knowledge of of menopause among women in Ibadan
menopause. South East Local Government Area,
Nigeria,” African Journal of Biomedical
Research, 18, (2) 81–94
Conclusion and Recommendations
In conclusion women in Ekiti state, have Ikeme A.; Okeke TC.; Akogu S. and
moderate knowledge of menopause but Chinwuba, N. (2011). Knowledge and
positive perception of menopause and its Perception of Menopause and
symptoms. Based on the finding of the Climacteric Symptoms among a
study, it was recommended that public Population of Women in Enugu,
South East, Nigeria. Annals of Medical
enlightenment programme should be
and Health Sciences Research, 1(1), 31–
organized by health educators in Nigeria to 36
increase Nigerian women’s level
knowledge of menopause and effects. Jin, F. Tao, M. Tang, Y. Shao, H. Li, C& Mills,
Government should incorporate E., (2015). Knowledge and attitude
reproductive and family education in the towards menopause and hormonal
curriculum of higher institutions so that replacement in Chinese women.
Gynaecology and Obstetrics
young women will have knowledge.
Investigations: 79 (1) 40-45.
Lee, M. Kim, J. Park, M. S., Yang, J. Ko, Y.
References Ko, S., & Joe, S., (2010). Factors
Bello, F. A., & Daramola, O. O., (2016). Influencing the Severity of Menopause
Attitude to the menopause and sex Symptoms in Korean Post-Menopausal
amongst middle-aged women in a family Women.Journal of Korean Medical
medicine clinic in Ibadan, Science, 25(5):758–765
Nigeria."Obstetrics and Gynecology
Mohamad Ishak, N. N., Jamani, N. A., Arifin,
International. (2): 1-5.
S. R., Abdul Hadi, & Abd Aziz, K. H.
Borker, S. A., Venugopalan, P. P., & Bhat, S. (2021). Exploring women’s perception
N., (2013). Study of menopausal and experience of Menopause among
symptoms and perceptions about East Coast Malaysian women.
menopause among women at a rural Malaysian Family Physician 16 (91):
community in Kerala Journal of Mid-life 84-92
Health, 4(3), 182–187
Olajubu, A. O, Olowokere, A. E., Amujo, D.O,
Dienye, P. O. Judah, F & Ndukwu, G. (2013). & Olajubu, T. O., (2017). Influence of
Frequency of Symptoms and Health menopausal symptoms on perceived
Seeking Behaviours of Menopausal work ability among women in a Nigerian
Women in an Out-Patient Clinic in Port University. Climateric 20 (6) 558-563
Harcourt, Nigeria.Global Journal of
Health Sciences5(4): 39–47
58
MORAL DISPOSITION OF STUDENTS TOWARDS EXAMINATION

MALPRACTICE AMONG SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN
ONDO STATE
1M. S. OMIRIN &2S. BukolaFASORANTI

1
Institute of Education, Faculty of Education, Ekiti State University, Ado Ekiti
2
Directorate of Academic Planning and Quality Assurance
University of Medical Science, Ondo, Ondo State
Abstract
This study aimed at investigating the effectiveness of Didactic Ethical Therapy (DET) in influencing
the attitudes of secondary school students toward examination malpractice. The research employed
an experimental pretest-posttest control group design, with a representative sample of students in
the study. The purpose was to assess the impact of DET on students' attitudes, compare the results
between the experimental and control groups, and provide recommendations for promoting
academic integrity. The research instrument used was the "Students' Attitude Towards Examination
Malpractice" (SATEM) questionnaire, which consisted of two sections: demographic information
and items related to attitudes toward exam cheating. The experimental group received DET over a
seven-week intervention period, while the control group received a placebo treatment. Findings
indicated that students in the experimental group showed a significant improvement in their attitudes
towards examination malpractice compared to the control group. Based on the findings,
recommendations include implementing DET as a preventive measure to instill ethical values,
raising awareness about the consequences of examination malpractice, and fostering a culture of
academic honesty.
Keywords: Examination Malpractice, Didactic Ethical Therapy (DET), SecondarySchool

Students, Student Attitude, Academic integrity.
Introduction considering the prevalence of examination

The complex nature of academic malpractice, specific concerns in Nigeria,
dishonesty demands that empirical models global debates on assessment methods, and
are built to explain the psychosocial and the challenges associated with finding
motivational variables involved in the way suitable alternatives to evaluate teaching
examination malpractice is morally viewed and learning effectively.
by students. This has been underexplored in Ugo and Odimba (2010) submitted
Nigeria over the years given that available that there is over-relevance to the results of
studies have not utilized designs that could the examination and their high level of
give a comprehensive understanding of moral decadence in the society
pathways through which moral views of Onuka and Durowoju (2013) define
students on examination malpractice could examination malpractices as any dishonesty
be predicted. or unauthorized action or deed committed
The claim about examination by a student on his own or in collaboration
malpractice being a normal occurrence with others or group of people before
worldwide, with particular concerns in during or after an examination in order to
Nigeria, and the ongoing discussions obtain undeserved marks or grade, from all
regarding the elimination of examinations the definitions, it is clear that examination
without a substitute can be substantiated by malpractice tends to conferan undue
58
advantage or underserve grades to ethical learning and growth, this therapeutic

perpetrators of the act. approach seeks to cultivate individuals who
In the realm of education, are guided by moral principles and capable
examinations serve as essential of making ethical decisions in various
benchmarks, assessing students’ contexts of their lives.
knowledge and understanding of academic
subjects. They are not only a means of Objectives of the Study
evaluation but also a crucial tool for The purpose of this study is to
promoting fair competition and fostering examine the effectiveness of Didactic
intellectual growth. However, amidst the Ethical Therapy on the moral disposition of
pursuit of excellence and success, a students to examination malpractice in
disturbing trend has emerged – examination Ondo West Government Area of Ondo
malpractice. This unethical practice, which State. Specifically, the objective of the
involves various forms of cheating during study is to:
exams, poses a significant threat to the Assess the moral disposition of
integrity and credibility of the educational students toward examination malpractice.
system. To identify the factors influencing students’
In Ondo West Local Government moral disposition towards examination
Area, secondary school students are not malpractice in Ondo State secondary
immune to the allure of examination schools.
malpractice. While academic achievement
and success are highly valued, the moral Research Hypotheses
disposition of students towards this The following hypothesis is
unethical behavior remains an intriguing generated to achieve the objectives of this
and pressing concern. Understanding the study:
factors influencing their attitudes and ET has no significant effect on secondary
behaviors can shed light on the prevalence students’ moral disposition to examination
and underlying reasons for exam cheating, Malpractice.
ultimately guiding the development of
targeted. Research Design
Didactic ethical therapy, also The study employed the
known as moral education or moral experimental pretest-posttest control group
therapy, is an approach that aims to design is a research design commonly used
promote ethical development and foster in experimental studies to assess the
moral reasoning and decision-making skills effectiveness of an intervention or
in individuals. It is rooted in the belief that treatment. It involves dividing participants
ethical behavior can be cultivated through into two groups: an experimental group and
systematic instruction, reflection, and a control group. Both groups are assessed
practice. This therapeutic approach focuses before and after the intervention, but only
on educating individuals about moral the experimental group receives the
principles, values, and ethical dilemmas, treatment.
and guiding them towards making ethical The experimental pretest-posttest
choices in their lives. control group design is appropriate for this
The ultimate goal of didactic ethical study because it allows for the examination
therapy is to foster the development of of the effectiveness of interventions or
individuals who possess a strong moral treatments in addressing examination
compass, exhibit ethical behavior, and malpractice. By including a control group,
contribute positively to society. By the design helps to control for extraneous
providing a structured framework for variables and determine whether any
59
observed changes can be attributed to the Student Attitude Towards Examination

intervention itself. Additionally, the pretest Malpractice (SATEM) to fill out after seven
and posttest measurements provide a weeks to collect the final study data. T
baseline and allow for within-group Mathematics as a subject was chosen
comparisons to assess the impact of the because it is a general subject that students
intervention on the variables of interest. find difficult to pass in external
Overall, this design helps establish examinations Data collected were analyzed
causal relationships between the using percentages, and t-tests. A probability
intervention and the outcomes, providing of 0.05 was used in testing the study
valuable insights into the factors hypotheses. Research question one was
influencing examination malpractice and analyzed using simple percentages,
evaluating the effectiveness of Hypothesis one was tested using a t-test to
interventions aimed at reducing it. compare the scores of the experimental
group and control group before exposing
Research Instrument them to DET and after exposing them to the
The instrument used for the study is therapy.
a questionnaire titled “Students’ Attitude
towards Examination Malpractice’’ Question 1: What is the student’s
(SATEM). It has two sections: the first disposition to examination malpractice?
section elicited information on students’ To answer this question the
age, sex, and class while the second section SATEM was administered on the initial
elicits information on their attitude to sample of 300 students. The responses of
examination malpractice. The participants the students to the items were scored and
were required to respond to each item on the scores were used to determine
the scale on a two-point Likert scale of individual students’ disposition to
“Agree’’ and “Disagree”. Initially, the examination malpractice. The minimum
instrument used had 25 items but was and maximum obtained scores were 22 and
modified to 22 items. It was ascertained for 44 respectively with a mean of 36.98. In the
construct validity by experts in Tests and study, an attitudinal score that ranges
Measurement. The items were adjudged to between 22 and 34 indicates those that were
adequately reflect the constructs being not disposed to malpractice” while an
measured. The instrument was attitudinal score that ranges between 35 and
administered to 30 students twice within an 44 indicated those that were disposed to
interval of two weeks to determine its examination malpractice. Based on the
reliability. It yielded a test re-test categorization, Table 1 presents students’
correlation of 0.782. disposition to examination malpractice.
Data Collection Table 1: Students’ Disposition to

The inventory was administered to Examination Malpractice
the selected SSSII students by the Disposition Frequency Percent
investigator after obtaining permission Positive 209 69.7
from the appropriate school authorities. The Negative 91 30.3
data for the study were collected through a
Total 300 100.0
22-item questionnaire. The participants in
the experimental group were exposed to
Didactic Ethical Therapy (DET) for a From Table 1, it could be observed
period of seven weeks while the control that out of the 300 students sampled 209
group was not exposed to DET. The two (69.7%) have a disposition toward
groups were given the research instrument examination malpractice while 30.3% of
60
the sampled students have a negative In order to test this hypothesis,

disposition or inclination towards participants’ attitudinal scores in the pre-
examination malpractice DET and post-DET tests were collated and
analyzed using an independent t-test to
Hypothesis 1: DET does not significantly establish the difference in the attitudinal
affect students’ disposition to examination score of the experimental group and control
malpractice. group before and after exposing the
experimental group to the treatment.
Table 2: Shows the Effectiveness of DET on Students’ Disposition to Examination

Malpractice
Group Period Dispositional Score
N X SD R T df p
Experimental Pre-DET 30 36.90 2.64 -0..29
10.38 29 <.05
Post-DET 30 27.87 3.28
Control Pre-DET 30 37.30 3.05 0.96.
2.56 29 <.05
Post-DET 30 36.93 3.24
The result of the analysis as One of the findings of this study

presented in Table 3 indicates that while the shows a significant difference in the mean
experimental group examination scores of students’ attitudinal disposition to
malpractice dispositional score ( X = examination malpractice when exposed to
Didactic Ethical Therapy (DET). Thus,
36.90, SD = 2.64 at pre-DET & X = 27.87, there is a significant change in the
SD = 3.28 at post-DET) shows a significant experimental group on students’ disposition
decrease in the dispositional score, t(29) = to examination malpractice. This is an
10.38, p < .05, the control group ( X = indication that the use of DET is effective
37.30, SD = 43.05 at pre-test & X = 36.93, in improving the students’ disposition to
SD = 3.24 at post-DET) shows a close but examination malpractice. As DET consists
significant decrease in the dispositional of core moral values and standards which
score, t(9) = 2.56, p < .05. However, the promote good self-concepts, pleasant
result of Pearson Product Moment character and consistent determination to
correlation coefficient (r = -0.29 p > .05) succeed with greater achievement it was
and (r = 0.96 p <.05) for the experimental relevant to use it in improving the students’
group and control group respectively is an attitude towards examination malpractice.
indication that the Didactic Ethical Therapy This will encourage handwork, honesty,
brought a significant change in the diligence, independent study, confidence,
experimental group disposition to and excellence among the students in their
examination malpractice which is also academic work in school. There will be a
evident in the significant difference in pre- considerable reduction in the incidents of
DET and the post-DET dispositional score examination malpractice among students.
of the group. Hence it could be concluded Also, there will be no opportunity for the
that the DET is effective in improving teacher and parents to aid in examination
students’ disposition to examination practice. Schools could, therefore, produce
malpractice. competent and responsible graduates to
manage our national economy.
Discussion
61
It could be seen from the results of The result of the first hypothesis
the data analysis that some of the students shows that there is a significant change in
had a negative disposition to examination the attitudinal disposition of the
malpractice. Although having a positive experimental group after exposing them to
disposition to examination malpractice DET. This is an indication that DET is
could not be regarded as a panacea to effective in improving students’ disposition
passing an examination, it could build one’s to examination malpractice. This finding
courage to tackle learning tasks with corroborates that of Sahman et al. (1990)
optimism. Optimistic tendency serves to that malpractice is an unlawful behavior or
boost students’ self-esteem and activity engaged by students to have a
consequently gear them to work harder if personal advantage in an examination over
they challenge their thought and belief their mates. The implication of this finding
systems. It must have helped them to see is that behavioral habit makes differences in
more clearly from a positive point of view students’ disposition to malpractice.
that they can excel without engaging in Individuals with more optimistic
examination malpractice. Students with explanatory styles are more likely to take
low moral standards seem to exhibit certain risks be decisive, engage in quality
observable behavioral patterns that are problem-solving strategies, and be more
inimical to good academic performance. assertive Schulma 1995. According to
These include apathy to their subjects Nolen- Hoeksema, girgus and Seligman
during learning in the classroom and giving (1986), when pessimistic students
one excuse or the other to escape from class encounter negative events they are likely to
and school. Some students tend to develop exhibit a constellation of helpless behaviors
hatred towards their teachers. Experiences including cognitive deficits, sadness, and
have shown that some students believe that lowered self-esteem, however,
no matter the number of effort put into assertiveness and competitiveness as
learning they could not excel. As a result, suggested by Mclnerng (1999). There is a
such students engage in examination tendency that children with high academic
malpractice to obtain the required grade to self –consent to their success to internal and
move on and Render the acquired stable factors that enable them to contribute
certificate ineffective or devoid of value. It, to be further satisfied with their
therefore, behooves the stakeholders in performance and therefore lead to higher
education such as policymakers’ teachers academic performance devoid of
and parents to make use of DET to enhance malpractice.
students’ moral behavior that will make
them know that malpractice will not lead Conclusion
them anywhere However, individual The findings of this study suggest
students are unique in their learning that Didactic Ethical Therapy (DET) helped
abilities to learn and study at their own rate. in improving the students’ attitudes to
It would be of immense help if individual examination malpractice without any
students’ learning styles are adequately significant moderating effects on their sex,
considered during classroom learning. If religious beliefs, and academic abilities.
students have the self-confidence to pass The core moral values and standards
their examination it will improve their characterized by hard work, honesty,
academic achievements of the students and independent study, perseverance,
will lead to a better future. They, therefore, confidence, and excellence might have
will be able to defend their certificates enhanced the student’s disposition towards
anywhere in the world. serious academic work and resolute
determination to succeed without cheating
62
in examinations. It is intended to make the Szabo, A. (2004). Cyber cheats: Is information

students sufficiently prepared without any and communication technology
thought of examination malpractice. fuellingacademic dishonesty? Active
Learning in Higher Education, 5(2), 180-
Recommendations 190.
The following recommendation was Alhassan, A. B. & Adamma, A. C. (2017).
made from the studies Forms and Consequences of
➢ The teachers should be sufficiently Examination
trained to embrace good moral which
their students can emulate from them. Malpractices’ in Nigeria’s Schools and
➢ School authorities should provide Universities:International Journal of
adequate instructional materials and Education, Training and Learning, 1(1),
facilities to enhance effective 9–21.
teaching and meaningful learning https://doi.org/10.33094/6.2018.11.9.21
without examination malpractices.
Hahinshah, B. K. (2010). Need assessment on
➢ students and teachers should be given the provision of guidance services at
adequate exhortation on moral as a high school level in Pakistan
means to keeping themaway from International Journal; of Academic
corruption and examination Research Vol. 2 No. 6. November. Pg 26
malpractice
Smith, Godfried (2003). Ethical Principles: An
Introduction. New York: Routledge.
University of Exeter (2002). Procedures for

Handling Cases of Suspected Cheating:
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Nsamenang, Bame A. (2013).
Indigenous Early Childhood Uwadiae, I. J. (1997). School Factors as
Care/Education (IECCE). Curriculum Determinants of examination
Framework for Africa: A Focus on malpractice in the Senior secondary
Context/Contents. (pgs. 108/109. Daily school Mathematics examination in
Sun Newspaper, August 17, 2014. (pg. Nigeria. Unpublished Ph. D. Thesis,
11 University of Ibadan.
63
IMPACT OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION PROGRAM ON

SUSTAINABILITY OF NON-TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS
AMONG RURAL HOUSEHOLDS FARMERS IN ONDO STATE,
NIGERIA
Idowu Israel ADEWUMI

Department of Agricultural Education, College of Education, Oro (School of Voc&Tech)
Abstract
Agricultural extension is one of the efficacious tools for sustaining utilization of selected Non-
Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) in Ondo State, Nigeria. This paper aims to find out the impact of
agricultural extension on sustainability of NTFPs among rural households’ farmers. One hundred
and eighty rural Households’ farmers were selected through multistage sampling procedure. Data
were collected through the use of interview schedule and analyzed with the use of descriptive and
inferential statistical tools including frequency counts, mean score, standard deviation, and mean
weighted score (WMS) and PPMC analysis. The reveled that just about 28.2% of the respondents
claimed to have received extension education on sustainable exploitation of NTFPs. There was
positive and significant relationship between level of NTFPs utilization and extension education
(r=351, p≤0.0001). Therefore, there was no enough extension training on sustainable exploitation
of NTFPs and this could lead to extinction of these natural resources. Therefore, it is recommended
that government should develop a new approach for extension agents focusing on how to sustain
NTFPs utilization
Keywords: Non-Timber Forest Products, Extension Services, Sustainable use
Introduction last two decades have led to a growing

Agriculture extension has been concern over the excessive exploitation of
recognized as one of the most important these natural resources. Despite, over
sector in sustaining utilization of non- exploitation of non-timber forest products,
timber forest products in developing the resource has been playing a leading role
countries. According to Sabo, Isah, Chamo in poverty alleviation among teeming
and Rabiu, 2017Agricultural extension is to Nigerian. With this, Nigerians still
disseminate proven technologies to farmers experience food shortages, a situation
in the context of unified agricultural where over 89 million people are suffering
extension system for increased agricultural from chronic poverty and malnutrition
productivity. The primary aim of reported by Adewumi (2021).
agricultural extension service is mainly Adedayo (2019) reported that, in the
involve in the passing of agricultural last two decades, information on the
information to the farmers which can sustainability of NTFPs shows that, there
enhance their means of livelihood. These was little or no extension education on the
messages are what constitute and hesitates, sustainability of these natural resources,
the information which the farmer absorbs this led to a wider gab in food supply which
and tries to implement on the sustainability makes this aspect of agricultural sector
of selected non-timber forest products. vulnerable to over utilization and becomes
This has been particularly true in threat in producing adequate amounts of
south-western, Nigeria where declining food in meeting the growing and yarning
productivity and rising population in the needs of the people.
64
In an attempt for the government to

rescue over exploitation of these natural Hypothesis
resources, in order to prevent empty forest There is no significant relationship
syndrome, an effective collaborative between sustainability of NTFPs utilization
agricultural extension education was and extension education.
initiated by the government such as conduct
management training plot (MTP), farmers Methodology
field school, farmers field days etc. In spite The study was carried out in Ondo state,
all these, rural households that live close to because the state is prominent to Non-
the forest areas often engage in the timber forest products resources. Ondo
utilisation of NTFPs without regulated. State, Nigeria was created on 3 February
Thus far, the major concerns about 1976 from the former western state. It
NTFPs utilisation in Nigeria is the issue of originally included in what is call Ekiti
sustainability, which necessitated that, State today, which was split off in 1996.
forest resources need to be exploited in a Akure is the state capital.
regulated manner to allow the continuity in Multi-stage sampling procedure
utilisation of these resources even by the was adopted in selecting the respondents
generation yet unborn. Currently, there is for this study. Stage first: involved
no clear evidence in the literature to show purposive selection of Ifedore L. G.A in the
that adequate extension education tailored state, based on the information obtained
towards sustainable forest resource from extension staff in Ondo ADP that the
utilisation to prevent the pushing of some of area is relatively condense with high thick
these resources either to extinction or forest, area with woods, woodland, jungle,
making them become threatened and backwoods, rainforest and area with
endangered species. tropical rainforest. Stage two: involved
Therefore, it is important that policy random selection of 8 villages out of the 24
makers are aware of the key role that village in four district in Ifedore Local
extension service plays in the utilization of Government Area in Ondo state was
NTFPs before modernizing and reforming selected which are Ipogun district, Ijare
the existing extension education training district, Ilare district and Igbara Oke
program on NTFPs sustainability (Qamar district. Stage 3: The third stage involved
2005). Though relatively achievements was selection of 20 percent of the total
made in the area of training on afforestation respondents making total of 180
in the last 20 years, which is undeniable. respondents used as the sample size out of
This study, therefore, sought to 360 sample frame was used for this study.
assess the impact of agricultural extension Instrument for data collection was
education on sustainability of selected subjected to reliability and validity, the
NTFPs in Ondo State, Nigeria by providing reliability of the instrument was carried out
answers to the following research by test-re-test method, which involved
questions; administering the same instrument to two
1. What are the sources of information different sets of 20 respondents who were
available for rural households’ rural dwellers in forest communities
farmers? outside the research coverage area. This
2. What is the extension education was done within two weeks interval in the
methods provided for sustainable forest-dependent communities in Akure
NTFPs utilisation? South, Ondo State. The second test scores
3. What are the constraints hindering the were then correlated with the first test
effective utilisation of NTFPs by the scores using Pearson Product Moment
respondents in the study areas? Correlation Analysis. The result of the
65
analysis indicated a correlation coefficient friends/relatives (80.0%) were the major

(r) of 0.82 which ascertained the high level sources of information. Whereas, television
of reliability of the instrument. (30%) radio (35%), newspaper (20%) and
bulletin (18%) also constitute good sources
Results and Discussion of information on the utilization of NTFPs
Table 1: Distribution of respondents among the respondents in the study area. It
according to their source of information could be observed from the finding that
Sources of information Percentage (%) sources of information on the utilization of
Radio 35 NTFPs play a very paramount role in
Television 30 disseminating information among
Newspaper 20 respondents on NTFPs utilization. These
Journal text books 5 results attributed credibility, easy access,
Magazines 7
readiness and available information
Bulletins 18
Extension agents 30
through friends and relative that has high
Friends/relatives 80 percentage (80%). This findings
Source: Field survey, 2021. (Parenthesis) corroborate Ogundele (2019) and Koskei
Sources of information on utilization of (2015) where relatives and friends ranked
NTFPs highest as the most important source of
information on the utilization of NTFPs by
Results in Table 1 shows that the the respondents
extension agents (30.0%) and
Table 2: Distribution of Respondents according to their Extension Education

received
Extension Education Frequency Percentage(%)
Afforestation 217 61.8
Value addition to products 62 17.7
Effective methods of NTFPs preservation 36 10.3
An appropriate method of preventing fire outbreak 211 60.1
Encourage forest reserve 142 40.5
Extension education on NTFPs sustainability 99 28.2
Discourage the use of timber products as a source of 148 42.2
fuel-wood
Strict control on poaching in a game reserve to 62 17.7
prevent trampling on available NTFPs
Discourage deforestation to prevent the extinction of 223 63.5
forest species
Source: Field Survey, 2021` “parenthesis”
Extension education provided on the sustainability of NTFPs
The result in Table 2 shows that a training on the negative effects of the use of
high percentage 63.5 percent of the timber products as a source of fuel while
respondents had received training on the 40.5 percent of the respondents had
effect of indiscriminate harvesting of forest received training regarding encouragement
resources, followed by afforestation 61.8 on the sustainability of forest resources.
percent, while 60.1 percent had received Meanwhile, only 28.2 percent of the
training on the appropriate method of respondents claimed to have received
preventing bush fire outbreaks. Also, 42.2 extension education on NTFPs
percent of the respondents had received sustainability, 17.7 percent of the
66
respondents claimed to have received information, educational programme on the

extension education on value addition to sustainability of NTFPsto the rural
their products and strict control on households and helping them to make
poaching in a games reserve to prevent informed decision about their environment,
trampling on available NTFPs.This result economic, social and cultural well-being.
aligns with the opinion of Adebisi (2015) Constraints against to effective utilisation
who stated that the mission of the extension of NTFPs
service is to provide research-based
Table 3: Distribution of respondents based on the severity of the constraints faced

against effective utilisation of NTFPs.
Possible Constraints Mean Std. Rank Remark
Poor access to good roads in the study area thereby 3.75 .500 1st Severe
reducing effective gathering of available NTFPs
Poor access to credit of NTFPs thereby discouraging 2.96 .942 5th Severe
their utilisation
Increased rate of desertification rendered NTFPs 3.13 .941 4th Severe
unavailable for consumption
Inadequate knowledge of the nutritional benefits of 2.47 1.228 10th Not
NTFPs Severe
There is a high rate of kidnapping across the study area, 2.57 1.006 9th Severe
thus adventure into the forest is frightened
Culture frightening 2.60 1.169 8th Severe
Incessant crises between the crop and pastoral forbid the 2.62 .895 7th Severe
exploitation of NTFPs for human consumption etc.
Extinction of many useful natural NTFPs had made 3.48 .748 2nd Severe
many essential products unavailable for consumption
Increased in population led to forest encroachment 3.40 .718 3rd Severe
thereby reducing the majority of NTFPs
Information about the transference of animal disease to 2.01 1.125 11th Not
human being is scaring Severe
Seasonality of the NTFPs makes the products unreliable 2.86 1.035 6th Severe
for consumption and sales
The use of herbicides affect the effective utilisation of 2.01 1.125 11th Not
NTFPs Severe
Overall mean 2.82 Severe
Source: Field survey, 2021
Results in Table 3 show the severity to that of Adedayo and Falade (2019) who
of constraints militating against the reported that bad road network in the rural
effective utilisation of NTFPs among the area is a major problem in the utilisation of
respondents in the study. Poor access to NTFPs in Southwest Nigeria. If the
good road network ranked first as the most government checks all these environmental
severe constraint with a mean point of 3.75. problems, the resources are reliable in
This indicates that the respondents improving the quality of life (QOL) of the
encountered difficulty in transporting the users.
products into the point of collection, This finding is in agreement with
thereby reducing their profit margin from Baulch and Hoddinoh, (2020); who
sales of the product. This finding is similar reported that most of the constraints faced
67
by respondents are related to poor access to Relationship between extension

good road networks, credit facilities and contact and respondents’ level of NTFPs
insecurity utilization (PPMC)
Table 4: Respondents NTFPs utilisation level and Extension education n=180

Variables Level of utilisation Extension Remark
of NTFPs education
Level of the utilisation of NTFPs 1 -0.5521*** Sig
Sig (2-tailed (0.00001)
Extension education -0.5521*** 1
Sig (2-tailed) (0.0001)
Source: Computation from field survey data, 2021.
Relationship between extension and non-governmental agencies should

contact and respondents’ level of utilization organizes training to regulate the
of NTFPs. Table 4 shows an inverse and exploration of NTFPs through extension
significant relationship between NTFPs education in other to prevent “empty-
utilisation and Extension education at forest-syndrome”
1percent level of significance (r = -
0.5521***; p = 0.0001). This indicates that
the more extension education on NTFPs
utilization received the lesser their References
utilization status. The null hypothesis was Adebisi L. A. (2015). Prevalence and
therefore rejected and the alternate Utilisation of Some Medicinal Plants in
hypothesis accepted. This finding is in line Agroforestry system: Case studies of
with that of Faturoti, Agwu, Igbokwe and selected areas of Southwestern Nigeria.
Tenkouano (2008) who observed that Journal of Tropical Forest Resources.
Vol 2015;(pp30-39).
extension education are important factors
that propel and regulate the utilisation of Adedayo A.G. and Falade O.I. (2019). Non-
NTFPs in Ondo State Nigeria. This implies timber forest products utilisation and its
that as the rural households have more impact on poverty reduction among rural
access to extension education on NTFPs women in Ondo State, Nigeria. Journal
utilisation, this will enhance sustainability of Experimental Agriculture
of the natural resources. International 37(2): 1-11, 2019; Article
no JEAL. 49030 ISSN: 2457-0591.
Conclusion and Recommendations
Adedayo A.G. (2018). Harnessing the
Dissemination is the art of
potentials of NTFPs for national
spreading information to the farmers, on development in Nigeria Journal of
NTFPs sustainability the study revealed Experimental Agriculture
that the effort of Extension services is not International.2018(4): 1-10
enough in regulating exploitation of these
natural resources, From the findings only Adewumi, I.I. (2021). Effects of utilisation of
the respondents claimed to have received selected non-timber forest products on
Extension education training on rural households’ poverty status in
sustainability. Therefore, efforts should be southwestern Nigeria Ph.D Thesis work.
geared towards sustaining the NTFPs in the
Baluch, B., and Hoddinoh, J. (2020). Economic
study area to ensure that the incoming
Mobility and Poverty Dynamics in
generations are not denied the benefits of Developing Countries. Journal of
the products in such a way that government development studies, 36-6: (pp 1-24).
68
Faturoti, B.O., Agwu, A.E., Igbokwe, E.M. and Qamar, M.K. (2005). Global trends in
Tenkouano, a (2008). International agricultural extension: Challenges facing
Institute of Tropical Agriculture Plantain Asia and the Pacific region; FAO
and Banana programme: An Insight into Regional Expert Consultation on
the Contribution of Famer-to-Famer Agricultural Extension (Bangkok, July
Extension Paradigm. African Journal of 2002). FAO. Rome
Biotechnology Vol.7 (13), pp.2137-2146,
2008.ISSN 1684-5315. Sabo, B.B., Isah, S.D., Chamo, A.M and Rabiu,
M.A. (2017).Role of small farmers in
Ogundele E. O. (2019). An Assessment of Non- Nigeria’s Food Security. Scholarly
timber Forest Products utilisation on journal of agricultural science, 7(1): 1-5
Rural Livelihood in Local Government
Area of Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria
69
DEEP AND SURFACE PEDAGOGICAL LESSON STUDY AS

INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES ON STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC
ACHIEVEMENTS IN MATHEMATICS
OGINNI O. I.
Department of Science Education, Faculty of Education,
Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti
Abstract
The study examined the effectiveness of deep and surface pedagogical lesson study on students’
academic achievements in Mathematics. It also investigated the teaching method that can enhance
retention in Mathematics. The study also explored the influence of the use of deep and surface
pedagogy on gender. The study employed pretest, post test quasi experimental research design. The
population for this study consist all the high school students in the state of Osun, Nigeria. The sample
for this study comprises of 120 students selected using stratified sampling technique. Mathematics
Achievement Test (MAT) was the instrument used to collect data for the study. The face and content
validity of the instrument was done while test re-test reliability method was used to ascertain the
reliability of the instrument, which yielded 0.81 reliability coefficient. The findings of the study
revealed that there was a significant difference in the post test and retention test mean scores of
students taught Mathematics in the deep, surface and conventional approach. The findings also
showed that there was no significant gender difference in the performance mean scores of students
taught Mathematics in the deep, surface and conventional approach. Based on the findings of the
study, it was therefore recommended that package on deep pedagogy should be adopted as an
alternative teaching method in Mathematics lesson.
Keywords: Deep Pedagogy, Surface Pedagogy, Lesson Study, Achievement, Retention
Introduction several identifiable factors such as

Mathematics has become an teachers’ ineffective and inefficient
essential tool in the world of natural methods of teaching, and or unavailability
science, engineering, medicine, and social of learning materials among others.
sciences. Infact, Mathematical knowledge Knowledge driven through
has revolutionized major discoveries that conventional teaching strategy is fast
are globally acceptable in the area of becoming inadequate and there is need for
science and technology. Mathematics an alternative pedagogy that is suitable
competence is an essential impetus in enough for replacement. Any strategy that
preparing numerate citizens for can influences highly thinking process in
employment and it is needed for the Mathematics lesson and resulted into
emancipation of highly-skilled individual effective learning outcomes among the
required in a market place to meet up the learners need to be prioritized.
21st century development goals. The surface pedagogy is
Unfortunately, poor performance of preoccupied with non-reflective strategies,
students in Mathematics has constituted a such as memorizing and reproducing the
serious threat for a developing nation learning material (Moneta, 2012). The
aspiring for scientific and technological surface approach has also been found to be
advancement. This could be attributed to associated with students’ inability to see
70
relationships between ideas or concepts, i.e. and reflect about own learning in order to
their knowledge is fragmented. The surface construct an understanding to their own
approaches for teaching can be broadly lives” (NOU, 2015). When studying how
classified as teacher centered. Students are “new pedagogic find deep learning”, Fullan
viewed as "empty vessels" whose primary and Langworthy (2014) highlight that
role is to passively receive information with forces converging to produce deep learning
an end goal of testing and assessment. outcomes are as an example (new) learning
Surface pedagogy create Lack of self- based in the real world of action and
regulation skills as well as lack of organized problem solving.
studying in students, and this might be as a Deep pedagogy advocates that
result of the formation of a fragmented learners grasp the essence of mathematical
knowledge base. Teachers who apply the knowledge based on deep understanding,
surface pedagogy often make the students construct the organic connection between
experience heavy workload, many of the old and new knowledge, examine
students would compulsorily find solution mathematical knowledge and thought from
to problem from any quarters without an overall perspective, and base on
necessarily having the grip of the subject mathematical problem solving and
matter but to satisfy the immediate need of knowledge transfer. In this sense,
their teacher. Teachers who administer Mathematics deep learning not only
surface pedagogy tends to do so because of includes the understanding and mastery of
the coverage of the subject matter with the Mathematics knowledge and ability, but
limited time at his/her disposal. also pays more attention to students’
Deep pedagogy is a method in learning process, thinking ability,
which teaching is done both in theory and questioning consciousness, learning
in practice. Deep pedagogy is shaped by motivation, will and even lifelong learning
educator's teaching Mathematics and quality, which coincides with the
involves their understanding of different educational purpose of “cultivating learners
learning styles. Deep pedagogy could be a with all-round development”. Deep
supporting approach for students by pedagogy learners can better meet the talent
preparing them for trials and error requirements of social development. It can
technique. Deep pedagogy reflects different be said that promoting Mathematics deep
approach to teaching, learning, assessing pedagogy learning is purposeful and
and making outcomes relevant to the world helpful in Mathematics education at the
around us. Deep learning rewires students information age.
to create new knowledge and connect it to Teachers and students are working
the world by using the understanding and together in order to engage students in the
application of Mathematics. It also learning by relating the learning to real-life
involves learning partnerships between and problem solving. According to Fullan &
among students and teachers. Generally, Langworthy (2014), when engaging in deep
deep pedagogy teachers are less focused on learning, teachers and students partner with
teaching many topics and providing a each other in learning processes where
breadth of information, but more focused “high expectations are mutually negotiated
on promoting meaning and understanding, and achieved through challenging deep
on making connections and building learning tasks”. Higher levels of student
relationships between important concepts achievement and the capacity to apply what
and ideas, and on promoting advanced one knows relate to what characterizes as
analysis, interpretation, and application. important 3C’s which are communication,
Deep learning implies that students use collaboration and critical thinking and
their ability to analyse, to solve problem problem solving (Fullan, 2013).
71
Communication could be communicated empathy in working with diverse others,

effectively orally, in writing and with a Critical thinking and problem solving
variety of digital tools as well as listening means to think critically, to design and
skills. Collaboration simply work in teams, manage projects, solve problems, make
learn from and contribute to the learning of effective decisions using a variety of digital
others, such as social networking skills, tools and resources (Fullan, 2013).
Learning knowledge deeply versus surface learning (adapted from Sawyer, 2014)
Deep learning Surface learning
Deep learning requires that students relate new students treat course material as unrelated to
ideas and concept of previous knowledge and what they already know.
experience.
Deep learning requires that students integrate student treat course material as disconnected
their knowledge into interrelated conceptual bit of knowledge
systems.
Deep learning requires that students look for students memorize facts and carry out
patterns and underlying principles. procedure without understanding how or why.
Deep learning requires that students evaluatestudent have difficulty making sense of new
new ideas, and relate them to conclusions idea that are different from what they
encounter in the textbook.
Deep learning requires that students understand students treat facts and procedures as static
the process of dialogue through which knowledge knowledge, handed down from all-knowing
is created, and they examine the logic of an Authority.
argument critically.
Surface learning’s quite often the processes. Moreover, the practicewhich

first line of learning, but there is a need to supports student-based approaches allows
extend this into more extensive neural students tobe active throughout lessons
networks. That’s what we refer to as deep (Baki, 2012). Students are at the core of all
learning in comparison to surface learning. activities of the lesson study. Lesson study
One way of distinguishing them is to think is a professional development activity
of surface learning as immediate or short- which places the student at the center and
term learning, and deep learning as a incorporates the activity-based instruction.
consolidation process that leads to long Retention is the cognitive
term changes. information processing of the learner which
Lesson study is a form of involves understanding, information
collaborative practice, a school-based processing, and storing within memory
professional development initiative that (Huitt, 2018). Retention is the ability to
aims to enhance teaching and learning retain information in mind. It is the
through the methodology of professional preservation of the after effects of
sharing of practice. Lesson study is an experience and learning that makes recall or
approach which aspires to raise the student recognition possible (Ahlam and Gaber,
achievement by improving instruction 2014). In education, retention plays a vital
practices. Although it stems from the idea role for a learner to successfully learn the
that teachers learn through the instruction concepts taught inside or outside the
process, its aim is to facilitate the student classroom. Choosing a teaching strategy
learning rather than teacher’s professional that result in knowledge retention on the
development (Isoda, 2010). The lesson part of learners can be challenging for
study process assures that teachers focus educators (Ahmadi, 2014). Students
particularly on students’ learning remember what they have learned, whereas
72
transfer requires students not only to The researcher also noticed lack of
remember but also to gain a conceptual connection of the subject matter to real life
understanding and be able to use what they situation in dealing with some Mathematics
have learned (Paul, 2020). Mathematics is concepts, which makes it hard for students
perceived as one of the most difficult to be convinced about the relevance of
subjects among the students particularly some topics taught in schools (geometry,
those who are not inclined to Mathematics trigonometry and basic algebra) as well as
(Kinnunen, 2010). The nature of the subject their applicability to real life situation,
involves conceptual, as well as procedural thereby raising concern on the
knowledge (Schneider, 2015). comprehensiveness of lesson study
According to Nelson (2017), there pedagogy in Mathematics. Some teachers
are many ways of classifying the human appear to teach improperly because their
mind and its ability to retain information. teaching fails to build the students self
One of the most often used classifications is esteem with their knowledge. Students too
based on the duration of memory retention, seem to have misconception that
specifically the sensory, short-term Mathematics as a subject is very difficult to
memory, and long-term memory. Short- understand.
term memory refers to recent memory and
is usually only held for a very short time. Purpose of the Study
Long-term memory, on the other hand, can The main objective of this research
be thought of as a database where all the was to examine the effectiveness of
information that one has learned is kept. teachers' pedagogical skills on students'
The goal of educators is how to transfer the achievements in Mathematics the State of
short-term memory learned in the Osun Secondary Schools in Nigeria. The
classroom and to be part of the long-term specific purpose of this study were:
memory. (i) To investigate the effects of surface
The influence of gender on and pedagogical lesson style on
students’ achievement in Mathematics has students’ performance in Mathematics.
remained a controversial and topical issue (ii) To examine the lesson study in relation
amongst educationist and psychologists. to student’s retention level in
Freud (2011) suggested that the difference Mathematics.
in Mathematics achievement of male and (iii) To found out gender difference and
female anatomy has bearing and indeed students’ performance in the deep and
account for the difference observed surface pedagogy
between the personalities of men and
women. Methodology
The study employed pretest, post
Statement of the Problem test, control group quasi experimental
The researcher observed that design. The study consists of two
students have been performing poorly in experimental groups and one control group.
Mathematics class, this could be due to The population for this study comprise of
inadequate pedagogical lesson study on the all the high school students in the state of
part of the teachers. It has been noted that Osun. The selected sample for this study
some Mathematics teachers only teach the comprises of 120 students, using stratified
peripheral aspect of the subject matter, it sampling technique. 40 students were
appears as if they are deficient in sampled from each of the groups under
prerequisite knowledge of the subject consideration with 20 male and female
matter while some teachers only focus on respectively. The instrument used to collect
the present topic which is to be taught. data for the study was Mathematics
73
Achievement Test (MAT). The validity of The experimental group one were taught
the instrument was done by the experts in using deep pedagogy while the surface
curriculum, and Mathematics education. pedagogy was used to teach the
Test re-test reliability method was used to experimental group two, and the control
ascertain the reliability of the instrument. group were taken conventionally.
The reliability coefficient of 0.81 was
obtained. Two packages were prepared on Research Question 1: How does deep
deep and surface pedagogy, and were used pedagogy lesson style affect students’
to train the research assistants on how to performance in Mathematics?
adopt the packages during the experiment.
Table 1: Mean and standard deviation on deep pedagogy lesson style and students
performance
Deep Pedagogy N Mean Standard Dev Mean Diff
Pre test 40 25.3250 3.5473
35.525
Post test 40 60.8500 13.1919
Total 80
Table 1: shows the mean and means that the use of deep pedagogy
standard deviation of the scores of students’ package influences students’ performance
performance in Mathematics taught in positively in Mathematics.
Deep Pedagogy Class in Pretest, Posttest, to
be 25.3250, 60.8500, 3.54739, 13.19198 Research Question 2: How does surface
respectively. The mean score is apparently pedagogy lesson style affect students’
on the students with post-test higher than performance in Mathematics?
pre-test with a difference of 35.525. This
Table 2: Mean and standard deviation on surface pedagogy lesson style and students
performance
Surface pedagogy N Mean Standard dev Mean diff
Pre test 40 24.1500 4.64399
13.325
Post test 40 37.4750 6.98345
Total 80
Table 2 shows the mean and pedagogy package might influences

standard deviation of the scores of students’ students’ performance in Mathematics
performance in Mathematics taught in having the higher mean score.
surface pedagogy class in pretest, posttest Research Question 3: What is the
to be 24.1500, 37.4750, 4.64399, 6.98345 difference in the students’ performance in
respectively. The mean score is apparently the Deep Pedagogy Class (DPC) and
on the students with post test higher than Surface Pedagogy Class (SPC) prior
pre-test. This means that the use of surface treatment.
Table 3: Mean and standard deviation on surface and deep pedagogy lesson style
students performance prior treatment
Source of variation N Mean SD
74
DPC (Pretest) 40 25.3250 3.5473

SPC (Pretest) 40 24.1500 4.64399
Table 3: shows that the mean and

standard deviation of the scores of students’ Testing of Hypotheses
performance in Mathematics taught in Hypothesis 1: There is no significant
surface and deep pedagogy class in pretest difference in the pre-test mean scores of
to be 24.15 and 25.325 respectively. This students taught Mathematics in the deep,
implies that there is a close mean scores of surface and conventional approach
students before exposing them to deep
pedagogy and surface pedagogy class.
Table 4: ANOVA summary of Pretest mean scores of students taught with deep,
surface and conventional lesson style
Source of variation Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Between Group 71.817 2 35.908
Within Group 2129.775 117 18.203 1.973 0.144
Total 2201.592 119
Table 4 shows p>0.05, F= 1.97, students in deep pedagogy class, surface

there was a sufficient evidence not to reject pedagogy class and conventional lesson
the null hypothesis that there is no style are homogeneous prior treatment.
significant difference in the pretest mean Therefore, any changes that might happen
scores of students taught with deep, surface later is as a result of the treatment given.
and conventional lesson style. This implies
that there was no statistically significant Hypothesis 2: There is no significant
difference in the pretest mean scores of difference in the posttest mean scores of
students taught with deep, surface and students taught with deep, surface and
conventional lesson style. Hence the conventional lesson style
Table 5: ANOVA summary on posttest mean scores of students taught with deep,
Between Groups 15220.417 2 7610.208
Within Groups 11297.050 117 96.556 78.817 0.000
Total 26517.467 119
Table 5 shows that p < 0.05, F scores of students taught with deep, surface
=78.817, there was sufficient evidence to and conventional lesson style. In order to
reject the null hypothesis that, there was ascertain the level of significant, postHoc
significant difference in the posttest mean was used in Table 6.
Table 6: PostHoc Summary on posttest mean scores of students taught with deep,
Source of Deep Surface Conventional Mean
variation pedagogy pedagogy approach
Deep pedagogy * * 60.8500
75
Surface pedagogy * 37.4750

Conventional * 36.4750
Table 6 shows that there was a statistical significant difference in the post
statistical significant difference in the post test mean scores of students taught in
test mean scores of students taught in deep conventional class and surface pedagogy in
pedagogy class and surface pedagogy in favour of deep pedagogy.
favour of deep pedagogy. Also, there was a
statistical significant difference in the post Hypothesis 3: There is no significant
test mean scores of students taught in deep difference in the Retention mean scores of
pedagogy class and conventional in favour students taught with deep, surface and
of deep pedagogy. However, there was no conventional lesson style
Table 7: ANOVA summary difference in Retention mean scores of students taught

with deep, surface and conventional lesson style
Between Group 12088.067 2 6044.033
71.737 0.0000
Within Group 9857.525 117 84.252
Total 21945.592 119
Table 7 shows that p < 0.05, F= scores of students taught with deep, surface
71.737, there was sufficient evidence to and conventional lesson style and conclude
reject the null hypothesis that, there was that two of the group mean scores are
significant difference in the retention mean difference from the rest.
Table 8: PostHoc Summary on retention mean scores of students taught with deep,
Source of variation Deep Surface pedagogy Conventional Mean
pedagogy approach
Deep pedagogy * * 60.8500
Surface pedagogy * 37.4750
Conventional * 36.4750
Table 8 shows that there was a statistical significant difference in the

statistical significant difference in the retention test mean scores of students
retention test mean scores of students taught in conventional class and surface
taught in deep pedagogy class and surface pedagogy in favour of deep pedagogy.
pedagogy in favour of deep pedagogy.
Also, there was a statistical significant Hypothesis 4: There is no significant
difference in the retention test mean scores Gender difference in the performance mean
of students taught in deep pedagogy class scores of students taught with deep, surface
and conventional in favour of deep and convention lesson style
pedagogy. However, there was no
Table 9: ANOVA summary on performance difference in gender mean scores of

students taught with deep, surface and conventional lesson style.
Source SS DF MS F P
Corrected model 716.805 4 179.201 11.541 .000
Covariate (pretest) 12.300 1 12.300 .792 .375
76
Sex 1.022 1 1.022 .066 .798

Group 480.163 1 480.163 30.925 .000
Sex*group 30.848 1 30.848 1.987 .161
Error 2189.277 117 15.527
Total 2499512.000 118
Corrected total 2906.082 119
0.05
Table 9 revealed that the F-value rote learning, and unquestioning

(1.987),> 0.05. The null hypothesis is not acceptance of information.
rejected, implying that there is no The findings of the study shows that
significant gender difference in the there was a statistical significant difference
performance mean scores of students taught in the retention test mean scores of students
with deep, surface and convention lesson taught in deep pedagogy class and surface
style. Similarly, the main effect of gender pedagogy in favour of deep pedagogy. This
(F1, 118= 0.666, p> 0.05) on the students’ is in agreement with the findings of Ahlam
performance is not statistically significant and Gaber, (2014) and Faridhan, Loch &
at 0.05 level. Walker (2013) that retention in first-year
Mathematics could be improved where
Discussion Mathematics support provision is available.
The findings of the study revealed The findings of the study shows that
that there was no statistically significant there is no significant gender difference in
difference in the pretest means scores of the performance mean scores of students
students taught with deep, surface and taught with deep, surface and convention
conventional lesson style. Hence the lesson style. This contracdicted the findings
students in deep pedagogy class, surface Anjum (2015) that there is significant
pedagogy class and conventional lesson difference between Mathematics
style are homogeneous prior treatment. achievement of girls and boys at upper
This support the study of Fullan, (2013) that primary school stage.
higher levels of students achievement and
the capacity to apply what one knows relate Conclusion and Recommendations
to critical thinking and problem solving in Based on the findings of this study,
Mathematics . it was concluded that deep pedagogical
The findings of the study also shows lesson style should be re-invigorated in the
that there was a statistical significant teaching and learning of Mathematics.
difference in the post test mean scores of Also, the following recommendations were
students taught in deep pedagogy class and made
surface pedagogy in favour of deep Teachers of Mathematics should be
pedagogy. This corroborated Rillero (2016) educated on the use of deep and surface
and (Fauskanger & Bjuland, 2018) have pedagogical lesson sytle.
found that deep learning and surface Mathematics teachers should
learning represent two completely different encourage their students to learn deep
styles of learning. Moreover, deep learners pedagogy.
are more likely to think and discuss by The curriculum planners should
seeking to understand concepts and to apply include the use of deep pedagogical lesson
the concepts “to real life situations, or sytle in the curriculum.
question conclusions”, better than surface
learners whose marked by memorization,
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seam: How new pedagogies find deep
learning. London: Pearson
ASSESSMENT OF TEACHERS’ PRACTICES ON STUDENTS’
LEARNING PROCESS IN SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN
GOMBE LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF GOMBE STATE
BAPPAH, Adamu
78
Faculty of Education, Department of Educational Foundations,

National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN), Abuja, Nigeria
Abstract
The study assessed teacher’s practices on students’ Learning Process. The design adopted was
cross-sectional research survey. The population comprised of School Administrators which includes
Principals, vice principals, and exam officers which formed a total of 333. 181 samples size was. 4-
point rating scale questionnaire was used for data collection. The data was analyzed using Mean
and Standard Deviation. the result indicated that teaching method practice by teachers does not
contribute immensely to learning process of student, also that Communication skill practiced by
teachers contribute to low students’ learning process. Furthermore, the result gives a clear
indication that teacher’s practices on teaching aids have negative impact on learning process of
student and finally the result indicated inadequate utilization of time practiced by teachers which
may account for low students’ learning process in the study area. The study recommended that
Modern teaching methods should be adopted in practice by teachers through government policies
to develop a productive understanding of subject matters in the study area, school supervisors
should monitor the teachers in ensuring utilization of their time in service delivery for improvement
of students' learning process
Keywords: Assessment, Teachers Practices, Students and Learning Process
Introduction
Teachers are ultimately responsible student are just a few of the factors that
for converting policy into action and affect the teacher's decision regarding the
principles based on practice during best teaching strategy (Ndirangu, 2017).
interactions with the students; therefore, Different teaching techniques are
they have a significant impact on students' used in various countries depending on the
academic progress and play a critical part in knowledge or skills being taught as well as
educational attainment. Sadly, the the ability and passion of the learner.
effectiveness of the teachers had little Numerous studies on teaching strategies
impact on the achievement of the students have been conducted. For instance, Asikhia
(Afe, 2001). The effectiveness of teachers (2010) came to the conclusion that poor
has drawn the attention of policymakers, academic performance is more influenced
educators, and parents alike. Based on how by the teachers' tactics than by their training
well students perform academically in both or the learning environment. Additionally,
internal and external exams, the teaching practices are impacted by the
effectiveness is assessed. medium of instruction. For instance, where
According to Ndirangu (2017) English is used, the teaching approach
“Teaching methods are the means by which needs to be more active than passive (Pillar
the instructor tries to make the intended & Skilling, 2015). Additionally, it said that
learning or experience clear to the pupils. educators needed to discover more
The lessons to be taught, the objectives the effective ways to instruct kids in the
teacher hopes to achieve, the resources classroom (Thompson, 2014).
available for teaching and learning, the According to Guloba, Wokodola,
teacher’s flexibility and willingness to and Bategeka (2010) the most common
improvise in the absence of contextual aids, teaching methods are teacher-centered,
and the activities for evaluation and follow- which are seen as being fairly ineffective at
up “and unique learning styles of each passing along knowledge. These methods
80
are no longer used in other nations. Communication is the process of

Problem-life learning is gaining popularity expressing one's ideas to other people
as a teaching method at educational (Ndirangu, 2007). Efficient communication
institutions as a solution to address their abilities are a requirement for instructors in
weaknesses because traditional teaching order to instruct students in an effective
methods do not motivate students to engage manner that benefits the students and helps
in the learning process (Teo & Wong, 2010) them reach their professional goals.
While various schools of thought support Technical ability is not what determines
teaching methods that integrate student how effective a teacher is; rather, it depends
participation, there has recently been a push on the technique they use while instructing
in the education sector for the adoption of a their pupils. Teachers must communicate
learner-centered approach or paradigm shift clearly with their students in order for them
(Ndirangu, 2007, Sajjad, 2011). Through to comprehend them and to avoid problems
their effective use during classroom as they are learning from lectures. Before
instruction, teaching aids of appropriate training kids, teachers must first
quality can assist students in learning the comprehend themselves. It takes more than
significance of this tool. The use of just solid communication skills to be an
teaching aids has been acknowledged as a effective teacher.
potent way to improve efficient teaching
and learning. Teaching aids are the Statement of the Problem
collective term for all the tools accessible to Practical knowledge and literature
teachers to improve student-learner on teacher’s practices towards learning
engagement. process indicated that there are
In the teaching and learning discrepancies in how these two factors
profession of the twenty-first century, interact to support secondary school
teachers are excellent facilitators of education. Students frequently struggle to
information and skills (Joseph, 2015). To succeed in their examination which may
improve classroom instruction, grab explain why some of them performed
students' attention, and inspire learning, below average in their final examinations,
teachers employ teaching aids. These some of the factors causing subpar student
teaching aids are tools that make it easier achievement include low student
for the teacher to conduct the teaching- motivation, lack of classrooms, teacher
learning process, such as computers, DVD quality, teacher and students' interest,
players, instructional aides, books, teaching aids, and teaching methods used in
chalkboards, and pictures. Teachers should teaching (Akinsola & Igwe, 2002).
strategically use instructional resources This study therefore assessed the
when developing lesson plans and practices of teachers as regards teaching
providing teaching. methods, communication skills, teaching
Babalola (2004) noted that as aids and utilization of time in delivering
ingredient is to soup, so also is resource their services and the implication of these
materials to curriculum implementation. practices on Learning Process.
Secondary schools in Nigeria lack these
instructional materials, therefore teachers Objectives of the Study
are forced to teach using chalk and talk This study assessed teacher's
since they have no visual or audiovisual practices on students' learning process in
resources that allow pupils to see, touch, senior secondary schools in the Gombe
smell, and hear while being taught and Local Government area of Gombe State.
being taught. The specific objectives are:
80
1. To assess the impact of teachers Learning to increase performance, the

teaching methods on student's learning model examines how factors, availability,
process in senior secondary school in and effective use of suitable and high-
Gombe LGA of Gombe State quality instructional materials connect to
2. To assess the impact of Communication teaching and learning processes. The
skill practice by teachers on students’ teaching process and the academic
learning process in senior secondary performance of the students are thought to
school in Gombe LGA of Gombe State increase if there are enough high-quality
3. To assess the impact of teaching aids instructional resources employed
used by teachers on students’ learning successfully during the teaching process.
process in senior secondary school in Methods adopted by teachers to
Gombe LGA of Gombe State teach students in secondary schools
4. To assess the impact of time utilization The term methods describe an
practice by teachers on on students’ organized pattern or arrangement for
learning process in senior secondary arranging learning processes. There are two
school in Gombe LGA of Gombe State types of teaching strategies and practices:
learner-centered and teacher-centered
Research Questions strategies (MIE, 2014). With learner-
The study has the following centered instruction, students create their
Research questions in line with the content understanding and come to believe
objective of the study: that their knowledge is their own. As a
• What are the practices of teachers on result, student-centeredness implies placing
teaching methods towards students’ a strong emphasis on problem-based
learning process in senior secondary learning and inquiry-based learning, which
school in Gombe LGA of Gombe State? involves placing the student at the center of
• What is the impact of Communication both individual and group.
skills practiced by teachers on students' Effect of Instructional Materials on
learning process in senior secondary Learning Process
school in Gombe LGA of Gombe State? Adeogun (2011) found a significant
• What is the impact of teaching aids used correlation between the use of instructional
by teachers on students' learning resources and learning process. Adeogun
process in senior secondary school in found that schools with greater
Gombe LGA of Gombe State? instructional resources outperformed those
• What is the impact of time utilization with fewer resources in terms of student
practice by teachers on students' performance. This result confirmed
learning process in Senior Secondary Babayomi's (2019) study, which found that
School in Gombe LGA of Gombe private schools outperformed public
State? schools due to the availability and
sufficiency of teaching and learning
Literature Review resources. Public schools have severe
According to Bloom (2012), both shortages of both teaching and learning
mediator and predictor variables have a resources, according to Adeogun (2011),
considerable effect on students' learning. who stated that there is a low level of
According to the model's premises, instructional resources accessible in them.
effective teaching and learning would lead He added that the absence of crucial
to excellent academic performance if the instructional resources prevents effective
predictor variables and mediator variables teaching and learning from taking place in
were of high caliber. Model for Measuring the classroom setting.
Students' Performance in English Language
81
The effectiveness of students is influenced develop communication skills that inspire

by the caliber and availability of teaching pupils to work hard during their learning
and learning resources, according to processes to teach to their abilities and
Mwiria (2015). This suggests that better- capabilities (Sng& Bee, 2012). The
equipped schools stand a better chance of foundational requirement for student
performing well in exams than those with academic success and professional success
inadequate teaching and learning resources, in life is a teacher's effective
such as textbooks, charts, illustrations, and communication abilities. Teachers provide
real things for students to view, hear, and students with more spoken instructions in
interact with. The aforementioned opinions the classroom. Students who are taught by
are supported by a study conducted by a teacher with weak communication skills
Chonjo (2014) on the physical may not learn and may not advance
infrastructure and instructional materials in academically.
Nigerian primary schools. Regarding the
impact of instructional materials on Time Management
successful learning, Chonjo spoke with When it comes to scheduling and
teachers and students. From his research, he academic obligations, secondary and higher
discovered that a school's teaching and education are vastly different from one
learning resources and infrastructure could another. There was a style of learning in
be responsible for student performance. high school where everything was
According to Abdu-Raheem (2016) explained. However, after they enroll in
essential and crucial tools needed for college, students understand that the
teaching and learning of school subjects to lectures they attend only cover the surface
improve teachers’ effectiveness and material; the remainder is up to them to
students' performance,” research and learn more about (Britton
&Tesser, 2011). Every student should have
Communication Skills the ability to manage their time effectively.
The ability to communicate clearly When given an assignment, many students
and to transmit a message that requires a remark that they are running out of time and
shared understanding between the contexts become angry when they are unable to
in which the dialogue takes place can be finish it in time.
characterized as having high However, because they lack organizational
communication skills (Saunders & Mills, skills and frequently struggle with issues
2019). Speaking and listening are also part like task aversion and ambiguity, students
of communication skills, in addition to tend to put things off. As a result, pupils
reading and writing, teacher's writing won't be able to prioritize their tasks,
abilities are also essential for imparting making it easy for them to become
knowledge to students (McCarthy & Carter, distracted and procrastinate. As we can see,
2011). To effectively teach, a teacher needs effective time management is crucial for all
to be exceptionally versed in each of these university students and is one of the secrets
areas. A good teacher always simplifies and to achieving academic success (Kelly,
clarifies things through his communication 2014). Numerous academic research
abilities (Freddie Silver). examining the link between time
A teacher's ability to effectively management and academic success may be
communicate is critical to the delivery of found in the pertinent literature. The
instruction, classroom management, and relevant literature demonstrated how
contact with pupils. The teacher must university students' attitudes toward and
impart knowledge to students who have skill levels in time management, as well as
various modes of thought. A teacher must the effects of these skills on their academic
82
accomplishment. According to the study, educational foundation, and fields of

the majority of students have intermediate- Measurement and Evaluation.
level time management skills, while a very Reliability of Research Instrument: The
small minority has high-level skills reliability index of 0.90 (90%) was
(Yilmaz, Yoncalik, & Bektaş, 2016). obtained using test–re–test method.
Procedure for Data Collection: The
Methodology questionnaires were distributed and
This was carried out under the returned via trained research assistants.
following sub-headings: Method of Data Analysis: Data was
Research Design: The study used cross- analyzed using Mean and Standard
sectional research survey design. deviation where the responses were scored
Research Population: The population of based on four rating scale (Very Always-
the study comprised of 333 administrators =4. Always=3, Not Always=3, Never=1).
in which a sample size of 181 respondents The decision rule considered was that a
was selected using stratified random mean rating of 2.5 and above was Always
sampling. The sample size was determined while a mean rating that is below 2.5 was
using Yamane sample size table. considered as Not Always respectively.
Research Instrument: A researcher-
constructed four-rating scale questionnaire Results
consisting of 22 items was used for data Research Question One: What are the
collection. practices of teachers on teaching methods
Validity of Research Instrument: The towards students' learning process in senior
instrument was validated by experts from secondary school in Gombe LGA of
Gombe State?
Table 1: Mean responses on the practices of teachers on teaching methods towards

students' learning process in senior secondary school in Gombe LGA of
Gombe State.
S/N Items Respondents
N=181
x̄ σ Decision
Teachers practice teaching method that helps 2.02 0.95 Not always
students to understand subjects taught.
Teachers make consideration for class situation 2.03 0.86 Not always
as pivotal in choosing teaching methods.
83
Selection of teaching method by teachers is 1.82 1.32 Not always

always done through consultation with the
immediate supervisor.
Teachers consider Teaching method which 2.43 1.12 Not always
demands use of technology in their lesson
delivery
Teacher use conventional teaching methods 3.00 1.76 Always
predominantly in their lesson delivery.
Grand Mean 2.26 1.20 Not always
x̄ = Mean, σ = Standard Deviation, N=181
Table 1 above indicated the mean practice by teachers does not contribute
responses of administrators on teaching immensely to Learning Process of student.
method practice by teachers on learning
process of students in senior secondary Research Question Two: What is the
school in Gombe LGA. The average means impact of Communication skills practiced
of 2.26 and a standard deviation of 1.20 by teachers on Learning Process of students
give a clear indication that teaching method in senior secondary school in Gombe LGA
of Gombe State?
Table 2: Mean responses on the impact of Communication skills practiced by

teachers on Learning Process of a student in senior secondary school in
Gombe LGA of Gombe State
S/N Items Respondents
N=181
x̄ σ Decision
Communication skills use by teachers improves 2.26 1.14 Not always
understanding among students.
Communication skills use by teachers is important 2.40 0.55 Not always
in promoting class management.
Communication skills use by teachers promotes 2.45 2.00 Not always
interaction with students in the classroom.
effective teaching
students interest in the subject taught
Table 2 above indicated the mean responses contribute to low students' learning process
of administrators on the impact of in the study area.
Communication skills practice by teachers Research Question Three: What is the
on learning process of student in senior impact of teaching aids used by teachers on
secondary school in Gombe LGA. The the Learning Process of students in senior
average mean of 2.36 and a standard secondary school in Gombe LGA of
deviation of 1.26 give a clear indication that Gombe State?
Communication skill practiced by teachers
Table 3: Mean responses on impact of teaching aids practiced by teachers on the

learning process of students in senior secondary school in Gombe LGA of
Gombe State.
84
S/N Items Respondent

N=181
x̄ σ Decision
Teachers make use of the available teaching aids 2.40 0.82 Not always
maximally in delivering their lessons
Teachers improvise teaching aids using local 2.27 1.51 Not always
materials in case where it is not available to
deliver their lessons
Teachers make use teaching aids to enhance 2.02 0.95 Not always
classroom instruction
Teachers make use to extract learners’ attention in 2.26 1.14 Not always
the lesson
Teachers make use teaching aid to create a 2.40 0.55 Not always
motivation in delivering their lessons
Teachers make use teaching aid to improve 2.43 1.12 Not always
methodology in delivering their lessons
Table 3 above indicated the mean responses learning process of student in senior
of administrators on the impact of teaching secondary school in Gombe LGA.
aid used by teachers on Learning Process of
students in senior secondary school in Research Question Four: What is the
Gombe LGA. The average mean of 2.29 impact of time utilization practice by
and a standard deviation of 1.02 give a clear teachers on the learning process of the
indication that teacher’s practices on student in senior secondary school in
teaching aids have negative impact on Gombe LGA of Gombe State?
Table 4: Mean responses on impact of time utilization practice by teachers on the

learning process of the student in senior secondary school in Gombe LGA
of Gombe State,
S/N Items Respondent
N=181
x̄ σ Decision
Teacher give student time bound assignment 2.15 2.37 Not always
outside the class or at home to commit them
on their studies
Teachers Map out their task base on time to 2.48 1.32 Not always
promote achieving leaning objectives.
Teacher are Regular and punctual in 2.28 1.62 Not always
conducting their primary assignment.
67
Teachers prepare their lesson in advance to 2.26 1.14 Not always

ensure readiness to take the class
The school time table is properly constructed 2.40 0.55 Not always
in advance to ensure that lessons are run
smoothly.
Teachers maintain the time as fixed in their 2.43 1.12 Not always
lesson plan during lesson delivery
Table 4 above indicated the mean responses in the study area. This result is supported by
of administrators on the time utilization Khan, (2011) although the practices of
practice by teachers on Learning Process of communication between teachers and
student in senior secondary school in students are intended to increase the
Gombe LGA. The average mean of 2.33 likelihood that the teaching-learning
and a standard deviation of 1.35 indicated process will be successful; there are many
inadequate utilization of time practiced by instances where the process does not
teachers which may account for low produce the desired results. The goal of
students’ learning process in the study area. effective teacher-student communication is
to foster a positive learning environment,
Discussion which is typically hindered when teachers
Negative impact on practices of fail to engage their students. Students are
teachers as regards teaching methods on consequently compelled to unnecessarily
students' Learning Process in Gombe LGA strive to keep their attention on the subject
The study revealed that there is matter (Khan, et al., 2018). Various ways
negative impact on practices of teachers as distinguish communication in the context
regards teaching methods on students' of teaching and learning from regular
learning process as it was demonstrated in communication. Particularly, unlike in
the responses of the stakeholders. The other communication exchanges, the
practices of teachers on teaching methods relationship between teachers and students
are dominated by the conventional method serves as the foundation for their
of teaching. This agreed with Gibbs and communication. As a result, maintaining
Jenkins (1992) that bring the argument that the standards and principles of teaching
the context of class and society has while communicating is necessary.
changed, but the teaching methods have Teacher practices on teaching aids have
remained unchanged. Instead of forcing negative impact students' Learning Process
students to memorize the curriculum in in senior secondary school in Gombe LGA.
order to pass exams in the traditional Furthermore, the study revealed that
manner, modern teaching methods place teacher’s practices on teaching aids have
a greater emphasis on teaching students negative impact on students' learning
how to improve their intellect behavior process in senior secondary school in
via the use of many new and unique Gombe LGA. From the findings it is
concepts. apparent that the practices of teachers in the
Communication skills practiced by teachers application of teaching aids and its
contribute to low students' Learning improvisation are inadequate in the study
Process in the study area. area. This is in compliance with the
The study also indicated that assertion of Onasanya & Omosewo (2011)
Communication skill practiced by teachers Experience over the years has shown that
contribute to low students' learning process teachers have been depending on excessive
86
use of words to express and convey ideas or It is therefore important for the
facts in the teaching-learning process. stakeholder in the industry to design coping
Inadequate utilization of time strategy for teachers to adjust their practices
practiced by teachers which may account to reflect the 21st century innovations of
for low students' Learning Process in the teaching and learning processes which will
study area bring about improvement in students'
Finally, the study revealed that there Learning Process.
is inadequate utilization of time practiced .
by teachers which may account for low Recommendations
students' Learning Process in the study Modern teaching methods should be
area. This finding agreed with Delvin, Kift adopted in practice by teachers through
and Nelson, (2012) which suggested that government policies to develop a
poor time utilization is a factor in inefficient productive understanding of subject matters
teaching. it is critical for teachers to in senior secondary schools in Gombe
effectively manage their time and cover the LGA.
entire curriculum. Schools that are good in School administrators should
managing their time have an advantage encourage effective communication skills
over their competitors. The effectiveness of in the contex of teaching and learning not
a school's use of its resources to generate as a regular communication processes.
outputs is gauged by its efficiency. Time is Teachers should be monitored and
the most crucial resource that schools encouraged to make use the available
should use wisely. The effectiveness of a teaching aids and improvised where it is
school's use of its resources to generate required using the local materials in the
outputs is gauged by its efficiency. Time is environment.
the most crucial resource that schools School supervisors should monitor
should use wisely. Teachers must have the teachers in ensuring utilization of their
exceptional time management abilities. time in service delivery for improvement of
Teachers must strike a balance between the students' Learning Process.
classroom's long-term goals,
Conclusion References
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(2010).Does ~Teaching Methods and Language Teaching Strategies used
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2(7), 1248-1257. ISSN: 2141-5161 Sng B. (2012). The Impact of Teachers’
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89
A SPEECH ACT ANALYSIS OF SELECTED NUPE IDIOMS
MOHAMMED Alhaji Usman

Department of English, Ibrahim Badamasi Babangida University
P.M.B. 11, Lapai, Niger State, Nigeria
Abstract
Every language has certain phrases or expressions which, literally, would be meaningless or which,
by the normal rules of syntax or grammar are quite inexplicable. Contextually, a competent native
speaker of a language has no much difficulty in deciphering the importsof these kinds of expressions.
One example of these expressions is idiom. What matters most in an idiom is its context-determined,
fixed, andconventional import. This is why native speakers of a language do not notice or care
whether the wording of an idiom is grammatical or not. A total of twenty (20) idioms are sampled
and analysed based on Speech Act theory. The findings of the study reveal that most of the idioms in
Nupe language are phrasal in form and non-compositional in their values. The dominant speech
act category in Nupe idioms is expressive act. The findings of the study also reveal lexical integrity,
institutionalisation of communicative values and compositeness as the other features of Nupe idioms.
Nupe people mostly use idioms to express surprise, anger, humour or to indirectly mock their
referent. Based on his findings, the researcher concludes that idioms are a reflection of a particular
way of thinking, behaving and also of conceptualizing reality and experience. The research
recommends speech act exploration of other indigenous Nigerian languages to in order to see
generalisability or otherwise of the finding of this study.
Key Words: Speech Act, Locution, and Illocution
Introduction grammaticality and the principle of

Linguistics is principally structural semantic compositionality. Unfortunately,
and functional. Structural linguistics is due to the influence of foreign cultures in
formal or rule governed. Its purview the life of Nigerians, the rate at which most
includes phonology, morphology, syntax of our local or indigenous languages in
and graphology or mechanical rules in a Nigeria, especially the so-called minority
language. Functional linguistics covers ones (including Nupe language) is, in terms
areas such as pragmatics, stylistics, of usage, going down the drain is
discourse analysis and any otherlinguistic worrisome. This could be attributed to the
and extra-linguistic clues that contribute to erroneous belief that English is superior to
meaning construction. Language is closely our indigenous languages and consequent
tied to culture because culture extends the lack of adequate and widely spread
frontiers of communication in every literature on formal and functional
language. The choice of the medium of linguistics of minority languages in
communication is occasioned by the Nigeria. For example, the children of many
speaker’s purpose or intention, which could educated Nupe people are hardly proud of
be to inform, appreciate, request, pledge, or being Nupe by tribe, as many of them
change the state of an affair, etc. To achieve cannot speak in it fluently (especially
any of the above intentions, the text could idioms), let alone talking or writing about
conform to the structural norms of the it. In fact, a number of them do not even
language in which it is rendered or deviate know the dichotomy between a proverb
from it. This is why most idioms defy (egamaga) and an idiom (egachi). This is
90
mainly because they have neglected or (Saeed 2016, p. 56). The concern of an
jettisoned their mother tongue. idiom is its conventionally established
communicative value, not grammaticality
The Nupe of its wording. It may therefore violate the
Nupe people are found in the north- rules or principles of grammar or logic or
central states of Niger, Kwara, Kogi, and both and still be meaningful or acceptable.
Federal Capital Territory of Nigeria. The The meanings of some idioms are so
Nupe comprises several sub-ethnic groups opaque that even the contexts of their usage
like Dibbo in Lapai Local Government would hardly give a clue for their
Area of Niger State and Kakanda, Basange, interpretation to non-native and
Gupa, and Ganagana in Kogi State. Nupe is incompetent native speakers of the
the majority or dominant ethnic group in language in which they are rendered.
Niger State and minority group in the other However, frequency of their usage and
aforementioned states and FCT. The major increased familiarity aid proper inferences
Nupe towns include Bida, Kutigi, Agaie, from them.
Lapai, Mokwa, and Jebba in Niger State, as
well as Lafiagi and Patigi in Kwara State. Features of Idioms
The primary occupation of the Nupe is The main features of idioms are
farming. They grow staple crops like semantic non-compositionality, lexical
guinea-corn, rice, yam, ground nut, and integrity, institutionalisation (fixedness of
maize while, in addition to farming, those its meaning) and compositeness (that is, an
of them who live in the coastal areas of idiom contains at least two words).
River Niger also fish. Nupe people are
called Nufawa by the Hausa and Tapa by Semantic Non-compositionality: This has
the Yoruba. Socially, the Nupe places to with lack of correlation between the
emphasis on sharing, cooperation, syntax of an idiom and its communicative
avoidance of quarrels, and respect or value or non-literalness of the value of an
obedience to the old/elderly and the idiom. It is the highest common
superior/constituted authorities. In Nupe denominator of idiomaticity, which
culture, children are brought up by their frustrates speakers’ understanding and
biological parents, grandparents, relatives, translation of idioms.
and older siblings. When Nupechildren,
men, and women who live outside their Lexical Integrity: concerns rigidity of the
placeof origin come home, they usually lexical items of idioms. What is meant by
visit and give money or gifts to their foster lexical integrity is the restrictions in the
parents before visiting their biological lexical items of an idiom or its limited
parents (Nupe Encyclopedia2018). morpho-syntactic potentials for variation.
That is, constituent parts of an idiom can
Idiom hardly be replaced or its entire structure
Idioms are expressions with passivised
figurative, fixed or established meanings
often reflecting the speaker’s culture, Institutionalisation: This means that
customs as well as social and historical competent native speakers of a language are
backgrounds. In others, idioms are culture usually familiar with idiomatic expressions
specific, formulaic and grammatically and their tacit long established or
unusual expressions whose meaningsdefy conventional values. Socio-linguistically,
the meanings of their composite lexical institutionalisation is a process where an
items or whose meaning can only be expression becomes more current, more
derived by using the contextual information memorised and more sequentially
91
reproduced because of its specific or unique order of their lexical item or by adding new
pragmatic force. Therefore, unless an elements (in the service of wit) to achieve
idiom has currency among members of its surprising and unusual effects.
speech community or subgroup of such a Langlotzbelieves that the wider the
community for a reasonable period of time, currency of an idiom, the greater the degree
it cannot be regarded as being of itspermissible variations. He argues that
institutionalised (Langlotz 2006, p. 247). despite the general belief that idioms
Institutionalisation of idioms on one hand, epitomise lack of creativity in linguistic
binds members of a given speech processing, they can actually reflect
community and the various subgroups originality, ingenuity or playfulness to a
within it together, and on the other hand, certain degree. Arguing against the notion
serves to distinguish such groups from of compositeness as a feature of idioms,
others. Hence, as a shared code, idioms Cruse (1986) states that, although idioms
become the manifestation or a reflection of consist of more than one word, they usually
a society’s identity and as such can cause display to some extent, internal cohesion
difficulty for foreigners in terms of its characteristic of a single word.
identification and interpretation.
Idiom and Proverb: The Relationship
Compositeness: By this, it is meant that an Proverbs and idioms share a lot of
idiom must contain at least two separate things in common; they are terse, fixed, and
words. However, the long and widely held conventional expressions used for
assumptions that the meaning of an idiom is representative, directive and expressive
fixed, conventional, and stored in the native purposes. They both provide cultural
speaker’s mental lexicon and not insight and help learners to understand the
manipulative have undergone serious attitude, beliefs, and values of the natives of
scrutiny in recent times and have since the language in which they are rendered.
become subjects of controversy. For They are both used in everyday
example, Gibbs and Nayak (1989, pp. 133- conversation to add depth to expressions.
134) opine that not all idioms are According to Chahboun et al (2016),
structurally rigid and that the meaning of idioms and proverbs are similar in terms of
some idioms are deducible from the of their origin and degree of
meanings of the individual lexical items conventionality, and are tied to the notion
that make them up. Thus, they divide of casualty, where language user is
idioms into two: decomposable and non- expected to be able to use them as
decomposable idioms. They argue that the “instructive expressions” in specific
constituent parts of decomposable idioms contexts. This means that both idioms and
contribute to their figurative meaning while proverbs are tightly bound to pragmatics, as
those of non-decomposable idioms do not. one needs to understand their concrete
Their study reveals that unlike non- context of use to be able to be able to
decomposable idioms, decomposable interpret them correctly (Morsanyi and
idioms are lexically flexible, syntactically Stamenkovic 2021, p. 369).
productive, and semantically easy to However, as a code, the
process. communicative value of a proverb is
Similarly, Langlotz (2006, p. 7) semantically more compositional, less
submits that lexical integrity of idioms covert and therefore easier to decipher (by
doesnot always hold water as widely held. non-native speakers of the language in
That, depending on their currency, it is which the proverb is rendered) than the
possible to modify certain idioms by communicative value of an idiom.
deleting and/or reversing the syntactic Syntactically, while idioms are mostly
92
phrasal and rigid, proverbs are mostly unintended, and conventional or

sentential and flexible. Proverbs are more nonconventional (Lawal 2003, p. 155). The
of familiar sentences (Mieder 2004, p. xi) last level of speech act is perlocutionary act
expressing supposed truth (Mugovhani and it has to do with the effect the
2014, p. 4) than idioms. illocutionary act has on the listener, hearer,
reader or addressee. In other words,
Relevance of Idioms perlocutionary act deals with linguistic
Idioms play important role in all and/or paralinguistic reaction of the
languages. They are prime vehicle of addressee, hearer or reader of a text based
communication in many cultures. They are on the illocution of the text. It could also be
undoubtedly a reflection of a particular way intended or untended and physical or
of thinking, behaving, andconceptualising psychological. For example, if a speaker
reality and experience (Casas and Campoy says to his noisy addressee: “The man with
1995). Despite theinterpretive difficulties whom you just hada handshake has tested
associated with them, mastering idioms ebola positive, the addressee is most likely
enables the learner to understand a to be silent, disturbed, weak and sobering or
language, penetrate into its customs and asking the question “are you serious?”. All
life-style of its users and gain insight into these are the possible reactions of the
the history of the language. Thus, idioms addressee, hence perlocutionary acts.
require special attention in language Similarly, a sudden screaming and fleeing
pedagogy and/or linguistics. As writers, that result when speaker X says to hearer Y:
idioms are the best ways to express “see a snake behind you” is also a
ourselves in a more elegant and more perlocutionary act. This is why Austin
economical manner. Idioms liven up the describes language as a way of doing and
text and prompt the listeners or readers to making others to do things. According Mey
think beyond the fact or outside the box. (2001, p. 96), perlocutionaryact is the most
important aspect of speech acting.
Theoretical Framework Illocutionary act could be directly
Different but interconnect subparts or indirectly achieved. When the
of Austin’s Speech Act theory: locution, illocutionary value of a sentence or an
illocution and perlocution and Searle’s utterance is in agreement with the formal
speech act categories of representatives, structure of the sentence, that illocutionary
commissives, directives, expressives, and value is said to be a direct speech act.
declaratives are considered suitable and However, when the formal structure of a
chosen as theoretical bases for this study. sentence or an utterance is not in agreement
The locutionary act refers to the literal with its illocutionary force, the
meaning of an utterance. The illocutionary illocutionary force of such an utterance is
act also known as performative act is the said to be an indirect speech act. The need
communicative force that is intended to be for politeness in communication is the
achieved by an utterance (Jackson and motive behind indirect speech act. In other
Stockwell 2011, p. 180). It uncovers what words, in most languages, including
the speaker does or unravels the layers of English, the use of imperative sentences to
interpretive potentials of his utterance. It is give commands or requests is usually not
the central concern of pragmatics and favoured despite its status as the genuine
sometimes used interchangeably with and clearer speech act of ordering.
speech act in general. In other words, an Furthermore, indirect speech act adds
illocutionary act is a nonlinguistic act humour and politeness to communication
performed through a linguistic means. It and thus oilsor lubricates the wheel of
could be direct or indirect, intended or interaction (Mey 2001, p. 13 and Finnegan
93
2008, p. 231). In the view of Grundy (2008, smoke, truth, however long it is harbored
p. 230), direct speech act is the eventual reveals itself. In other words, just
conventionally expected functions of like a woman inwhose head lice are
language. Finnegan (2008, p. 290) submits concealed when her hair is plaited knows no
that indirect speech act flouts at least one of peace, so also truth pricks the conscience of
the Gricean maxims (of manner, quality, the person who conceals it.
quantity, and relation) of conversation.
Text 2: Nmawalogan (gan is a shortened
Methodology form of Egan, which is a name of a riverine
The data for this study comprise village in Nupe land in the present Kogi
twenty (20) randomly selected samples of State.)
Nupe idioms gathered through the author’s Locution: To visit an uncle in Egan
personal interviewswith different but Illocution: To take a difficult path to solve
mostly elderly people within and outside a problem or address an issue while the easy
his locality. The samples are mostly phrasal one is available
in nature. In the analysis, the samples are Speech Act Category: It an expressive act
firstly presented in Nupe languageand then of condemning and directive act of urging
translated into English language. In this the addressee to avoid putting on brave face
paper, the translation of each of the idioms or to take a simpler and safer approach to
is labeled as illocution. Secondly, the address challenges of life. It is a piece of
speech act type of each of the samplesis advice to people to always have plane “B”
identified and its communicative force or alternatives (except when it is
explicated. Thirdly, the context of use of impossible) or to be necessarily flexible
each sample is explained and lastly, where rather than being rigid in the journey of life.
possible and relevant or necessary, the Context of Use: It is said in a conversation
implication of the sampled idiom is and directed at the participant whose
highlighted. contribution or suggestion towards solving
a particular problem is considered
Analysis cumbersome, time consuming and/ or risky.
Text1: Etitikpekokota Implication: Many Nupepeople, especially
Locution: To plait hair on lice those that are not living in riverine areas, do
Illocution: To evade or avoid truth by not wantto travel by water except when
beating around the bush there is no alternative route or when the
Speech Act Category: It is both an alternative route is extremely longer and
expressive act of condemning self-deceit most importantly riskier to their lives.
and directive act of urging people to be Text 3: Finiyakpena’o
courageously and/or explicitly truthful in Locution: To throw a leave on fire
their private and public conducts or Illocution: To surrender or give up a
engagement, no matterthe odds or what it struggle
may cause them. Speech Act Category: It is usually a
Context of Use: It is used as a reaction to a representative act of informing a co-
speaker’s contribution in a speech event, participant in conversation about an aborted
usually in a meeting, when the speaker struggle or a struggle that is being given up.
directly or indirectlyseem to suggest cutting Context of Use: The speaker sees no hope
corners or concealing obvious truth or fact of success in his struggle. Hence, he/she
in an effort to address an issue bothering a gives it up.
people or group. Implication: It is natural to despair. Nupe
Implication: Any attempt to avoid truth or people do not engage themselves in any do-
conceal facts is a wasted effort because like or-die or violent struggle in life. Rather,
94
they exploit the wisdoms of negotiation (no beating. Thus, Nupe people describe dog as
matter how long it takes them to achieve having egogi-like soul.
their aim) and respect for their fellow Implication: Beating is not the solution to
human beings, especially the elderly and children’s notoriety or disobedience. In
those in authority. other words, beating is not the best
parenting skill.
Text4: Bishena’adana
Locution: To be a fowl hung on the Text 6: Wobahwomamua
shoulder Locution: To be neither bitter nor sweet
Illocution: A dependent Illocution: To be an ordinary or un-
Speech Act Category: An assertive act of influential member in the society
demeaning as well as a directive act of Speech Act Category: When used by the
warning the addressee. speaker to refer to himself, it is a directive
Context of Use: It is mostly used to refer to act of self-warning. If it is directed at
women, especially married ones as the someone else, it is a directive act of
dependents of their husbands. It is explored cautioning the person to avoid putting on
in most cases to tease or reduce the brave face, biting more than he/she can
addressee to a second position in chew or leave for God any battle he/she
importance. In many instances, people use cannot fight. It is an indirect way of giving
it to avoid responsibility or to exonerate up a struggle.
themselves from blame for failure in an Context of Use: It can be used in contexts
issue. like political contest or legal battle,
Implication: Men are to fend for their especially in an unjust society. In other
women. Therefore, women are made not words, the speaker is in a fight with
only to take instructions from their husband someone of higher socio-political and
but also to abide by those instructions. This economic status.
idiom is communicatively akin to the Implication: We are living in an unjust
popular English proverb: ‘He who pays the society, a society where nobody is
piper dictates the tune.’ somebodyexcept those that aresocio-
politically and economically influential or
Text 5: Rayigogi connected to influential people like the rich
Locution: To have the soul of ‘egogi’ or those in positions of authority.
Illocution: Ability to endure beating, pain
or suffering Text 7: Wodenyannawomadenyaegi
Speech Act Category: It is an expressive Locution: To have something for both the
act of wondering or surprising mother and her child
Context of Use: In some cases, the idiom is Illocution: To be unsparing in your
used to refer to an erring or a notorious dealings with or against people
child, who, despite constant and merciless Speech Act Category: An expressive act of
beatings by his/her parents for being condemning, usually in a jovial manner
troublesome, refuses to change for good. In Context of Use: It is used in both conflict
other words, if a child becomes used to speech event and in a humorous
beating to the extent that beating does not conversation. In the former context, it is
scare him/her (to the point of stopping what used to condemn while in the latter, it is
he/she does for which he/she is beaten), that used to trivialisethe subject of conversation.
child is said to have egogi-like soul or spirit. Implication: The addressee is a hypocrite
The idiom is also used to refer to dog. In because he/her speaks from two sides of his
Nupe society, the spirit of a dog is believed mouth. Hence, he is not taken seriously by
to be very strong that it hardly dies of other interlocutors.
95
relationships with them) before deciding

Text 8: Lukongiyabata who to finally settle down with.
Locution: A banana orchard dove
Illocution: A talkative and/or a spy Text 11: Dagbawu be nashi
Speech Act Category: An expressive act of Locution: To kill an elephant with a fist
condemning or accusing Illocution: To give or assistbeyond
Context of Use: In speech events such as people’s expectation
ameeting or during a minor quarrel between Speech Act Category: An expressive act of
friends or couples, this idiom is used and surprising and appreciating a good deed
directed at a witness (of these speech Context of Use: It is used when a well-
events) who is believed not only to be known greedy or stingy person spends for
talkative but also to be a spy or a leaker of another person who never expects any
people’s secret. benevolence from him because of his
Implication: it is a piece of advice that one stinginess.
should mind ones business. Implication: To the best of the speaker’s
knowledge, the addressee has never done
Text 9: Digangizongu anything or given any assistance in kind or
Locution: A bug in the sleeping mat in cash worthy of commendation or as
Illocution: An enemy from within or an in- expected of him.
house foe
Speech Act Category: It is an expressive Text 12: Eye managbakoluku
act of complaining about or condemning Locution: Sweet eye, bitter stomach
someone for being an enemy from within. Illocution: A hypocrite
Context of Use: The speaker discovers one Speech Act Category: An expressive act of
of his/her relatives as being responsible for condemning pretence oreye-service
his/her predicaments or travails. Context of Use: It is usually directed at
Implication: Not all relatives and friends someone who says positive or good things
should be trusted because their evil plans in the presence of a fellow human being but
are not only more dangerous or deadlier but says negative or bad things behind his /her
also more effective than evils plans by back.
foreigners. Implication: We should not be too trusting;
beware of hypocrites.
Text 10: Edzunatana’ona
Text 13: Wodabelabuawomadabegobua.
Locution: The food still on fire Locution: To neither be a taker nor a giver
Illocution: A spinster Illocution: To be lazy, aimless or nuisance
Speech Act Category: It is a representative Speech Act Category: An expressive act of
act of justifying a spinster’s double demeaning, mocking and condemning a
speaking or betrayal. lazy person
Context of Use: It is used to express a Context of Use: Parents, especially use this
spinster’s right or freedom to double date, idiom to scorn their lazy and naughty
usually in a situation where one of her children.
boyfriend’s attempts to stop her from doing Implication: Success depends on hard-
so. work.
Implication: No boyfriend of a girl has the
right to control her until she is legally Text 14: Nunsakpami
married to him because it is not compulsory Locution: An okro elder
for her to eventually marry him. Besides, Illocution: An unworthy elder
she has the right to assess boys (through her
96
Speech Act Category: An expressive act of Text 17: Katalo

criticising, vilifying or defaming an elder Locution: To enter room
who is not exemplary to his/her younger Illocution: To go blind
ones in his conducts Speech Act Category: This is a
Context of Use: It is used mostly by representative act of informing as well as an
parents against the eldest of their children expressive act of sympathising.
who always eats food to a finish with his Context of Use: It is used (in conversation)
younger ones or one who is often unable to as a response to a question about the
make sacrifices for the interest of his/her wellbeing of the third person who has gone
younger siblings. blind and whose blindness is unknown to
Implication: Elderliness is all about the questioner.
making sacrificesfor the young. Implication: Blind people are to be catered
for because they cannot or are not supposed
Text to roam the streets begging for food and
15:Wogaebachigbawoche’echimigbale. shelter.
Locution: To occasionally check the edge
of an axe while chopping wood or cutting a Text 18: Ezagwaguba
tree Locution: One with two hands
Illocution: To trade with caution Illocution: A pregnant woman
Speech Act Category: A directive act of Speech Act Category: A representative act
warning against acts of omission and of informing as well as an expressive act of
commission in struggle of life. caring
Context of Use: Nupe people use this Context of Use: It is used to excuse a
idiom when entertaining fear of retribution pregnant woman from hard-work or from
or retaliation about the addressee’s actions blame for failure in her responsibilities.
and/or inactions, especially when the Implication: A pregnant woman can
addressee is not dealing with his fellow behave unusually and therefore requires
human beings in a considerate or friendly understanding, care, and sympathy from all.
manner.
Implication: What goes roundcomes Text 19: Tsukurobo
round. Therefore, we should trade with Locution: The bone in the throat
mutual respect no matter how highly placed Illocution: An obstacle, a problem or a
we may be. bane of progress
Speech Act Category: An expressive act of
Text 16: Tsuangizuzu complaining about a challenge
Locution: The rainy season star Context of Use: The speaker uses this
Illocution: To be hardly seen idiom to refer to his/her antagonist(s) or
Speech Act Category: An expressive act of someone/something who/which stands
complaining and rejoicing for eventually between him and his set goals. Some
seeing a friend or loved one seen very long parents use it to refer to their wayward
ago. children.
Context of Use: It is used when close Implication: The speaker is faced with a
friends coincidentally meet after their long very serious problem whose solution
separation. One of them (the speaker) uses appears not to be in sight.
this idiom to welcome the other (the
addressee). Text 20: Bichilatsutray
Implication: The addressee is missed Locution: To leg-hit a tray
because he is valuable to the speaker. Illocution: To be suffering from minor
insanity
97
Speech Act Category: An expressive act of mainly used to caution, admonish,

demeaning or mocking a participant in condemn or generally express concerns,
conversation fears or reservations. Hence, they are a
Contextof Use: This idiom is often used in reflection of particular way of viewing the
a conversation where the referent of the world and conceptualisingreality and
idiom is believed to be always out of point experience.
in his contribution and therefore seen to be
partially normal.
Discussion of Findings References

This study reveals that most Nupe Cruse, D. A. (1986). Lexical Semantics.
idioms are phrasal and communicatively Cambridge: Cambridge University
non-compositional in nature. The Press.
predominant speech act in Nupe idiomatic
Casas, M. and Campoy, J. M. H. (1995). “A
expressions is expressive act, as we can see
Sociolinguistic Approach to the Study of
in texts 5, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18, Idioms: Some Anthropolinguistic
19 and 20. There are very few instances of Sketches.” Cuadersons de
other speech acts such as directive acts (in FilologiaInglesa, 4. 43-61.
texts 4, 6 and 15) and representative acts (in
texts 3 and 10). In addition to semantic non- Chahboun, S., Vulchanov, V., Saldana, D.,
compositionality, the study also finds other Eshuis, H., and Vulchanova, M. (2016).
widely held features of idiomaticity, such Can you with Fire and not Hurt
as lexical integrity (i.e. morpho-syntactic Yourself? A Comparative Study in
rigidity or invariability) and Figurative Language Comprehension
between Individuals with and without
conventionality or institutionalisation of
Autism Spectrum Disorder”. PLoS, 11,
hardly guessable communicative values in e0168571.https://doi.org/10.1371/journa
Nupe idioms. The findigs of this study l.pone.0168571
validate Saeed’s(2016, p. 56) submission
that the communicative value of an Finnegan, E. (2008). Language: Its Structure
idiomdefies the meanings of the composite and Use. Boston: Thomson Wadsworth.
lexical items making up the idiom. This
semantic non-compositionality feature of Grundy, P. (2008). Doing Pragmatics (Third
Nupe idioms, like many other languages’ Edition). London: Hodder Education.
idioms, may be responsible for lack of
Gibbs, R. W. and Nayak, N. P. (1989).
interest of the children of educated Nupe
“Psycholinguistic Studies on the
people in Nupe idioms in particular. Syntactic Behavior of Idioms”. Journal
of Cognitive Psychology, 21, 100 - 138.
Conclusion
Idioms are valuable and engaging Jackson, H. and Stockwell, P. (2011). An
tools for communicating economically and Introduction to Nature and Function of
for proving ones mastery of a language. In Language (Second Edition). London:
other words, the use of idioms in their Continuum International Publishing
appropriate contexts showcases the Group.
speaker’s expertise in lexical economy,
Lawal, A. (2003) “Pragmatics in Stylistics: A
communicative competence and in-depth
Speech Act Analysis of Soyinka’s
insight knowledge of his culture or the “Telephone Conversation.” Lawal, A.
culture of a people in whose language the (Ed). Stylistics in Theory and Practice.
idioms are rendered. Based on his findings, Ilorin: Paragon Books.
the researcher concludes that idioms are
98
Langlotz, A. (2006). Idiomatic Creativity: A https://doi.org/10.1007/s41809-021-

Cognitive –Linguistic Model of Idiom 00079-4
Representation and Idiom Variation in
English. Amsterdam, Philadelphia: John Mogovhani, N. G. (2014). “The Relationship
BenjaminsPublishing Company. between Tshivenda Linguistic
Vocabuary and Musical Trajectories as
Mey, J. L. (2001). Pragmatics: An Introduction Encapsulated in Mirero, Maambete, and
(Second Edtion). Oxford: Blackwell Dzithai”. Southern African Journal for
Publishing. Folklore Studies, 1, pp. 1 – 20.
Mieder, W. (2004). Proverbs: A Handbook. Nupe Encyclopedia.co. (2018) available at

Westport: Greenwood Press. encyclopedia.com/places/Africa/Nigeria
.political-Geography/nupe
Morsanyi, K. and Stamenkovic, D. (2021).
“Idiom and Proverb Processing in Saeed, E. (2016). Semantics (4th Edition).
Autism: A Systhematic Review and London: Wiley Blackwell.
Meta-Analysis”. Journal of Cultural
Cognitive Science, 5, pp. 367 – 387.
99
EFFECTS OF INDIGENOUS LANGUAGE ON STUDENTS’

ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE IN THE LEARNING OF FRENCH
LANGUAGE AMONG UNDERGRADUATES IN EKITI STATE,
NIGERIA.
BAKARE Bosede Elizabeth

Department of Arts and Language Education, Faculty of Education,
Ekiti State University, Ado – Ekiti
Abstract
This study examined the effects of indigenous language on undergraduate’s academic performance
in the learning of French Language in Ekiti State, Nigeria. The research design for this study was
descriptive research of a survey type. The population for this study was the entire French students
in the three public universities in Ekiti- state. The sample size of one hundred and fifty (150)
respondents were used for this study. The respondents selected were students from public
universities in Ekiti State, Nigeria. A simple random sampling technique was used to select the three
(3) public universities and thereafter, stratified technique was used to select fifty (50) students from
each of the selected public universities. The data for this study were collected through the use of two
research instruments, a close-ended questionnaire and an achievement test. To ensure the face and
content validity of the instruments, the instruments were subjected to screening by experts in the
field of Arts and Language Education. The findings of the study revealed that there are effects of
indigenous languages on students’ academic performance in French Language and it was
recommended among others that the university management should recruit French-speaking
teachers who are well-grounded in international knowledge of French culture and language.
Keywords: French Language, Indigenous Language, Academic Performance.
Introduction Luxembourg, Switzerland, Congo,

Today, French language is being Senegal, Niger, Mali and Chad. Today,
used, especially in spoken forms in almost besides the France itself, French can be
every continent in the world. After English, heard in many other European countries
French language is widely accepted as a throughout Africa, and also in various
foreign language in Nigeria. Across the French colonized countries; it is the
universe, about 300 million people speak unofficial second language of Morocco,
French either as native language or as Tunisia, Algeria, and many others (Morgan,
foreign language. (Kathleen, 2022). 2018).
Morgan (2018) asserts that French is It has been revealed by various
spoken in 5 different continents, making authors that French language is the second
French one of the most useful second most widely learned foreign language in the
language for traveling. Onyemelukwe and world; English language retains the first
Karo (2020) agree with the above assertion place. According to Faniran (2016), French
by positing that French is aromane is a foreign language in Nigeria, with a
language, modern French is derived from stance of copious advantages as regards its
Vulgar Latin just as Portuguese, Italian and pertinence in all spheres of life. The need
Spanish. Also that French Language is the and importance of French language in
native/official language of France and 55 Nigeria cannot be underestimated.
other countries including Belgium, Canada, According to Faniran (2016), Nigeria's
100
geographical, economic, and diplomatic as Internet. An ability to understand French

well as her educational and research needs offers an alternative view of the world
make it imperative for her to give adequate through communication with French
attention to the learning of French. It is speakers from all over the world and news
therefore necessary to make Nigerians from the leading French-language
realize the importance of French in our international media (Victoria, 2023).
country, some government officials and Consequently, the teaching and
individuals are enrolling for French studies learning of French language in Nigeria has
in French institutions and private French made a shift from the language to be taught
lessons in the country, this shows that the to Nigerians for the purpose of interacting
need for this language is quite alarming, the with its francophone neighbours. French
language should be encouraged among language is not only a foreign language but
youths, teachers, curriculum planners, foreign and international language with its
communicators, lawyers, military, Para- enormous potentials in terms of economic,
military, technologists and other political, technological, social and cultural
professionals (Faniran, 2016). benefits. It behooves Nigeria, an Island in
The knowledge of French language the sea of francophone countries to tap into
will enhance easy access to French these unfathomable benefits by giving
speaking nations for commercial and accelerated attention to the implementation
monetary benefits. Socially, the knowledge of French language teaching and learning in
of French will help to develop a great its National Language Policy (Abah, 2016).
rapport with other people from French Various researchers have written
speaking countries. Nigerian graduates can about the importance of French in Nigeria.
attend seminars, conferences and meetings According to Abah (2016), the language
in French speaking countries if they have has played and continues to play some
the knowledge of the language and they will significant roles in the development of
be able to understand the subject of Nigeria socially, culturally, economically,
discourse in the program. Speaking French politically and technologically. It is worth
opens up study opportunities at renowned noting that its status has undergone a
French universities and business schools remarkable positive transformation.
which is ranked among the top higher Beforehand, French language had been a
education institutions in Europe and the language only spoken in France and some
world (Victoria, 2023). other French colonies but as it is today, it is
French language has gained a language shared by all mankind. It has
international reputation and acceptance moved from non-recognition to recognition
across the world and in top gatherings and and from mere foreign language to a second
organizations in the universe. This is official language in Nigeria, according to
evident in Victoria (2023), that French the declaration of formal president of
language is both a working language and Nigeria General Sanni Abacha on 14th
official language of the United Nations December, 1996. As stated by Faniran
(UN), European Union (EU), United (2017). Furthermore, it has become a
Nations Educational, Scientific and compulsory subject in the primary schools
Cultural Organization (UNESCO), North and at the JSS levels (Federal Republic of
Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the Nigeria, 2004). This transformation of
International Olympic Committee, the French language not only testified to the
International Red Cross Association and fact that it provides job opportunities but,
numerous international organizations. the fact that it has become a core subject in
After English and German, French is the the primary, secondary, colleges of
third most widely used language on the
101
education, polytechnic and universities which is belonging or connected with a

(Abah, 2016). particular place or area where one lives.
Teaching French language in Adedeji (2014) notes that indigenous
Nigerian schools is aimed at producing languages are not highly esteemed just like
competent Nigerian speakers of the French English in Nigeria, where English and
language; competent speakers who will western education remain the vehicles of
also serve as manpower in the field of power and progress in life.
international relations to enhance From the view of Adedeji (2014), it
international communication and is observed that there is a great neglect of
diplomacy, to foster regional and indigenous languages by individuals and
international integration for peace, unity that the neglect must be arrested before it
and progress (Abah, 2011). French goes into extinction. On the contrary,
language is not only relevant in the school Balogun (2013) argues that the loss of any
level and it is not only taught in the four language by a people is the loss of their root
language skills (speaking, listening, reading and the loss of their identity and when a
and writing), it also creates the avenue for language is lost, such a people who
the learners to gain knowledge of the experience the loss continue to live in the
French culture and to be exposed to the shadow of other people’s identity and
French language literature in general. culture. The survival of the language of a
The above has stressed the people is very vital to the people’s survival
importance of including French education on the whole (Adzer, 2012).
in the Nigerian education system. As a There are more than 400 indigenous
result of these, the teaching and learning of languages in Nigeria, with just two foreign
French language has been experiencing languages for learning and official
growth and development, towards the activities. Today, in Nigeria, where
improvement of the students’ academic education is pivotal to human life, the
performance. Nevertheless, the indigenous learners have no choice than to deploy their
languages of learners have been a major knowledge of their mother tongue (L1) into
factor retarding the positive advancement the usage of the second language. As a
of teaching and learning of French result of this, there is a great interference
language. between the usage of the foreign languages
Indigenous languages are local or and that of the indigenous languages. In
the immediate languages of individuals, Nigerian schools, from basic to tertiary, the
which they speak and use as the first interference between the L1 and L2 is one
language of contact for the purpose of with influences and effects both positive
promoting their cultural heritage. In that and negative, in a Foreign Language Class.
regard, indigenous languages are acquired Unless a child is born in English or a French
not learnt by individuals in the society. The speaking country, he will find it difficult to
indigenous language is the mother tongue place premium on the foreign language than
(L1) of any individual, since it is acquired his first language, thereby hindering his
at a very tender age (0-6years). An proper learning and academic performance
Indigenous language is a language that is in the target language.
native to a region and spoken by indigenous The concept of academic
people, (Udeze and Orji, 2021). This performance of students is a key feature and
language is from a linguistically distinct one of the important goals of education; this
community that originated in the area. In can be defined as the knowledge gained by
support of the above, Adedeji (2014) the student which is assessed by marks by a
observes that indigenous languages are the teacher or educational goals set by students
tribal, native or local language spoken and teachers to be achieved over a specific
102
period of time (Rono & Owino, 2014).In acquired and have been freely exposed to
fact, academic performance can be their mother tongue (L1). As these learners
understood as the nucleus, around which a grow up, it becomes compulsory for them
whole lot of significant components of to learn a foreign language but it also
education system revolve, this is why the becomes difficult for them to do so simply
academic performance of students, because of the dominance of their native
specifically those institutions of higher languages in their linguistic domains.
learning, has been the area of interest Therefore, the learners, in the foreign
among researchers, parents, and policy language classroom, tend to blend the
planners. Since a sound academic features of two different languages
performance is considered as a pre- together, thereby lessening their
requisite for securing good jobs, a better performance momentum in the foreign
career and subsequently a quality life, language.
significance of the students’ academic Despite the various research by
performance is immense. various authors and researchers on the
The academic performance of importance of French language in the
students is measured by continuous language education curriculum, there has
assessment (CA) at the primary and been deterioration and devastation in the
secondary school levels while the students’ academic performance in the
Cumulative Grade Point Average (CGPA) language as a subject, from basic education
is used at the tertiary education level in to tertiary academic orientation. One of the
Nigeria. The indigenous languages of reasons behind this is low enrollment of
students have been seen to have great students to offer the subject and to study it
influence on the academic performance of in higher institutions. In Nigeria, students
the students in the French language do not really participate in offering French
pedagogy. Some of the problems associated subjects in secondary schools and many of
with the learning of French language them do not consider studying it in higher
among undergraduate are lack of interest, institutions. The reason behind this can be
lack of proper orientation on the benefits of seen in the students’ fright towards the
French language, interference of the use of language, many students prefer maintaining
their indigenous language among others. their indigenous languages together with
The rate at which the undergraduates’ the English language, thereby neglecting
indigenous languages compete with French and considering it as not important,
effective French language acquisition having seen its nature and structure as not
seems to be worrisome, thereby reducing familiar to them. Moreover, the little who
proficiency in the use of French language. put in for the subject do not have enviable
proficiency in its performance simply
because of their indigenous languages,
Statement of the Problem which will always surface in the context of
In Nigeria today, the teaching of usage.
foreign language has attained dominance in Apart from the students being
the Nigerian education system and has affected by their L1 in the French language
enjoyed stay in the language education classroom, the teachers also contribute to
curriculum but the existence and the students’ poor performance because
immortality of the indigenous languages of most of the teachers are not well grounded
individual learners have been observed to in the language, many of them are
have great influences and effects on the Nigerians who have, in French language,
learning of the foreign languages. Right little knowledge of no magnanimity. The
from cradle, the learners have easily school management, instead of recruiting
103
teachers with first-hand competence and reference and bibliographical materials for
maximal performance in the French students and further researchers who wish
language, they recruit teachers whose to subsequently carry out research in any
exposure to French language is not beyond field related to this study.
the School.
This study investigates the effects Research Questions
of indigenous language on students’ The following research questions
academic performance in the learning of were raised to guide this study:
French language among undergraduates in 1. What is the academic performance of
Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria. undergraduates in French language?
2. Do the students prefer their indigenous
Purpose of the Study languages to French language?
The purpose of this study is to find 3. What are the negative effects of
out the effects of indigenous language on indigenous languages on students’
students’ academic performance in the academic performance in French
learning of French language among language?
undergraduates in Ekiti State University. 4. What are the possible solutions to the
This study will not only outline the effects, problems caused by indigenous
but will also proffer possible solution to the language in the French language
damage that indigenous languages have pedagogy?
caused in the French language pedagogy.
The findings of this study is of great Research Methodology
significance and importance to Nigerian This work adopted a descriptive
education at large, particularly to the field survey design. The population of the study
of language education as it calls on relevant was the entire students studying French
stakeholders in education to play their roles language in three public universities in
at improving the status quo of the French Ekiti while a sample of one hundred and
language pedagogy. The eyes of the parents fifty (150) respondents were selected.50
should be opened to the importance of respondents selected were students from
French language and the need for their each public universities in Ekiti State,
children to possess adequate knowledge in Nigeria. The universities are: Bamidele
it for profitable sound interaction. Olumilua University of Education, Ekiti
This study would also be of benefit State University and Federal University of
to the teachers as they would see the need Oye-Ekiti. Since it is practically
of possessing more knowledge in French impossible to study all the students in the
language and learn how to use it even in three universities, the simple random
their interpersonal communication with the sampling technique was used to select 150
students. The school management would students studying French across the
also see the need to recruit competent universities and by so doing, a total of fifty
French teachers whose knowledge in the respondents were selected from each of the
language is beyond the amateur level. sampled universities. A self-designed
From the findings of this study, the questionnaire titled Effects of Indigenous
students would see the need for them to Language on Academic Performance
pursue high proficiency in French language Questionnaire (EILAPQ). The
as it would help them in international questionnaire was subjected to face and
relations and whenever they find content validation by two lecturers each in
themselves in French speaking countries, Department of Arts and Language
probably in the nearest future. In Education and other lecturer from other
Conclusion, this research would serve as departments. The face validity was
104
determined by examining the layout and (EILAPQ)which was given to the selected
structure of the instrument while the students to get data pertaining to the effects
content validity was determined by of indigenous languages on their learning of
examining each item of the instrument and French language and a French Language
matching them with the research questions. Achievement Test (FLAT). The data
The reliability of the instrument was carried collected were analyzed using the simple
out by finding its internal consistency percentage method of analysis.
through a study carried out outside the
sampled locations. Results and Discussions
The data was collected using the Research Question 1: What is the
Effects of Indigenous Language on academic performance of students in
Academic Performance Questionnaire French language?
Table 1: A descriptive analysis showing the results of the achievement test of

undergraduates in French language.
Universities Numbers of Students Average Scores %
Bamidele Olumilua University of
50 0.3245 32%
Education, Ikere Ekiti.
Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti 50 0.4025 40%
Federal University, Oye-Ekiti 50 0.4605 46%
3 150
Source: Field Data, 2023.
Responses from table 1 show the low academic performance of students in

achievement test of one hundred and fifty the French language as majority of the
(150) students studying French in three students could not score beyond average.
selected universities in Ekiti State. The
result shows that the students do not Research Question 2: Do students prefer
perform well in the test, thereby making it their indigenous languages to French
clear that each selected school recorded a language?
Table 2: A descriptive analysis showing the Undergraduate Students Declaring their
preference for their Indigenous Languages rather than French Language.
Agree Disagree
S/N Items Freq. % Freq. %
1. I prefer my mother tongue to French language 112 75% 38 25%
2. I can write in my indigenous language than I can do in French. 103 69% 47 31%
I prefer whenthe teacher uses my indigenous language to
3. 75 50% 75 50%
teach me French, I understand better
4. I did not choose French as my preferred course, I was given. 92 61% 58 39%
5. Indigenous languages should also be made official in Nigeria. 124 83% 26 17%
Responses from the table 2 show French language while 47 (31%) of the
that 112 (75%) of the respondents agreed to respondents disagreed with the statement.
the fact that they prefer their mother tongue Furthermore, 75 (50%) of the respondents
to French language while only 38 (25%) of agreed that they understand French
them declared preference for French language better when the teacher teaches
language. 103 (69%) of the respondents them with their indigenous languages while
agreed that they can write in their 75 (50%) of the respondents disagreed to
indigenous languages than they can do in the statement.
105
More so, 92 (61%) of the to French language, they prefer writing in

respondents agreed that it was not their their mother tongue, speaking in their
choice to study French, that they were mother tongue and that the indigenous
randomly given the course to study in the languages should be made official in
University while 58 (39%) disagreed. 124 Nigeria.
(83%) of the respondents agreed to the
assertion that indigenous languages should Research Question 3: What are the
be made official in Nigeria while 26 (17%) negative effects of indigenous languages on
of the respondents disagreed to the students’ academic performance in French
statement. Table 2 therefore shows that the language?
students prefer their indigenous languages
Table 3: Simple percentage showing the negative effects of indigenous languages on

students’ academic performance in French language.
Agree Disagree
Anytime I want to use French language,
there is always the interference of my
1. 132 88% 18 12%
mother tongue in my French language
usage.
My indigenous language brings about
2. phonological errors in my French language 104 69% 46 31%
usage.
My mother tongue brings about lexical and
3. syntactic errors in my French language 105 70% 45 30%
usage.
I fail French exams woefully as a result of
4. my unfamiliarity with the French language 113 75% 37 25%
structure and grammar.
I can only understand French language if
5. 121 81% 29 19%
interpreted to my indigenous language.
Responses from table 3 show that Furthermore, 113 (75%)

132 (88%) of the respondents agreed to the respondents attested to the fact that they fail
fact that there is always an interference of French examinations woefully due to their
their mother tongue in their French unfamiliarity with the French language
language usage while 18 (12%) of them structure and grammar while 37 (25%) of
disagreed to the statement. 104 (69%) the respondents disagreed to the statement.
respondents agreed that their indigenous 121 (81%) respondents accepted the fact
languages cause phonological errors in that they can only understand French
their French language usage while 46 language if interpreted to their indigenous
(31%) of the respondents disagreed with the language while 29 (19%) of the respondents
statement. Also, 105 (70%) of the disagreed.
respondents agreed that their mother tongue The above analysis shows the great
cause lexical and syntactic errors in their effects and influence that the indigenous
usage of French language while 45 (30%) languages have over French in the teaching
of the respondents disagreed to the and learning of French language. The
statement. students’ mother tongue bring about
106
phonological, lexical, syntactic and other Research Question 4: What are the
forms of errors in their French language possible solutions to the problems caused
usage, thereby lessening their academic by indigenous language in the French
performance in French as a course of study. language pedagogy?
Table 4: A descriptive analysis showing the possible solutions to the problems caused
by indigenous language to the students in the French language pedagogy.
Agree Disagree
More time should be allocated to French
1. 94 63% 56 37%
language teaching.
French language subject should be made
2. compulsory right from basic education to 101 67% 49 33%
tertiary education.
French-speaking teachers should be
3. 113 75% 37 15%
recruited to teach us.
There should be regular excursions to
4. 146 97% 4 3%
French-speaking countries.
The school should organize seminars and
5. workshops with participants from French 134 89% 16 11%
speaking countries.
Responses from table 4 show that The results from the above table
94 (63%) of the respondents agreed to the show that the students are ready to improve
fact that more time should be allocated to their academic achievement in French
French language classes while 56 (37%) of language, provided that the school
the respondents disagreed. 101 (67%) management and other stakeholders do the
respondents supported the French language needful.
subject should be made compulsory for
students from basic education to tertiary Conclusion
education while 49 (33%) disagreed with The results of the French Language
the statement. 113 (75%) of the respondents Achievement Test (FLAT) show that there
agreed that French-speaking teachers is a low academic performance of
should be recruited to teach them French in undergraduates in French language. The
their schools while 37 (15%) of them findings of this study revealed that there is
disagreed. a great interference and negative influence
Moreover, 146 (97%) of the of the French language by the mother
selected respondents agreed that there tongue in the students’ linguistic domains.
should be excursions on regular intervals to Which is in agreement with (Adeboye
French-speaking countries while just 4 2002) as cited by Abah J. I. (2016)
(3%) of them disagreed with the Moreover, we can see that the
proposition. 134 (89%) of the respondents students have high command of their
agreed that the school should organize indigenous languages than they have in
seminars and workshops with participants French language, this retards their
from French speaking countries while 16 academic performance in French language,
(11%) respondents disagreed with the leaving them with no choice than to scare
statement. away from French. The findings of this
107
study also show that the students are ready Management Review (OMAN Chapter),
to learn and improve their academic 4(8): 35-45.
performance in French, provided that they
are encouraged and provided with adequate Adzer, V. C. (2012). Factors militating against
the development of indigenous
facilities and given more opportunities to be
languages: The TIV language in
exposed to the language. perspective. Journal of Igbo Language &
Linguistics, 5; 76-79.
Recommendations
From the findings of this study, the Balogun, T. A. (2013). In Defense of Nigerian
following recommendations are made: pidgin. Journal of Languages and
The university management should recruit Culture.
competent French teachers who are well-
grounded in the use of the language and her Faniran, K. F. (2016). The Role of French
culture. Teachers of French language Language in Developing 21st Century
Nigerian Graduates. Journal of
should participate in trainings and
Literature, Languages and Linguistics,
workshops for them to increase their An International Peer-reviewed Journal
effectiveness and efficiency in the teaching Vol.23, 2016.Retrieved from:
of French to their students. Also, students https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/
should be helped to develop an internal
interest in French language. They should be Federal Republic of Nigeria, (2004). NPE,
encouraged to improve on the usage of National Policy on Education (2004), 4th
French language in their day to day Edition. Lagos. NERDC Press.
communications, alongside their mother
tongue. Curriculum developers should Morgan, S. (2018). Importance of French
Language. Retrieved from:
incorporate French translation textbooks
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https://www.scribd.com/document/3457
28212/14/03/2023
109
PRAGMATICS OF HEGEMONIC IDEOLOGIES IN NIGERIAN

ENGLISH USAGE OF SUBTITLES IN SELECTED NIGERIAN
HOME VIDEOS
Lateef Iyanda KUGBAYI
Department of English Language
Zamfara State University, Talata-Mafara, Zamfara State
Abstract
Every living language has the flexibility capacity that its user can exploit to express themselves in
some unique ways. English language has proved this in many countries of the world where it is used
as a native, second or foreign language. Among other features, the language accommodates the
cultural practices of those who use it. In the case of Nigerian usage, the rules of language typical of
English in native situations have been modified and contextualised to accommodate hegemony-
coloured ‘communal lexicon’ for the users of the language in the country. The unique lexicon is
particularly employed to conjure subtitles of many Nigerian home videos that are produced in local
languages. Achieving meaningful understanding of the subtitles from the point of view of the movie
producers is therefore expected to be difficult for other users of English language. It is on that note
that this study investigates the effects of the choices that Nigerian home video producers make while
subtitling utterances of power in their movies on other users of English who do not share the same
communal world experience on hegemony – as prevalent in Nigerian socio-cultural context – with
the movie producers, using Lawal’s (1997) Aspect of Pragmatic Theory as a theoretical framework.
The paper consequently presents extracted subtitles from Macigiya by Haruna, Sani, Ebelebe by
Calistus, Fred, Isese by Olaiya-Okesola, Moji and Eko Onibaje by Abisogun, Taofiq for pragmatic
analysis according to the prevalent contexts of unequal encounters that are projected in the subtitles.
The study concludes that competencies for identification of contexts on the bases of linguistic,
situational, psychological, social and socio-cultural world experiences that are peculiar to Nigeria
are prerequisite for meaningful interpretations of hegemonic ideologies that are conjured in the
subtitles of Nigerian home videos.
Keywords: Nigerian English Usage, Pragmatics, Hegemony, Ideology, Nigerian Home Videos
Introduction From a pragmatic standpoint,

Considering historical realities of Nigerian English contains usage of words
the English language and factors promoting which have been given modified meanings.
its usage among categories of its users in Many English lexical items have been
Nigeria, the language, to a great extent, is given special meanings by Nigerian users
no more alien to Nigeria and Nigerians. of the language. Hence, the context in
More importantly, the language has adapted which many of the words are used in
with the cultures of Nigerian peoples. It has Nigerian English has been expanded
also been nativised and domesticated to suit beyond their original status in the native
Nigerians’ beliefs, customs and aspirations. English society. The cultural practices of
Hence, the form of English can be the Nigerian society have modified the
identified globally based on the distinctive rules of language typical of English in
features that set it apart as one of the world native situations. One of the cultural
varieties of English. The features can be practices typical of Nigerian society is
identified in the aspects of phonetics and contextualised in the hegemony-coloured
phonology, morphology, syntax, lexico- ‘communal lexicon’ understood by English
semantics and pragmatics. users in the region but expectedly difficult
110
to decode by users of English who are alien (2007) in Standard Nigerian English: A
to Nigerian society, except they are Stable Variety in Ensuring Evolution of
informed. The power influenced utterances World English studies the situation of
that are peculiar to Nigerian socio-cultural Nigerian English and conceptualises the
context abound in subtitles of many Nigeria form of English within the Schneider’s
home videos; viewers who rely on the (2003) “Dynamics of New Englishes.” The
general knowledge of English language Author concludes that the endonormatively
usage while following the storylines of the stabilised variety of English has come to
videos through the subtitles for meaning stay in Nigeria. Oshodi and Owolewa
making will unsurprisingly be much more (2020) in The Standard Nigerian English in
confounded than they may have expected. Perspectives: A Variety or an
The importance of context as a prerequisite Interlanguage? examine the Standard
for both local and international speakers of Nigerian English vis-a-viz its acclaimed
English, who are entertained by the home status as a variety of English. They argue
videos, to understand intelligibly utterances that it is extremely difficult to identify the
with domineering tendencies in the variety particular form which qualifies to be called
of English used for the subtitles can Standard Nigerian English since no
therefore not be overemphasised. particular form is exclusive to a particular
Against the background, this study group of speakers. The researchers are also
sets out to investigate the effects of the of the view that the various forms tagged
choices that Nigerian home video Nigerian English emerged due to deviations
producers make while subtitling utterances which occur in the course of learning and
of power in their movies on other users of using Standard English as L2. The paper
English who do not share the same concludes that, since the acclaimed
communal world experience on hegemony Standard Nigerian English is not
– as prevalent in Nigerian socio-cultural systematically and structurally consistent
context – with the movie producers. It is and regular among every user, it appears
therefore in the interest of the study to: more like an interlanguage than a variety.
i. identify hegemonic features of Claiming that some articles have
Nigerian English that can hinder adequately proved that grammatical, lexical
comprehension among other users of and phonological systems have attained
English in the subtitles of selected appreciable standard, Opara (2020) states
Nigerian home videos. that the general studies on the systems have
ii. examine the effect of background not been harmonised and appropriated.
information on hegemonic influenced Hence, while studying Educated Nigerian
ideologies in Nigerian home video English Phonemes, the researcher reviews
subtitles for wider intelligibility. the process involved in determining and
iii. itemise hegemonic illocutionary documenting the common features of
forces peculiar to Nigerian socio- educated Nigerian English Phonemes
cultural that are functionally (ENEP) by analysing the contexts as well as
embedded in the subtitles of selected the nature and root causes of the emergence
Nigerian home videos. of stable phonemic forms Educated
iv. explain the importance of context in Nigerian English (ENE). The study reveals
the interpretation of hegemonic that there are stable phonemic features that
utterances as subtitled in the selected differ slightly from Standard British
Nigerian home videos. English (SBE) Received Pronunciation
Writing on Nigerian English is not a (RP) but cut across all the levels of
novel activity. A great deal of researches education and regional varieties. Akujobi
has been carried in the area of study. Ekpe and Umoh (2022) in Varieties of the
111
English Language in Nigeria: The Socio- ship in question. The author calls such
Linguistic Implication on Communication utterances as above performatives. The
examine the different varieties of the performatives can either be felicitous or
Nigerian English and the sociolinguistic infelicitous. A performative is felicitous
implications it has on communication. The when it is uttered by an appropriate person
study shows that varietiesof the English in a circumstance which should be
language in Nigeria create barriers in appropriate, and infelicitous when
communication among categories of something has gone wrong in the
peoplein the societies. As a departure from connection between the utterance and the
the existing researches on Nigerian English, circumstance in which it is uttered.
this paper investigates the effects of the According to Austin, each time an utterance
choices that Nigerian home video is made, three simultaneous acts are
producers make while subtitling utterances performed. The acts are:
of power in their movies on other users of
English who do not share the same A Locutionary Act: This is an act of saying
communal world experience on hegemony something with a particular sense and
– as prevalent in Nigerian socio-cultural reference.
context – with the movie producers. An Illocutionary Act: This has to do with
performing an act such as warning,
Models of Context-dependent Aspects of accusing, promising and requesting by
Pragmatics means of saying something.
Various aspects of pragmatics in relation to A Perlocutionary Act: This is the act that
context have been established by scholars. brings about effects on the audience by
These include: means of uttering something.
Further on Speech Acts, Austin

Austin’s (1962) Speech Acts Theory suggests five different families in which the
The Speech Acts Theory, as speech acts can be classified based on their
proposed in J. L. Austin, is an offshoot of illocutionary force. These are:
the criticism against the philosophical idea i. Verdictives: These are typified by
– referred to as constative – that a giving of a verdict. In this class,
declarative sentence is always used to verbs like discharge, sentence and
describe some state of affair, which must acquit are used.
either be true of false. Austin argues that, ii. Excersitives: Here are acts that
apart from constatives, there are many show exercising of power, right or
declarative sentences which do not describe influence. For example, we have
report or state anything, and that it makes vote, order, urge, advise and warn
no sense to regard to them as being true or as verbs with such acts.
false. Thus, any utterance that falls under iii. Commissives: These consist of acts
this category of sentences is part of doing in which speakers commit
some action. Accordingly, in every themselves into doing something
sentence, a speaker performs an act which such as promising or undertaking.
may be stating a fact, confirming or They include declaration or
denying something, or making a promise. announcements of intention. To
Austin further provides examples such as I perform the acts, verbs like
do (as uttered during a marriage ceremony); promise, donate and undertake are
I name this ship the Queen Elizabeth (as used.
uttered by the appropriate person while iv. Behavitives: these have to do with
smashing a bottle against the stem of the social behaviour and attitudes. In
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carrying out such acts, verbs like mutual knowledge (Stalnaker

apologise, congratulate, commend, 1978:320).
condole, acknowledge and
sympathise are used. Clark (2006:116) buttresses that
v. Expositives: These are acts which “People talking to each other take much for
make it clear how utterances fit into granted. They assume a common language.
the discourse of an argument or They assume shared knowledge of such
conversation. The speech act verbs things as cultural fact, news, stories and
here include reply, argue, concede, local geography.” In essence, the
illustrate, assume and postulate. “’common ground’ is the sum of the
In line with the thesis of this paper, information that people assume they share .
the illocutionary forces in the category of . . as Speakers ordinarily try to use words
Excersitives, which are woven into the that their addresses will understand, and
subtitles of the selected home videos, need that requires a ‘shared lexicon’” whereas a
to be identified and interpreted within the problem usually arises owing to the fact that
context of Nigeria English usage for both every community has its own ‘common
local and international speakers of English, lexicon’ (ibid.). By implication, the
who are entertained by the home videos, producers of the subtitles of Nigerian home
before they can lay claim to intelligible videos may have chosen English language
understanding of the utterances as conjured to cater for a wider audience across the
in the subtitles. globe on the basis of sharing common
language. It should not be surprising to find
Lewis’ (1969) Common that a great percentage of the international
Knowledge/Stalnaker’s (1978) Common viewers of Nigerian movies are rather
Ground confused while following the storylines of
Technically, the notion of common the movies through the subtitles, since they
ground, which is always a property of a are alien to Nigerian based common lexicon
community of people that may consist of in which the subtitles are coded.
just two people, is introduced by Lewis
(1969). He describes common knowledge Lawal’s (1995) Aspect of Pragmatic
as a process that involves how people co- Theory
ordinate with each other. To achieve this, an Using pragmatic mappings to
agreement is always held among the specifically describe context, Lawal (1995)
interlocutors. That agreement forms the proposes that meaning from utterances
basis for the interlocutors’ common should be based on general factual
knowledge. Stalnaker (1978) expands the knowledge/knowledge of the world, local-
notion beyond Lewis’ assertion by factual knowledge, socio-cultural
introducing the concept of common knowledge and knowledge of context.
ground. Through the introduced concept, Accordingly, the type of meaning a user of
the way information is built up in language, say English, is able to encode or
conversation can be accounted for. Hence, decode would depend on factors such as;
Roughly speaking, the His communicative competence
presuppositions of a speaker (including both his linguistic
are the propositions whose and situational competencies),
truth he takes for granted as his knowledge of the world
part of the background of the (including his world view and
conversation. Presuppositions socio-cultural background) and
are what is taken by the speaker his psychological state
to be the common knowledge or (including his mind and attitude
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towards the topic, the from Standard British English.” Its

communicative context and his emergence was preceded by “contact
co-participants in the between English and Nigerian languages in
communicative event (Lawal the socio-cultural and political situation”
1995:158). (Bamgbose 1995:9). Several authors have
written on the characteristics of the variety
That suggests that the choices that of English. Among such is Bamgbose
Nigerian home video producers make while (1971) whose position is adopted for its
subtitling utterances of power in their pragmatic relevance to the thesis of this
movies have a lot of effects on the paper includes linguistic, pragmaticand
intelligibility capacity of other users of creativity aspects. Incidentally, all the three
English who do not share the same aspects of Nigerian English characterise the
communal world experience on hegemony subtitles in Nigerian home videos. Hence,
– as prevalent in Nigerian socio-cultural the context in which many of the words are
context – with the movie producers, used in the subtitles to portray hegemony is
particularly that context is a prerequisite for an expansion of the linguistic context
both local and international speakers of peculiar to the native English society.
English, who are entertained by the home Those who are not familiar with the
videos, to understand intelligibly utterances hegemonically coloured ‘communal
with domineering tendencies in the variety lexicon’ are therefore expected to be
of English used for the subtitles. Since the confounded, especially if they rely solely
model combines the tenets of theoretical on the general knowledge of English to
approaches of other aspects of pragmatics derive meaning from subtitled Nigerian
such as Austin’s (1962) Speech Act Theory home videos.
and Lewis’ (1969) Common
Knowledge/Stalnaker’s (1978) Common Nigerian Video Peculiarities
Ground, this paper considers evaluating the Nigerian home videos stand out
rationale for Lawal’s (1997) Aspect of a among other home videos produced in
Pragmatic Theory and its principles to America, India and other parts of the world.
showcase different levels of contexts and As Katsuva (2003) observes, the
competencies required of language users to uniqueness is attributed to:
interpret and decode utterances. The theory The Subject Matter: The subject matter and
provides a template for clear explanation of themes in Nigerian home videos are such
the position of each of the contexts (of that depict matters peculiar to Nigerian
linguistic, situational, psychological, society such as jealousy and envy,
social, sociological and cosmological communal life requirements and witchcraft.
experiences) and place of background The Setting: Both big cities and villages
knowledge in understanding of hegemonic constitute the setting in Nigerian home
ideologies in Nigerian English usage of videos. They represent typical Nigerian
subtitles in selected home videos from society ranging from remote communities
producers’ point of view. The model is from the various parts of the country to big
consequently adopted as the theoretical cities like Lagos Port Harcourt and Kano.
framework for the study. Many Nigerian films also depict
experiences related to pre-colonial,
Nigerian English and Its Characteristics colonial, post-colonial and contemporary
Jowitt (1991:47) describes Nigeria Nigerian society, using names that are
English as a variety of English which is peculiar to Nigeria.
“fundamentally the English usage of The Cultural Element: Nigerian cultures
Nigerians in its totality, and . . . distinct value family life. They therefore saturate
114
Nigerian home video contents. The videos features in the world as more salient
are as well used to propagate the cultures in to them than both their present
acts and language use. subordination and the possibility of an
alternative regime.
To reflect the hegemonic realities of ii. The Sense of Inevitability: which
the Nigerian society, Nigerian home videos refers to obedience through ignorance
have to reflect all the peculiarities, which of any alternative.
are as well coded in the subtitles users of iii. Deference: which is an effect of
English who are alien to Nigerian society. enunciations of what is good about
Without being informed, certain sections of the present rulers who are conceived
Nigerian home videos viewers are expected as possessing superior qualities
to get lost at the various acts and scenes necessary for ruling.
where the subtitles have to be iv. Resignation: which connotes a more
hegemonically coloured and contextualised profoundly pessimistic view of
with some Nigerian based thematic and possibilities of change.
cosmological experiences. Incidentally, subtitles in Nigerian
home videos with hegemonic tendencies,
Ideology and Power Relations having roots in the socio-cultural
According to Odebunmi peculiarities of Nigerian society, are
(2010:227), ideology is a system that expected to be coloured with the listed
conveys “certain tendencies, which have types of ideological domination. Thus,
been imbibed, and thus become integrated those who rely on the subtitles, while
into humans, are exposed and expressed in following the storylines of Nigerian home
the course of human interaction.” He adds videos, need to have acquired the requisite
that ideology is basically characterised by knowledge for achievement of meaningful
knowledge. Thus, it “directs members’ interpretation of the ideological messages
model design and to some degree the way ingrained in the subtitles and avoidance of
they produce and understand discourse” partial understanding or absolute
such as production and meaningful confusion.
interpretation of hegemonic tendencies in
the subtitles of Nigerian home videos. Data Presentation and Analysis
Hence, Childs and Fowler (2006:114) The analytical procedure adopted in
affirm that the society – in this case, Nigeria this paper is Ayodabo’s (2012)
and in relation to English language usage modification of Lawal’s (1997) Aspect of
peculiar to it as represented in home video Pragmatic Theoryunder which the
subtitles – in turn usually absorbs the sociological and cosmological contexts are
system of ideas linguistically presented in operationally subsumed under the socio-
the ideology under the influence of some cultural context. The utterances are also
constantly reinforced perceptions, categorized according to their illocutionary
assumptions, values and ideas, thereby forces – direct and indirect. The
making ideology people’s “normal catogorisation is considered necessary on
consciousness” of power play. The reality the assumption that each of the selected
of the power play is embedded in utterances for analysis contain both formal
Therborn’s (1980:95) ideological and informal variable. Therefore, in the
domination typology of: subsequent analysis, the data are presented
i. Accommodation: which reflects a according to the prevalent contexts of
kind of acquiescence in which the unequal encounters in the selected subtitles
rulers are obeyed because the ruled from Macigiya by Haruna, Sani, Ebelebe by
are constituted to regard other Calistus, Fred, Isese by Olaiya-Okesola,
115
Moji and Eko Onibaje by Abisogun, support to the speaker by virtue of the
Taofiq. political affiliation they share.
v. Socio-cultural: In Hausa political
Utterance 1 system, the Emir has in his cabinet
Waziri! What is your opinion chiefs like Waziri, Sarkin Fada,
Background Information: In Nigerian Galadima, Madawaki, Magaji, Sarkin
English usage, Waziri is an honourific and Yandoka, Sarkin Ruwa, Sarin Pawa
one of the first-class chieftaincy titles in and Yari. Each of the chiefs has a
Hausa socio-political system of northern specific role to play in the cabinet.
Nigeria. The Waziri is the highest in rank Among the chiefs, Waziri is the
among the chiefs in monarch’s (Emir, Emir’s Prime Minister and adviser.
Sultan, Seriki or Village Head) council and Thus, considering the position of the
thereby next to the king. addressed in the context of the
utterance, the speaker (the Emir) has
to challenge the former to proffer
Illocutionary Acts: a. Direct solution to the problem that has
Illocutionary Act – Directive (Asking) almost pushed the speaker to the end
b. Indirect of his capacity in protecting the lives
Illocutionary Act – Expressive (Requesting) of his subjects.
Contexts/Competencies:
i. Linguistic: The audience, through Utterance 2
semantic competency, is provided Who we want to live will live and who we
with the knowledge that the speaker is want to die will die
asking the target listener, whose name Background Information:
is Waziri, his opinion on an issue. The use of the pronoun, We, in
ii. Situational: There is an outbreak and Utterance 2 is different from what it
wide spread of an endemic. As a connotes in general English usage. In this
result, many of the subjects in the case, the choice shows that the speaker
speaker’s domain have been killed. arrogates powers that should have been
Although the king has made several shared among multiple individuals to
efforts to contain the endemic, the himself.
situation has grown worse. Thus, the
king has to summon his chiefs, among Illocutionary Acts:
whom is the Waziri. a. Direct Illocutionary Act – Assertive
iii. Psychological: As a responsible (Stating)
leader, the speaker is sad and greatly b. Indirect Illocutionary Act – Directive
disturbed by the incessant killing of (Threatening/Invoking)
his subjects, despite his efforts to
contain the endemic. He however Contexts/Competencies:
determined to get rid of the disease, i. Linguistic: The interpretation of
believing that ideas from his chiefs, Utterance 2 on a linguistic level
particularly Waziri, will go a long presents the idea that it is only those
way in achieving that feat. the speaker and some individuals
iv. Social: There is a close relationship want to live that can be alive while
between the speaker and the those they do want to die will
addressed. He is the leader (King) eventually die.
while the addressed (Waziri) is next ii. Situational: The speaker is one of
to him in rank. The addressed is many wicked individuals who are
expected to provide the necessary wreaking havoc in many Nigerian
116
villages, using some diabolical losing his mercy sight suggests loss of
powers they possess. At the time of compassion.
producing the utterance, the speaker Illocutionary Acts:
is simultaneously chanting some a. Direct Illocutionary Act – Assertive
incantations and wavering a charm in (Stating)
the air with the purpose of killing b. Indirect Illocutionary Act – Directive
some individuals in the village. (Threatening)
iii. Psychological: The tone of the Contexts/Competencies:
utterance depicts authority
particularly that the speaker believes i. Linguistic: Knowledge of grammar
so much in the efficacy of the will provide the audience the
diabolical powers of the amulet he is information that somebody’s paternal
wavering. Thus, he speaks boldly, parent’s sight of mercy has been lost.
claiming to possess what it takes to ii. Situational: The speaker is a guard to
kill or make alive. a wicked slave merchant who is
iv. Social: Although the addressed are referred to as Father in the utterance.
not physically present at the scene of Among those who have been captured
utterance, the scene is within the as slaves is a pregnant woman. At this
community where the speaker and the point, the pregnant woman is in child
victims live. The expectation is that, labour and other slaves have to beg
the wavering the amulet, the for her release or necessary attention.
recitation of the incantations and the However, the slave merchant is not
production of the utterance will be moved by the situation. Instead, he
followed by announcement of the commands that his attendant should
demise of some members of the bring out one of the slaves (an old
community. This eventually occurs as woman) from where the slaves are
the movie progresses. caged and beat her mercilessly for
v. Socio-cultural: In the pre-colonial pleading on behalf of the pregnant
Nigerian society (and currently in slave. Rather than joining the slaves
parts of the country), there are to beg his master, the attendant
individuals who are so magically promotes the master’s ideology of
powerful that they believe nothing mercilessness, using Utterance 3.
whatsoever can stop them from iii. Psychological: The tone of the
achieving their goal in life, even when utterance reflects in the speaker the
achieving the goal involves killing of reality of power intoxication and
other human beings. wickedness that his master represents.
He therefore threatens the slaves to
Utterance 3 stop begging, making them to believe
Father has lost his mercy sight that begging will not change their
Background Information: situation and, by extension,
In Nigeria English usage, the word promoting the rigidity of the mater’s
father has been givenextended meanings. In authority.
this case, it is used as an honourific to show iv. Social: The relationship between the
respect to an elderly man, a quite old man speaker and the addressed is that of
or a man in position of authority who is not superior versus subordinate, which is
necessarily one’s paternal parent. In concretised in the evidence of power
addition, the phrase mercy sight is a direct play. As a guard under the leadership
translation of a Yoruba phrase oju aanu, of an impassionate master, the
meaning compassion. Therefore, Father
117
speaker talks down on the slaves who of his land for religious purposes. He
can only plead for mercy. accuses the leader of the religious
v. Socio-cultural: Knowledge of group of preaching against him. He
hegemony in a typical Yoruba setting has therefore decided to build his
is needed in this context. First, the wife’s hair-dressing salon on the land.
speaker sees the need to be polite to The people beg him to put God into
the superior by referring to his master consideration on the issue but he
as Father. In addition, he does not threatens that if has not put God into
hesitate to exercise the delegated consideration, he will have
power he has over the defenseless commanded his boys to pull down the
slaves under his control by group’s mosque which has been built
threatening them, using his master’s on the land.
nomenclature, Father. He also gives a iii. Psychological: The tone of the
vivid picture of the wickedness that utterance is harsh. It depicts the
his master portrays, using the analogy speaker as an arrogant individual who
of someone who has lost his mercy believes he is by all means superior to
sight to suggest the extent of master’s the addressed despite that an Islamic
heartlessness. leader (Imam) is among them. He acts
like a god who has nothing to bow for
Utterance 4 to achieve his goals through the
If not because I put God into service of his guards (boys).
consideration, I would have asked my boys iv. Social: There is an element of class
to pull down this place difference between the speaker and
the addressed. He is very rich,
Background Information: popular, and magically and physically
The word boy as used in the armed. The addressed on the other
utterance does not mean a male child, son, hand are ordinary citizens who have
or a male servant as in houseboy. In to surrender to the speaker’s
Nigerian English usage, the word (usually consideration.
in plural) is used to mean guards that are v Socio-cultural: The speaker and the
employed by politicians or some rich men addressed share the knowledge of
in Nigeria to guide them and to meaning extension and usage of the
threaten/attack their opponents. word boys in Nigerian English. This
Illocutionary Acts: is evident in the interaction as the
a. Direct Illocutionary Act – Assertive speaker code-switches between
(Declaring) Nigerian local language and Nigerian
b. Indirect Illocutionary Act – Directive English by uttering my boys. The
(Threatening) implication is that the use of boys as
guards by politicians and some rich
Contexts/Competencies: individuals is a popular ideology in
i. Linguistic: At a sentential level, the Nigeria.
utterance may be translated to mean
that the speaker would have asked his General Discussion
sons or male servants to pull down a Utterances 1 to 4 represent the
particular place if he has not put God hegemonic ideologies common to Nigerian
into consideration. socio-cultural setting as contained in the
ii. Situational: The speaker, a land subtitles of selected Nigerian home videos
dealer, is addressing a group of – Macigiya by Haruna, Sani, Ebelebe by
Muslims who are using some portion Calistus, Fred, Isese by Olaiya-Okesola,
118
Moji and Eko Onibaje by Abisogun, the remaining part of the utterance – has
Taofiq. lost his mercy sight. That suggests that the
In Utterance 1, Waziri is identified personality with the nomenclature of
to characterise monarchical authority that is Father (the almighty man) is also heartless.
common to Nigerian socio-political system. While it is expected that one should
It specifically represents Hausa political demonstrate some level of compassion for
hierarchy in which its holder is next in individuals suffering a high level of
command to the King (Emir/Sultan). The dehumanisation, a “Father,” particularly
position of Waziri is strategic in the king’s one who “has lost his mercy sight” or who
cabinet. Hence, the King relies a great deal has “my boys” (meaning lawless young
on the chief’s opinion, particularly in men in Utterance4) will rather be glad to
critical situations. The title consequently take decisions through which the
attracts much honour from other chiefs and dehumanised will experience much more
the entire subjects. Mentioning the title in terrible pains. The knowledge of general
English subtitles may, at most, suggest an English usage alone is not enough to
honourific connotation, while the political decode the extent of the hegemonic
influence attached to the title is influence of the utterances. It is required
undervalued by uninformed audience of that the interpreters of loss of mercy sight
Nigeria home videos who rely on the and employing the service of boys need to
subtitles. operate within the socio-cultural contexts
Utterance2 foregrounds one of the of the utterances to have a feel of the nature
major sources of power in Nigerian socio- of the authority embedded in the utterances
cultural society – diabolism. It also for the recognition of the invisible meaning
demonstrates ideological belief and the utterances contain.
reliance of those who invoke diabolism on
the potency of the enchantments that goes
with the practice. They can therefore be so
much intoxicated by the power that they Findings
arrogate to themselves the capacity to kill This study has evaluated pragmatics
and make alive. All this can be vividly of hegemonic ideologies in Nigerian
captured in Nigerian local languages. English usage of subtitles in selected
Attempts to translate the ideological weight Nigerian home videos in order to establish
of the language use into English, as in the the effects of the choices that Nigerian
subtitles of Ebelebe, may reduce the home video producers make while
hegemonic effect of the enchantment, subtitling utterances of power in their
thereby making other users of English movies on other users of English who do
language who are alien to the unique aspect not share the same communal world
of Nigerian socio-cultural miss out, at least experience on hegemony – as prevalent in
to some extent, at some point of the Nigerian socio-cultural context – with the
storyline. movie producers. Eventually, the study
Utterance 3, Father has lost his finds that:
mercy sight, will lead to misconception of
the goal of the utterance if the meaning is i. there are hegemonic features in
contextualised in a general English usage. Nigerian English that can hinder
Father in this context has an extended comprehension among other users of
meaning of an all-powerful/almighty man. English in the subtitles of selected
It is therefore an honourific for praise and Nigerian home videos. The features
authority as against being a paternal parent. include:
The hegemonic ideology is foregrounded in
119
a. wholesale transfer and varieties of English. As part of the unique

expansion of meanings of features, the cultural practices of the
family and social relationship Nigerian society have modified the rules of
related words; language typical of English in native
b. use of honourifics to drumbeat situations and contextualised them in the
the political relevance of the hegemony-coloured ‘communal lexicon’
addressed; and for Nigerian society, which is further
c. accommodation of diabolically employed to conjure subtitles of many
embedded linguistic choices. Nigerian home videos. Other users of
ii. access to background information English who rely on the subtitles while
foregrounds the process by which viewing the movies are therefore expected
hegemonic influenced ideologies are to be confounded, except they have access
built up in Nigerian home video to some background information on the
subtitles for wider intelligibility processes by which hegemony is woven
through general factual knowledge, into Nigerian English usage.
local factual knowledge, socio- Using pragmatic tenets, this study
cultural knowledge and knowledge of has investigated the effects of the choices
context, which are peculiar to Nigeria. that Nigerian home video producers make
iii. hegemonic illocutionary forces while subtitling utterances of power in their
peculiar to Nigerian socio-cultural movies on other users of English who do
that are functionally embedded in the not share the same communal world
subtitles of selected Nigerian home experience on hegemony – as prevalent in
videos include: Nigerian socio-cultural context – with the
a. requesting, which is expressed to movie producers. As the study reveals,
trigger responsive behaviour; and exploitation of hegemonic tendencies in
b. threatening through Nigerian English usage, particularly in the
– invocation of diabolical subtitles of Nigerian home videos, can
powers. hinder meaningful understanding of the
– rigidity and demonstration of subtitles by other users of English since the
heartless tendencies. usage is characterised by factors such as
– deployment of hooligalism. wholesale transfer and expansion of
vi. competencies for identification of meanings of family and social relationship
contexts on the bases of linguistic, related words, use of honourifics to
situational, psychological, social and drumbeat the political relevance of
socio-cultural world experiences that interlocutors, and accommodation of
are peculiar to Nigeria are diabolically embedded linguistic choices.
prerequisite for meaningful The study also establishes that
interpretations of hegemonic access to background information is
ideologies that are conjured in the required to process how hegemonic
subtitles of Nigerian home videos. influenced ideologies are built up in
Nigerian home video subtitles for wider
Conclusion intelligibility through general factual
Scholastic arguments have favoured knowledge, local factual knowledge, socio-
Nigerian English existence over the years cultural knowledge and knowledge of
through its nativisation to suit Nigerians’ context, which are peculiar to Nigeria. In
beliefs, customs and aspirations. The form the study, the functional use of the subtitles
of English consequently enjoys some level overrides their formal interpretation in
of global recognition for the distinctive order to produce hegemonic illocutionary
features that set it apart as one of the world forces peculiar to Nigerian socio-cultural
120
system. Hence, request can be made Clark, H. H. (2009) “Context and Common
through questions to trigger responsive Ground” in J. L. Mey (ed) Concise
behaviour; threats can be issued through Encyclopedia of Pragmatics (2nd ed.).
invocation of diabolical powers, rigidity Oxford: Elsevier Ltd, 116 – 118.
and demonstration of heartless tendencies,
Denham, K. and Lobeck, A. (2010) Linguistics
and deployment of hooligalism. for Everyone: An Introduction. Boston:
Considering the aforementioned, the study Wadsworth, Centage Learning.
concludes that competencies for
identification of contexts on the bases of Ekpe, M. B. (2007) Standard Nigerian English:
linguistic, situational, psychological, social A Stable Variety in Ensuring Evolution
and socio-cultural world experiences that of World English. Journal of the Nigeria
are peculiar to Nigeria are prerequisite for English Studies Association. Vol. 3,
meaningful interpretations of hegemonic No.1.
ideologies that are conjured in the subtitles
Haruna, S. (2012) Macijiya. Kano: Alrahuz
of Nigerian home videos.
Film Productions Ltd.
Jowitt, D. (1991) Nigerian English Usage: An

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122
EFFECTS OF LISTENING METHOD ON SENIOR SECONDARY

STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT IN READING COMPREHENSION
JOHNSON Ojeka Ebibi

Department of Arts Education, Faculty of Education, University of Jos, Nigeria
Abstract
This study examined the effects of listening method on senior secondary school two students’
achievement in reading comprehension in Jos South local Government Area of Plateaus State. The
experimental pre-test post-test control design was used for the study. The sample was eighty students
from two intact classeswith 40 students in each school. One group served as the experimental
groupand the other as control. The experimental group was exposed to listening method and the
control group was not exposed to such treatment. The treatment lasted forsixweeks. Data were
collected using the researcher-made Reading Comprehension Achievement Test (RCAT). A pretest
was administered to the two groups to ascertain the homogeneity of the groups and the result showed
that there were not significantly different. At the end of the seventh weeks, a post test method was
administered to the two groups and the data collected were analyzed using the mean and ANCOVA.
The results showed that those taught using listening method performed better in literal and critical
comprehension than their counterparts who were not exposedthe same method. Based on the
findings, it was recommended thatEnglish language teachersshould incorporate listening method in
their teaching duringreading comprehension lessons. Equally, English language teachers should
attend seminars and workshops on listening method to improve their performance in class and also
their students’ achievement in reading comprehension.
Keywords: Listening Method, Reading, Achievement, Comprehension
Introduction memory and from the text and by

The ability to read with identifying the relationship between what is
comprehension is really a great asset in the already known and what the author
modern society. The critical role that presents. That means reading
reading performs in most aspects of an comprehension can only take place when
individual’s life cannot be overemphasized. one is able to relate the new idea from the
Beside its roles, reading has been defined in text to the ideas already stored in his
varied ways by experts in reading. memory (Oluikpe & Oluikpe, 2014).
Oyetunde (2009) defines reading The goal of reading is to make sense
comprehension as the ability to obtain of print. Comprehension is a process and
information from print as a result of the not a set of discrete skills. Nwoke and
interaction between the readers’ Nwogu (2010) state that comprehension
background experience and the text involves meaning construction using clues
information. In other words, to in the text and relating them to the readers’
comprehend, implies to construct or build existing background. In teaching reading
meaning by combining information from comprehension therefore, the teacher must
the printed text with the information stored endeavour to show the students how to
in the readers’ mind. Nwoke and Nwogu apply certain comprehension skills in
(2010) also define reading comprehension reading real text. Some of the skills include
as the process of constructing meaning by ability to comprehend at literal, inferential
taking the relevant ideas from one’s and critical levels; ability to use context
123
cues to unlock the meaning of words, state the four basic language skills in English
author’s purpose. Literal comprehension is besides reading, writing and speaking.
the basic skill of understanding directly Listening ability is needed by the students
stated facts, ideas and details (Enyi & tocontend with both local and national tests
Ereke, 2011). It measures, locates and of English in written or oral form.
recognizes information that is presented in Therefore, listening should be learned
a very straightforward fashion while earlier starting from the kindergarten up to
Inferential comprehension is a complex tertiary education level.
process; a much higher order skill than For students to become proficient in
literal comprehension and it means reading reading comprehension, teacher must
between the lines. Critical comprehension employ effective methods of teaching such
is reading beyond the lines so as to get the listening method. The listening method of
meaning and worth of the written material teaching has been observed to produce a
(McLaughlin, 2012). This involves high students’ achievementin
separating facts from fiction, comparing comprehension, favorable performance
and assessing literary devices outcomes, greater participation and self-
In reading comprehension, confidence among students (Carpenter,
individual readers must read the passage 2010). Stephen and Lucas (2018) declare
silently and listen to their minds. The that listening involves the vibration of
teacher and the students must have clearly sound wave on one’s eardrums and the
defined goals in mind before embarking on firing of electro-chemical impulses from
any reading comprehension lesson and the inner ear to the central auditory system
some of the objectives of reading of the brain. Also, listening involves paying
comprehension lesson. According to close attention to, and making sense of what
Oyetunde (2010) some of the objectives of one hears. Nadig (2013) also defines
reading comprehension include: to answer listening as a learning process which
literal, inferential, and critical questions involves understanding and making sense
from the passage; to use context clues in the out of what is heard or spoken language.
passage to unlock the meaning of difficult Nwoke and Nwogu (2010) posit that
words; to retell the story/passage; to listening is a process of understanding what
identify the main ideas or points in the is heard and organizing it into lexical
passage; to summarize the passage. These elements to which meaning can be
comprehension skills must be properly allocated.
taught to students so as to make them As a method, listening (method) is
proficient readers and consequently characterized by a standard conversation
enhance their achievement in reading and among participants who present, examine,
other school subjects (Anderson & Lynch, compare and understand similar and
2012). diverse ideals about an issue. As it relates
Teaching reading comprehension is to teaching, listening method involves a
different from teaching other skills in class in oral exchange of ideas, facts,
English. If the teacher or a good reader interest whereby the teacher draws upon the
reads to the whole class and comprehension experience and knowledge of the group
questions are then asked, the teacher is instead of leaving them to rely upon him.
simply teaching listening The teacher acts as a director, leader, or
comprehension.Oral reading has its place, facilitate who directs and redirects ideas
especially at the learning to read stage; its and information produce by them.
objectives though somehow similar to those Listening method refers to the mode of
of the reading comprehension are different. teaching which gives learners an
Nadig (2013) opines that listening is one of opportunity to pay attention to oral spoken
124
words on certain issues, view or opinion discourse. One cannot talk about teaching
then draw meaning from what is heard. of listening skills without talking about
James (2010) adds that it requires that one listening comprehension. A good listening
person speaks at a time while others listen. method should cover five stages of listening
It requires rightful use of questions at which are receiving, understanding,
appropriate times in the class. remembering, evaluating and responding.
The listening method of teaching is According to Nwoke and Nwogu
considered as one of the best ways of (2010) reading comprehension lesson as
promoting conducive learning and well as other English classes to a large
convenient teaching situation (James, extent is dependent upon the development
2010). This could be attributed to the of one’s listening skills. In other words, the
following advantages of the method. One, more an individual acquires and develops
listening is an effective way to promote listening skills, the more successful such
higher- level thinking, develop students’ individual becomes in any reading
attitude and advance students’ capability comprehension lesson and the more his
for oral questioning McKeachie (2002) achievement in reading comprehension.
emphasizes that listening encourages Without similar extensive listening in
students to discover solution for themselves English, learners cannot speak the language
and to develop their critical thinking naturally. Similarly, there can hardly be any
abilities. The authorstresses that ithelps successful conversation where one of the
students to learn how to generate ideas, participants is a poor listener. Personal
consider relevant issues, evaluate solutions, observation reveals that there is close
and consider implication of these solution. relationship between listening and reading
This means that listening method involves comprehension as good listeners tend to be
allowing learners to participate actively in good readers and comprehend what is read.
the learning process with the teacher All of these imply that one needs to teach
guiding them to contribute ideas on the listening skills as effectively as possible for
topic of the lesson. good transfer value. Though the revised
Furthermore, Field (2007) believes English curriculum has now reflected the
that listening is a skill which impacts in importance of listening skills, it remains
specific ways upon the classroom context in weak in exactly how to teach them
general and upon in individual learner in effectively. A child who has disability in
particular. Listening is vital in the language listening finds it difficult to process
because it provides input for the learner. auditory information or understand a
Listening is the ability to pay attention to particular concept.
and effectively interpret what other people There is need for active
are saying. As stated by Oyetunde (2010) it participation of students during listening
is the key to all effective communication exercises. To achieve this, the materials
and an essential source of language input in chosen to teach listening should be an
second language acquisition. Poor listening interesting and familiar one that the learners
skill can easily lead to misunderstanding of could relate easily in line with their
messages. According to Nwogu and Nwoke maturity level. Listening exercise should
(2010), listening is a receptive skill that include materials from the textbook as well
requires the listener to receive and as those from newspapers, magazine,
comprehend information from speaker or articles, and extracts from novel or
model. The process requires the listeners to textbooks in other subject areas. Also,
understand the accents of the speaker, the according to Hamouda (2013) listening and
grammar of his language, his use of comprehension are an interactive process in
vocabulary as well as the subject of
125
which listeners are involved in constructing comprehension achievement test (RCAT)

meaning. was validated by an expert in English
In spite of the essential role of Education unit and another expert in
reading comprehension in any learning Research Measurement and Evaluation all
task, alarge number of secondary school from the University of Jos. It was subjected
students have enormous difficulties to analysis using Kuder Richardson K-20
comprehending materials read. The West statistic and it yielded a reliability
African Examinations Council (WAEC) coefficient of 0.88. The students were given
Chief Examiner’s report (2019) laments the pre-test the week preceding treatment and
poor performance of Nigerian students in post- testthe week followingtreatment.
English language and suggests the need to Research assistants were trained and used
inculcate reading culture among secondary to teach and administer the instrument.
school learners. The poor achievement by Mean and standard deviation were used to
most candidates in English language in answer the research questions while
general and comprehension particular is ANCOVA was used to test the hypotheses
attributed to poor methods employed by at 0.05level of significance.
teachers among other factors. To fill this
gap, it is imperative, therefore, that teachers Research Questions
utilise innovative instructional methods and The study seeks to investigate and
strategies such as listening method in order provide answers to the following questions:
to improve on the comprehension abilities 1. To what extent does the listening
of students. method enhance achievement in
reading comprehension at the literal
Methodology level?
The study adopted the quasi- 2. To what extent does listening method
experimental, specifically thepre-test, post- enhance students’ achievement in
test group designbecause intact classes reading comprehension at the
were used to avoid disruption of normal inferential level?
school schedules. The population was all
SSII students in Jos South LGA in the Hypotheses
2018/19 academic session. Purposive The following null hypotheses were
sampling technique was employed to select formulatedand tested at .05 level of
two schools to ensure uniformity of significance.
standards. The simple random sampling 1. There is no significant relationship
technique was used to select two intact between listening method and
classes from the selected schools achievement in reading comprehension
comprising 40 students of GSS Hei and 40 at the literal level.
students of GSS Howlse. The classes were 2. There is no significant relationship
assigned to experimental conditions with between listening method
the former school as the experimental while andachievement in reading
the latter was tagged the control group. The comprehension at the inferential level.
experimental group was taught literal,
inferential, critical comprehension skills
and the use of context cues to unlock the Research Question One
meaning of difficult wordsusing listening To what extent does the listening
method while the control group was taught method enhance achievement in reading
the same skills but with lecture method. The comprehension at the literal level?
instrument used for data collection; reading
126
Table 1: Mean and Standard Deviation of Achievement Scores of Students in Reading

Comprehension at the literal in the Experimental and control Groups
Group N Pretest Posttest
X SD X SD Mean Gain ̅ 𝑫𝒊𝒇𝒇
𝑿
Experimental 40 11.38 3.58 49.75 10.74 38.37
37
Control 40 10.38 3.65 11.75 2.90 1.37
Table 1 reveals the mean and of experimental group is 38.37 and that of
standard deviation of pre-test and post-test control group is 1.37 with a mean
mean achievement scores of students in difference of 38.37. This means that there
reading comprehension in the experimental was improvement in the post-test after
and control groups at literal level. The exposure to treatment. The result further
result for experimental group yielded a shows that those taught with listening
mean score (𝑋̅= 11.38, SD = 3.58) and method performed better than those taught
control group had a mean score of (𝑋̅= without at the literal level.
10.38, SD = 3.65 before treatment. After
treatment the results for experimental group Research Question Two
yielded a higher mean score (𝑋̅ = 49.75, SD To what extent does listening method
= 10.74) than control group (𝑋̅= 11.75, SD enhance students’ achievement in reading
= 2.90). It indicates that the mean gain score comprehension at the inferential level?
Table 2: Mean and Standard Deviation of Achievement Scores of Students in

Reading Comprehension at the InferentialLevel in the Experimental and
control Groups
Group N Pretest Posttest
X SD X SD Mean Gain ̅ 𝑫𝒊𝒇𝒇
𝑿
Experimental 40 13.13 5.96 45.62 12.15 32.49
31.62
Control 40 10.13 3.84 11.00 2.32 0.87
Table 2 reveals the mean and was improvement in the post-test after
standard deviation of pre-test and post-test exposure to treatment. The result further
mean achievement scores of students in shows that those taught with listening
reading comprehension in the experimental method performed better than those taught
and control groups at inferential level. The without at the inferential level.
result for experimental group yielded a
mean score (𝑋̅= 13.13, SD = 5.96) and
control group had a mean score of (𝑋̅=
10.13, SD = 3.84 before treatment. After
treatment the results for experimental group Testing of Hypotheses
yielded a higher mean score (𝑋̅ = 45.62, SD Hypothesis One
= 12.15) than control group (𝑋̅= 11.00, SD There is no significant difference
= 2.32). It indicates that the mean gain score between the posttest achievement mean
of experimental group is 32.49 and that of scores of students in reading
control group is 0.87 with a mean comprehension at literal level in the
difference of 31.62. This means that there experimental and control groups.
127
Table 3: ANCOVA Result on the Post-test Reading Comprehension of Students at

Literal Level in the Experimental and Control Groups
Type III Sum
Source of Squares Df Mean Square F P-value
Corrected Model 28975.859a 2 14487.929 235.893 .000
Intercept 9035.363 1 9035.363 147.114 .000
preall1 95.859 1 95.859 1.561 .215
Group 28783.073 1 28783.073 468.647 .000
Error 4729.141 77 61.417
Total 109350.000 80
a. R Squared = .860 (Adjusted R Squared = .856)
Table 4: Result of Sidak Post hoc Comparison of the Experimental and Control
Groups in Reading Comprehension at Literal Level
I J X-diff. Std. Error P value
Experimental Control (I – J)
49.90 11.597 38.31 1.77 0.000
P<0.05
The data were subjected to analysis which is students’ achievement in reading

of covariance (ANCOVA) having comprehension at literal level is explained
experimental and control for the reading by variation in the treatment of listening
comprehension at literal level. The main method, while the remaining is due to other
effect of experimental group yielded (M = factors not included in this study. The Sidak
49.75; SD = 10.74) and control group (M = post hoc test in Table 4 confirms that the
11.75; SD = 2.90); F (1, 77) = 468.65, P < corrected difference between experimental
0.05. Since the p value of .000 is less than group and control group was statistically
the 0.05 level of significance, the null significant, (I - J) = 38.31. Hence, we can
hypothesis was rejected. This indicates that say that listening method do increase
the reading comprehension achievement students’ achievement scores in reading
mean score of students in the experimental comprehension at the literal level.
group significantly differ from that of the
control group in favour of the experimental Hypothesis Two
group at the literal level. The result reveals There is no significant difference
that the experimental group performed between the posttest achievement mean
better than the control group. The result score of students in reading comprehension
further reveals an adjusted R squared value at inferential level in the experimental and
of .856 which means that 85.6 percent of control groups
the variation in the dependent variable
Table 5: ANCOVA Result on the Post-test Reading Comprehension of Students at

inferential Level in the Experimental and Control Groups
Type III Sum
Source of Squares df Mean Square F P-value
Corrected Model 23978.373a 2 11989.186 154.665 .000
Intercept 9973.439 1 9973.439 128.661 .000
128
preall1 .560 1 .560 .007 .932

Group 22024.208 1 22024.208 284.121 .000
Error 5968.815 77 77.517
Total 94075.000 80
a. R Squared = .801 (Adjusted R Squared = .796)
Table 6: Result of Sidak Post hoc Comparison of the Experimental and Control
Groups in Reading Comprehension at inferentialLevel
I J X-diff. Std. Error P value
Experimental Control (I – J)
45.65 10.98 34.68 2.06 0.000
P<0.05
The data were subjected to analysis secondary students’ achievement in reading

of covariance (ANCOVA) having comprehension in Jos South Local
experimental and control for the reading Government Area of Plateau State. The
comprehension at inferential level. The analysis of research questions one and two
main effect of experimental group yielded shows that students in both experimental
(M = 45.62; SD = 12.15) and control group and control group were poor in literal and
(M = 11.00; SD = 2.32); F (1, 77) = 284.12, inferentialreading comprehension before
P < 0.05. Since the p value of .000 is less the commencement of the treatment.
than the 0.05 level of significance, the null In specific terms, results indicated
hypothesis was rejected. This indicates that that the experiment group performed better
the reading comprehension achievement than the control group at literal level of
mean score of students in the experimental reading comprehension after exposure to
group significantly differ from that of the the treatment. The reason is that listening
control group in favour of the experimental method of teaching affords students greater
group at inferential level. The result reveals participation and self-confidence; it also
that the experimental group performed enables students to pay close attention to,
better than the control group. The result and make sense of what they hear. This
further reveals an adjusted R squared value result is in line with Kashua (2018) who
of .796 which means that 79.6 percent of investigated the effects of listening method
the variation in the dependent variable on senior secondary school II students’
which is students’ achievement in reading achievement in listening comprehension
comprehension at critical level is explained and foundthat listening method has
by variation in the treatment of listening significant effect on students’ reading
method, while the remaining is due to other comprehension skills as students that were
factors not included in this study. The Sidak exposed to the method outperformed their
post hoc test in Table 6 confirms that the counterparts who were not exposed to
corrected difference between experimental treatment was positive. The finding of this
group and control group was statistically study is also similar that Ebibi and
significant, (I - J) = 34.68. Hence, we can Muodumogu (2019) who investigated the
say that listening method do increase effect of Assessment for Learning Strategy
students’ achievement scores in reading (AFLS)on senior secondary II students’
comprehension at inferential level. achievement and retention in reading
comprehension in Education Zone B of
Discussion Benue State and discovered that
The research investigated the Assessment for LearningStrategy (AFLS)
effects of listening method on senior
129
had significant effect on students’ achievement in literal and inferential

achievement in reading comprehension. comprehension.
Furthermore, the use of listening 2. English language teachers should
method in teaching reading comprehension attend seminars and workshops on
improved the inferential comprehension listening method in order to help
achievement of students in the improve their students’ achievement
experimental group as oppose to those in in literal and inferential
the control. This could be ascribed to the comprehension.
exposure of students in the experimental
group to listening method which is
characterized by structured conversation
among the students and the teacher in order References
to examine, compare and understanding Anderson, C. R. & Lynch, W. (2012).
similar and diverse idea about an issue or Principles of reading. Retrieved 12th
topic of discourse. The better achievement June, 2021 fromwww.//.jimm c.b.org.
of the experimental can also be attributed to
Carpenter, G.O. (2010) International reading
the fact that the method allows learners to
association and national association for
participate actively in the learning process the education of young children. U.S.
with the teacher as a guide. This active conference publishers.
participation is one of the reasons for the
observed improved performance. This Eker, C. (2014). The effect of teaching
result is in line withVan Den Bos (1998) practice conducted by using
who investigated the effects of listening metacognitive strategies on students’
comprehension training on listening and reading comprehension skills.
reading and found that listening International Online Journal of
comprehension training has significant Educational Sciences, 6(2), 269-280.
impact on listening and reading
Enyi, A. U. & Ereke, J. S. (2011). Utilization
comprehension abilities of the students. of comprehension matrix as a tool for
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One of the conclusions drawn from Reading in Nigeria, 13(1), 72-77.
the study is that the use of listening method
improved students’ achievement in reading Grimaud, D.A. (2009). Second language
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improve students’ achievement in reading James, W. (2010). Learning to read and write.
comprehension. London: Hodder and Stoughton.
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Based on the findings of the study, method on senior secondary school II
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1. Teachers of English Language should comprehension in Jos East Local
incorporate the listening method in Government Area of Plateau State.
(Unpublished B.A. Ed project)
their teaching as it has been found to
University of Jos, Nigeria.
be effective in improving students’
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and literacy Programs. United States: Publishers.
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teaching. International scheme. Jos: LECAPS.
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Language testing: A practical guide to
131
ETHNO-RELIGIOUS MISREPRESENTATIONS IN NIGERIAN

MEDIA REPORTS ON BANDITRY: A LEXICAL OVERVIEW
MOHAMMED Alhaji Usman

Department of English, Ibrahim Badamasi Babangida University
P.M.B. 11, Lapai, Niger State, Nigeria
Abstract
“Ethno-Religious Misrepresentations in Nigeria Media Reports on Banditry: A Lexical Overview”
investigates the communicative potentials and ideological representation in lexical choices that
newsmakers and reporters on banditry in Nigeria make. A total of ten sample texts gathered from
The Guardian, Daily Sun, The Nation, Leadership, and Daily Trust newspapers of 2020 and 2021
are presented and analysed. The analysis is based on Van Dijk’s Sociocognitive theory. The findings
of the study indicate dominance of lexical choices intended to negatively represent Muslims, an
instance of exaggeration of Muslim victims of banditry, which reveals bias against Christians, and
another instance of stereotype against women, which indicates patriarchy in our society. Based on
these findings, the researcher concludes that ethno-religiously, all is not well with Nigeria, as there
is lack of genuine mutual trust and harmony among the citizens, and that media reports could also
be held responsible for the increasing ethno-religious polarisation and attacks in the land because
of the kinds of lexical choices they make to (mis)represent certain interests or groups because of the
negative behaviour of the few bad eggs among them.
Key Words: Ethnicity, Religion, Misrepresentation, Media Reports, Banditry
Introduction kidnappings and abductions. According to

Banditry is an organised crime. It American Security Project Report (2021),
involves kidnapping for ransom, mass about 200,000 people fled their
abduction of the innocent, rape, arson, communities in northern Nigeria in 2021
threat, robbery, and murder committed by alone, and about 77,000 of these people
outlaw gangs or groups. It is one of the crossed the borders in search of abodes
ongoing violent attacks on innocent outside the country as a result of the
Nigerians, especially the civilians by activities of bandits. The menace has led to
various criminal groups. It started in the displacement or dislocation of people,
Nigeria in 2011 and has so far led to the especially farmers and villagers from their
desertion of many rural communities in abode, thereby causing job loss, food
northern Nigeria. Bandits operate more in insecurity, and most worrisomely, loss of
rural communities and have their dens in property and large number of innocent lives
deep forests. The primary motive of bandits of Nigerians. Unfortunately, media
is material profit or personal enrichment, reportage of this security challenge is not
not advancement of any ideological agenda helping matters.
or replacement of any incumbent According to Abdulbaqi and
government unlawfully (Herbst 2003). Ariemu (2017), giving their roles in
Zamfara, Kaduna, Katsina, Niger and audience/readership perception of events,
Sokoto are the states worst hit by the issues, or societal happenings across
activities of bandits in Nigeria today. Many climes, news media are supposedly
school children and citizens in these states instruments for conflict resolution.
have experienced and are still experiencing However, there are certain lexical choices
132
news writers make use of, and which are One of the central concepts in
capable of worsening ethno-religious critical linguistics is ideology, which is a
conflicts in the country. In other words, belief system defined by the group that
journalists’ war-oriented framing of practices it (Van Dijk 2014, p.116). It could
individuals or groups involved in these be socio-cultural, political, economic, or
conflicts through their choice of religious. It deals with social
provocative and/or emotive language is a representations that define the social
source of concern. For example, linguistic identity of a group or its shared beliefs
choices like “killer herdsmen” and “Jihadist about its fundamental conditions and ways
herdsmen”, are stereotypical, sensational or of existence. Among other things, an
conflict inciting lexical selections that can ideology specifies or defines values of
worsen security challenges in the country. freedom, equality and justice for a group
that practices it. Ezeife and Achor (2020, p.
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) 1) submit that ideology involves opinions
CDA is an inter-disciplinary or a or practices that are suggestive of one’s
multidisciplinary strand of discourse judgment over a subject matter. It is a
analysis with a special concern for the role general phenomenon characterising the
of language in representing or portraying an totality of a particular social or political
individual or a group positively and another system operated by every member or actor
individual or group negatively. CDA is in that system (Blommaert (2005, p. 158)).
multidisciplinary because it is more In other words, it stands for the cultural and
problem-oriented than discipline oriented, ideational aspects of a particular socio-
hence, its scholars and researchers are political system, the ‘grand narratives’
committed to social equality and justice characterising its existence, structure and
because some forms of texts are found to historical development (p. 159). The
flout basic norms and values of equality and proponents of this view emphasise that
justice in different aspects of life (Van Dijk ideology is not about an individual actor,
2009, p. 63). It targets the impacts of media neither is it located in a particular domain
texts on the society in a prevailing of life such as a political party. It rather
sociopolitical and ethno-religious context penetrates the whole fabric of a society or
(Wodak and Meyer 2015). It aims to unveil community and results in naturalised
ideological interests buried in lexical, patterns of thoughts, behaviours and
syntactic and discursive choices in a text activities. Based on this view, cultural and
(Bouveir and Machin 2018, p. 178). Wodak religious beliefs systems like patriarchy,
(2011) views CDA as: Islam, Christianity and Hinduism, among
Nothing more than a others can be considered as ideologies.
deconstructive reading and
interpretation of a problem or Theoretical Framework
text. [It] is meant to provide a Van Dijk’s Socio-cognitive theory
higher awareness of the hidden of CDA is found suitable and chosen for
motivations in others and this study. Sociocognitive approach to
ourselves and, therefore, enables CDA accounts for the role of knowledge,
us to solve concrete problems – attitude, and ideology in discursive
not by providing unequivocal domination, abuse, injustice and
answers, but by making us ask misrepresentation (72). In the words of
ontological and epistemological Gyollai (2022, p. 540),
questions. Socio cognitive critical discourse
study aims to track down and map the
network of knowledge, beliefs, prejudies,
133
attitudes that are directly or indirectly identifying and critically analysing issues
operationalised and triggered by that are consciously and unconsciously
individuals when producing and being emphasised, de-emphasised or
interpreting discourse, and explain how that ignored completely in a text. Continuous
cognitive apparatus actually determine framing of an issue in a specific way is
discourse structures and their interpretation known in media studies as ‘agenda setting’
in a particular communicative situation. (i.e. giving the audience or readers what
According to Okpeh (2017, p. 208), they should be thinking about). Gitlin
Hidalgo (2005) submits that socio- (1980) defines ‘framing’ as “persistent
cognitive model of CDA “began with selection, emphasis and exclusion”.
informal text linguistics and subsequently
incorporated elements of psychological Methodology
model of memory together with the idea of A total of ten sample texts are
frame, taken from cognitive science”. selected from Daily Trust, The Nation,
Using this theory, Okpeh (209) exemplifies Daily Sun, The Guardian, and Leadership
inequality, dominance and perpetual mind newspapers of 2020 and 2021 to
control through religious discourse, where qualitatively examine certain lexical
resistance or interrogation of certain choices, with the aim of uncovering the
expressions, including opinions of ideological potentials or intentions behind
individuals such as clerics is labelled as their choices. The study is limited to only
blasphemy or infidelity because these the headline and lead reports, given the fact
individuals are considered as that they are the summaries of news reports
‘representatives of God’ on earth and (Van Dijk 1988), deployed by news writers
therefore, their opinions must not be to veil, promote or serve particular interests
challenged. and downplay others (Bell 1991). In
One of the essential concepts in addition, the researcher limits this study to
socio-cognitive theory of CDA, is only lexis in order to be able to do justice to
‘framing’, which concerns making more the study. Both weekdays and weekend
salient certain parts of a text or strategically editions of the selected newspaper reports
organising them while deflecting attention are considered for investigation. This is
away from other aspects (Philips 2018, p. because bandits have no regard for
2). According to Kuypers (2005), framing weekend or any particular day in their
is a rhetorical act which is useful in nefarious activities.
Presentation and Analysis of Data
3Text 1
Terrorists, bandits killed 8, 279 Nigerians in 2020, says U.S. report

The Unision on International Religious Freedom (USCIRF) has disclosed that terrorists, Islamic
fundamentalists and bandits killed 8, 279 Nigerians in 2020 … The report which focused on
violation of religious freedom by violent Islamic groups in northern Nigeria revealed that security
challenges slowed down the country’s economic growth and development.
The Guardian, February 17, 2021, p. 3 and Arabs that are against western ideals or
The phrase ‘Islamic ways of life in particular negatively.
fundamentalists’ is chosen to construct Globally, its use against Islam, Muslims or
Muslims negatively, as it is now used by the Arabs follows the September 11, 2001
world powers, especially the United States terrorists’ attack (popularly known as 9-11)
to implicitly represent Muslims in general on America. The attack is widely held to
134
have been carried out by Osama Bin by the researcher is reinforced by the fact
Laden’s led Taliban in Afghanistan. This that the report is credited to an American
anti-Muslim representation as interpreted human right organisation.
Text 2
Terrorism/banditry: Northerners, Muslims are worst hit, says Danbazau

Danbazau said while it is true that Boko Haram elements sometimes in the past burnt down
churches, they did not spare mosques or even top Islamic clerics in the north. “We all know that
the main thrust of this crisis is in the northeast and most of the victims, without contradiction, I
will say 95 percent, are Muslims. Citing Zamfara State which he said is close to Kukah’s base
in Sokoto State, the former COAS said: “The concentration of this violence is in Zamfara, not
far from where he lives. And he knows that 99 percent of the people in Zamfara are Muslims
and, almost on a weekly basis, we hear of 40s, 50s, and 60s being killed by these bandits in
Zamfara. So, for him to use that as a way of Christian persecution, is what really supprised me.
I think, as a Bishop and man of God, if he is fighting any kind of injustice, he should fight for
humanity”.
The Nation, July 24, 2021, p. 4 claim. The adverbial item ‘while’ in the
The nouns ‘northerners’, extract: “... while it is true that Boko Haram
‘Muslims’ and the superlative adjective elements sometimes in the past burnt down
‘worst hit’ in the headline of this text set churches ...” introduces his admittance of
the tone for ethnic and religious sentiments terrorists’ attacks on Christians but at the
in this report. This sentiment is reinforced same time accusing his addressee, Bishop
by the figures 95 and 99 per cents that Mathew Hassan Kukkah of bias or
General Danbazau (rtd) deploys to compare overblowing of the attacks on Christians.
Muslim and Christian victims of banditry in However, with his choice of exaggerative
Zamfara State. With the choice of definitive ‘99%’ and ‘95%’ to represent Muslim
form of the verb BE (i.e ‘are’), in the victims of banditry in Zamfara State,
headline: Terrorism/banditry: Danbazau can be accused of prejudice
Northerners, Muslims are worst hit, …” against Christian victims of banditry in
Danbazau expresses his commitment to his Nigeria.
Text 3
Zamfara: Bandits kill 11,000 breadwinners in 8 years - Northern group
Northern Youth Group, Arewa Youth Forum (AYF) yesterday said that no fewer than 11,000
men were killed by bandits' activities in Zamfara State in the last eight years. The group described
the deceased as breadwinners who left behind over 22,000 widows and 44,000 orphans.
Daily Sun, September 22, 2020, p. 3 ‘winners' connotes providers of the food or
The compound word ‘breadwinners’ one who fends for the family.
implies husbands, who are in African Connotatively, the word breadwinner in
family context regarded as the heads of this text reveals that Zamfara and indeed,
families. In other words, the meaning of Nigeria is a patriarchal society.
bread in this context is food generally while
Text 4
Olu Falae’s Verdict: Negotiating with bandits sign of weakness

Chief Olu Falae, respected elder statesman, consummate politician-cum-technocrat, former
finance minister, former secretary to the government of the federation and former national
chairman of Social Democratic Party (SDP) 135 … has [said that] … bandits should be fought and
eliminated from society, there is no room for negotiation ...
Daily Sun, April 4, 2021, p. 18 their positive emotional impacts on the

The words ‘Chief’, ‘respected elder audience to construct an individual, an idea,
statesman’, ‘consummate politician-cum- a belief or a group (Harris 2018, p.23), in
technocrat’, ‘former finance minister’, order to influence a general acceptance of
‘former secretary to the government of the the person’s views, opinions and claims or
federation’ and ‘former national chairman save positive public image of such a person
of Social Democratic Party (SDP)’ are or group. The choice of the word ‘verdict’
accolades or encomia, which reveal the to represent Olu Falae’s view on the
reporter’s deference for Olu Falae. They are worrisome security challenges in the nation
examples of what is called ‘glittering suggests that he is a high personality and a
generality’, the choice of words based on legal luminary.
Text 5
In a Renewed Onslaught on Bandits, 6,000 Soldiers Storm Zamfara
In what appeared to be a renewed offensive operation against Bandits in the northwest, the
federal government has deployed 6,000 soldiers to Zamfara. The state governor, Bello
Matawalle … disclosed this yesterday in the state-wide broadcast on the security challenges in
the state.
Leadership, May 10, 2021 intended to save the image of the military
The choice of: the adjective or government and douse the tension of
‘renewed’ instead of ‘another’, the noun insecurity in the minds of the people of
‘onslaught’ rather than ‘attack’, the verb Zamfara State. These communicative
‘storm’ rather than ‘arrive in’, and the potentials of the report are reinforced by the
choice of figure (6000) rather than words fact that the report is said to be a Zamfara
to quantify the active agents of the State-wide broadcast by Governor Bello
onslaught in the headline, serve the interest Matawalle, the chief security officer of the
of the Nigerian Army or government. In state.
other words, these lexical choices are
Text 6
Valentine's Day: Bandits seize babies from their mothers, throw them into fire
Friday, February 14, 2020 is a date that will linger in the memories of the inhabitants of two
Katsina communities, Tsauwa and Dankar. It was the day bandits, ridding on 180 motorcycles,
each carrying two to three people, invaded the villages while the residents were praying the
Magrib prayers at about 6:30 am, shooting sporadically ... At the end of the tragic incident, no
fewer than 30 people lay dead; they included elderly people and infants, who were allegedly
seized while sucking their mothers' breasts and were thrown into the fire the bandits set to houses
in the communities.
The Nation, February 22, 2020, p. 16 attack as his fronting of ‘Valentine's Day’
The words ‘Valentine's Day’ in the headline implies that this particular attack against
betray the reporter as a Christian. In other innocent fellow human beings by bandits is
words, it reveals that the reporter is more more condemnable, giving the fact that it
worried with the timing of the bandits’ was being carried out on a festive or a holy
136
day like February 14. Hence, the report is were praying the Magrib prayers …”
laced with ideology. The word ‘Magrib’ in suggests that the victims of the attack were
the extract: “It was the day bandits … Muslims.
invaded the villages while the residents
Text 7
620 Christians killed by extremists in Nigeria in 4 months
A civil rights group, International Society for Civil Liberties and Rule of Law (Intersociety)
yesterday said Nigeria’s main Islamic Jihadists, Boko-haram, herdsmen, ISWAP have killed
in the past four months and half of 2020, no fewer than 620 defenseless Christians while burning
their centres of worship and learning.
Daily Sun, May 16, 2020, p. 6 Muslims as deviants or religious bigots and
The words ‘Islamic Jihadists’ and Christians as conformist or pacifist. The
‘extremists’ are negative representations of expression ‘burn their [Christians’] centres
Muslims while expression: ‘defenceless of worship and learning’ is sensational and
Christians’ is a positive representation of inciting. These lexical choices in this text
Christianity. In other words, with theses reveal the reporter’s religious bias, hence
lexical choices, this report has portrayed ideological.
Text 8
Banditry not driven by poverty - Sultan
Contrary to the age-long notion held by some people that insecurity and banditry is fueled by
poverty, the Sultan of Sokoto and President General, Nigeria Supreme Council for Islamic
Affairs, Abubakar Sa’ad III has debunked such belief, saying it is driven by criminal intent.
Leadership, June 11, 2020, p. 11 known fact is ideological or sentimental; it

With his choice of the compound word may be because of high level of poverty in
‘age-long’ to express the nexus between the Muslim-dominated northern Nigeria. It
insecurity and poverty, the reporter reveals may also be because acts of banditry are
his opposition to the contrary view of mainly believed to be perpetrated by
Sultan. The implication of this is that, to the (Hausa-Fulani) Muslims in the region and
reporter, Sultan’s denial of this widely other parts of the country.
Text 9
Northern Nigeria and unholy trinity
Poverty, insecurity and hunger, call them unholy trinity with a cold grip on northern
Nigeria. Last week, the world Food Programme and the Food and Agricultural Organisation
released a report indicating that the old region was in the company of 22 countries classified as
“world’s newest highest alert hunger hotspots”. Our country is in the unwanted company of
such countries as Ethiopia, Madagascar, South Sudan, Yemen, Burkina Faso, and
Afghanistan … These are troubled countries some of which, like Ethiopia, Yemen, South
Sudan,
Daily are embroiled
Trust, August 8,in2021,
civil wars.
p. 12 negatively construct northern Nigeria. In
The abstract nouns ‘poverty’ ‘insecurity’, other words, the import of these lexical
‘hunger’, which the reporter call ‘unholy choices is that northern Nigeria is
trinity’ and the noun group ‘hunger economically and religiously backward or
hotspots’ are deliberately selected to living in the past, hence the reporter’s
137
reference to the north as “the old region”. most likely to be a Southern Christian, and
The word trinity’, which is a doctrine in this reveals the ethno-religious bias in the
Christianity, suggests that the reporter is text.
Text 10
Christian Massacre allegation: What I told Trump - Buhari

President Muhammadu Buhari has revealed his response to President Donald Trump over
American leader’s allegation that the Nigerian government was slaughtering Christians: telling
that the problem between cattle rearers and farmers was a cultural thing rather than ethnicity or
religion.
Daily Sun, September 9, 2020 p. 27 These lexical choices are intended to

The verbs ‘massacre’ and ‘slaughtering’ are demonise and incite certain groups against
emotional or sensational terms capable of the other based on different ethno-religious
worsening the unfortunate insecurity persuasions, and are capable of further
Nigeria is grappling with. The word worsening insecurity in the country. The
‘massacre’ denotes genocide or mass choice of these lexical items reveals ethno-
killing of people because of their tribal, religious reality - disharmony in the
political, religious, cultural, racial country. In line with this, Chiluwa (2021, p.
differences/ interests. The word ‘slaughter’ 49), avers that the use of words with
is intended to liken the alleged attacks on negative denotations or connotation to
Christians to animal killing. Hence, these construct adherents of a religion because of
lexical items are chosen for the purpose of the bad eggs among them has negative
exaggeration, and are dangerous for the implication on peace and security because
unity and survival of Nigeria as a country. how something is reported to have been
done may even be more offensive than what
Results and Discussion has been done. It may be because of the
Critical communicative values of implication of these types of ethno-
some of the lexical choices in this study are religious misrepresentations in the media
inciting, sensational, demonising, and that Sultan of Sokoto and President,
stereotypical or sexist. Inciting or Supreme Council of Islamic Affairs
sensational lexical choices are evident in implicitly urges Nigerians to suppress or
the words ‘Christian Massacre’ explored de-emphasise ethno-religious
(instead of the less emotional term ‘attack’) misrepresentations by remarking thus: “We
in text 10. Instances of words chosen for the are not terrorists and criminals. Of course
purpose of implicitly demonising Muslims we have some bandits amongst us and it
or Islam are found in the words ‘Islamic does not make a clan or the whole Muslims
jihadists’, ‘Islamic fundamentalists/ as criminals” (Daily Trust, February 25,
terrorists’ in texts 1 and 7 while instances 2021, p.4). In the same vein, Armstrong
of sexism, patriarchy or bias against women (2001) submits that Islam condemns
are found in the word ‘breadwinners’ violence except in self-defence.
deployed to imply husbands or (adult) male
victims of banditry reported in texts 3. An Conclusion
instance of religion-based lexical bias Based on the findings in this study,
against Christian faith is revealed in the the researcher concludes that: ethno-
figure 95% allegedly deployed by General religiously, all is not well with Nigeria, as
Danbazau (rtd) to represent only Muslim there is lack of genuine mutual trust and
victims of banditry in Nigeria in texts 2. harmony among the citizens, and that
138
media reports could also be held Gyollai, D. (2022). The sociocognitive

responsible for the increasing ethno- approach in critical discourse studies and
religious polarisation and attacks in the land the phenomenological sociology of
because of the kinds of lexical choices they knowledge: Intersections.
make to (mis)represent certain interests or Phenomenology and the cognitive
sciences, 21, 539 – 558.
groups because of the negative behaviour of
few bad eggs among them. Similarly, our Herbst, P. (2003). Talking terrorism: A
political and religious leaders, could (as dictionary of the loaded language of
evident in text 2) be accused of religious political violence. London: Greenwood
bias in their comments and stances on press.
banditry in the country. Kuypers, J. A. (2005). Framing analysis. In
Kuypers, J. A. (ed.). The art of rhetorical
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FLIPPED CLASSROOM INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGY: AN
INNOVATIVE PEDAGOGY FOR ENHANCING ENGLISH
LANGUAGE CLASSROOMS
1VINCENT Ugah Uguma and 2ALEXANDER Essienn Timothy
1&2
Department of Arts Education, University of Calabar, Nigeria
139
Abstract
The strategy adopted by the teacher and learners plays a critical role in the effort of the teacher to
impart knowledge and the learners to perform well. More often than not, some teachers adopt
instructional strategies that rarely benefit the learners optimally in their academic pursuit.
Learners, on their part, tend to be lackadaisical in their attitude toward studies. Overdependence
on conventional strategies could lead to poor performance. This position paper argues for an
alternative and more innovative strategy, the flipped classroom, since it has the capacity to enhance
students' engagement, learning autonomy, and language acquisition. Relevant literature is reviewed
to show how extant studies support the efficacy of the flipped classroom strategy.
Keywords: Flipped classroom, teaching strategy, enhancement, learners’ performances.
Introduction at school so that they do it as a project or

The use of traditional teaching homework independently.
methods in English as a second language Bergmann and Sams (2012) widely
(ESL) classrooms in Nigeria may hinder recognized as pioneers of the flipped
effective language acquisition and classroom model, highlight how the flipped
engagement among students. The reliance model increases student-teacher interaction
on teacher-centered instruction, limited by allowing teachers to provide
student participation, and lack of personalized guidance, individualized
personalized learning experiences limit support, and immediate feedback during
students' ability to actively engage with the face-to-face sessions. This interaction
language and develop essential language enhances student engagement and deepens
skills. This situation calls for an alternative learning. According to Bergmann and Sams
instructional approach that can address (2012), in a flipped classroom strategy, the
these challenges and promote student conventional learning activities in the class
engagement and language proficiency. are converted into out-of-class learning
One potential solution to enhance engagements where learning is taken out of
English as a Second Language (ESL) the classroom situation or environment.
instruction in Nigeria is the implementation Thus, learning takes place at school and
of the flipped classroom strategy. The also at home. Homework that is carried out
flipped classroom model involves shifting at home is completed in the classroom.
the delivery of content outside of class Although the strategy is now widely
through pre-recorded videos, readings, or employed in many advanced countries in
online resources, while utilizing in-class teaching both the second and foreign
time for interactive activities, discussions, languages because it assists in the
and individualized instruction. development of language (Wang & Qi,
Flipped classroom is a blended type 2018), in Nigeria, particularly, this strategy
of learning in which the teacher introduces is novel because the activities that the
learners to the content of the learning learners engage in traditionally in the
materials in the homes of the learners so classroom are rather done at home, a
that they practice at home by working reversal of the usual procedure of teaching
through the materials at school. This in school, and giving learners assignments
learning type is the flip side of the on the content to be done at home. The
conventional method where the new function of the teacher in a flipped
content is introduced or assigned to learners classroom is to create an interactive and
dynamic learning situation where the
140
learners are guided or assisted to learn the performed better than the traditional
content or concept presented to them. The classroom group, not only in the short term,
teacher makes available to learner’s but in the long term. Similarly, Aycicek and
information that is relevant through Yelken (2018) used a quasi-experimental
materials and resources that the teacher design to investigate the effect of flipped
brings to the learning situation. During this classroom method on students’ engagement
process, problems are solved through in the teaching of English. Flipped
brainstorming, and discussion under the classroom model was used for the
guidance and leadership of the teacher. experimental group while the current
As a learner-centred style, the curriculum- base courses were carried out
flipped classroom is not only interactive but in the control group. The finding showed a
also individualistic (Bishop & Verlegar, significant incremental difference between
2013). It is interactive in the sense that the pretest and posttest scores of the
learners engage in cooperative learning experimental group, indicating the
(Uguma & Obochi, 2013). Learners superiority of the flipped strategy.
exchange ideas and discuss perceptions Other studies that have validated the
among themselves. It is individualistic efficacy of the flipped classroom strategy
because a learner can, as an individual, include Aja, Eze, Igba and Ekom (2017)
employ the use of a computer in solving a who found that teachers upheld the value of
problem or learning a particular concept or flipped classroom strategy as innovative,
content as presented by the teacher. Thus, Alzaytuniya (2016) and El-Bassuony
the computer-assisted method has a place in (2018) who found that the strategy
the flipped classroom teaching strategy. enhanced students’ motivation to learn
Based on the strength of the flipped English and their learning of English
classroom, Fulton 2012 adds that the grammar. Pavanelli (2018) found the
method has some merits. Among the merits strategy effective in advanced English for
are that learners can learn through the use Academic Purposes (EAP) writing course,
of videos when and where it is conducive to while Alnuhayt (2018) found the strategy
them, that flipped classroom enables effective in learning EFL at tertiary
learners to learn at their own rate/speed, as education level. Also, Khadjieva and
well as, that it enables learners to engage in Khadjikhanova (2019) found that the
divergent thinking at their own level, speed flipped strategy enhanced the performance
and time. Furthermore, Herreid and Schiller of university students in mathematics and
(2013) submit that flipped classroom English Language.
method avails learners ample opportunities Another area where the flipped
to engage in research and come up with classroom strategy seems to have some
innovations or inventions advantage is in students’ engagement and
autonomy. Talan and Gulsecen (2019)
Empirical Support for Flipping the carried out a comparative study of the
Classroom flipped classroom with blended learning,
Some empirical studies demonstrate and face-to-face learning environments to
the superiority of flipped classroom identify the effect of the learning
strategy to the conventional expository environment on academic achievement,
teacher-centred method. For instance, a academic engagement and levels of
study by Soltanpour and Valizadeh (2018) satisfaction by students. They found that
that investigated the effect of a flipped the experimental groups’ scores were
writing classroom on English as a Foreign higher compared to those in the control
Language learners’ argumentative essays group. Statistically significant differences
showed that flipped classroom group were observed between the experimental
141
and the control groups. Santikarn and It also requires students who have
Wichadee (2018)’s study reported similar developed a culture of independent
findings regarding learning autonomy. learning. Students who are not groomed in
independent learning may not maximise the
Hindrances to Flipping the Classroom. opportunities of the flipped classroom.
However, the flipped classroom Especially, in learning environments where
strategy is not always effective (Cabi, the dominant strategy is the lecture method,
2018) Jarvis (2022) has noted that the learners may resist any transition to a
effectiveness of the flipped classroom flipped classroom.
could be limited and may not improve
students’ performance and may even hinder Conclusion/Recommendations
the performance of “vulnerable students”. The primary purpose of teaching is
Besides, it is uncertain “whether the use of the facilitation of knowledge and skill
interactive technologies actually benefits acquisition. This happens as a result of the
learning to any greater extent than a interaction among the learners, teachers,
traditional lecture.” (Stapleton, Price & learning resources, and suitable
Snedden 2020, p.54). Some studies have environments. One of the elements in the
shown that the flipped classroom may not transaction that would result in good
enhance performance over the traditional performance by the learners is the teaching
interactive lecture method (Bossaer, Panus, strategy.
Stewart, Hagemeier & George 2016). From the research findings the
It should be noted that the flipped flipped classroom strategy, though rarely
classroom is technology-dependent. used by Nigerian teachers because of the
Students require access to computers or hindrances identified, is a strategy that
mobile devices, and the internet. Nigeria is teachers should leverage to optimize
currently described as the poverty capital of learning. With the Covid-19 propelled
the world ((Panchal, 2020) For instance, migration to digital and distanced learning,
The World Poverty Clock (2022) reports the flipped classroom strategy requires
that out of a population of about 215 serious attention by teachers of English.
million, about 70 million Nigerians live in Therefore, if learners must develop learner
extreme poverty. With such statistics, many autonomy, critical thinking, collaborative
students, teachers and especially rural skills and reap the merit of the flipped
schools may not own internet-enabled classroom, certain measure should be taken
mobile devices. Therefore, while the to mitigate the hindrances identified.
principle of flipping the classroom may be Firstly, teacher trainers should
an effective innovative instructional exemplify the strategy with their preservice
strategy, its applicability in many Nigerian teachers so that the trainees would acquire
schools may not be feasible. skills in the use of the flipped classroom
Another drawback to the strategy and also develop confidence in its
applicability of the flipped classroom is the application. Learners should also be
skill required by teachers to prepare the encouraged to take advantage of the full
resources and facilitate flipped classroom benefits of the strategy.
process to derive the required benefits. The Secondly, government should
flipped classroom approach requires that initiate and pursue policies that would lift
teachers be knowledgeable of the strategy the country from the current level of
(Jarvis, 2022). A research showed that prior impoverishment which makes the
to Covid-19 many teachers in a Nigerian possession of mobile devices by students
university had not done any online teaching financially difficult. The provision of
(Timothy, 2021). computers for students in schools can be a
142
means of cushioning the effect of the harsh Basori, & Wihardini, D. (2020). Does flipped
economy on students’ possession of mobile learning work? A case for private
devices. university in indonesia. Getsempena
Alternatively, since most secondary English Education Journal, 7 (1)123-
schools do not allow students to use phones 1331
at home and the Nigerian government does Bergmann, J. & Sams, A. (2012). Flip your
not permit children who are less than classroom: Reach every student in every
eighteen years to own sim cards, teachers class every day. Washington:
can network with parents and post International Society for Technology in
assignments to parents’ devices. Also, Education.
students can go to cyber cafes under the
supervision of their parents to do their Bishop, J. L. &Verleger, M. A. (2013). The
assignments. flipped classroom: A survey of the
Finally, the Ministry of Education research. In ASEE National Conference
Proceedings, Atlanta, G.A.
should organize in-service training for
teachers to acquaint and equip them with Bossaer, J. B.; Panus, P. C.; Stewart, D.W.;
the skills to implement the flipped Hagemeier, N. E.; & George, J. S.
classroom strategy. Such in-service (2016). Student Performance in a
trainings could be in form of workshops, Pharmacotherapy Oncology Module
seminars and webinars. Before and After Flipping the
Classroom. American Journal of
Pharmaceutical Education, 80.
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flipped writing classroom: Effects on
TEACHERS’ FACTORS AND ASSESSMENT KNOWLEDGE OF
TEST ITEMS FORMATS AMONG TEACHERS IN LAGOS STATE:
1OLUDIPE, Olajumoke Shakirat; 2OYETUNJI, Opeyemi Shakirat and3BANKOLE,

Isaac Sewanu
1&3
Science & Technology Education Department, Lagos State University
2
Postgraduate Diploma in Education, Lagos State University
Abstract
144
The study examines the teachers’ factors andassessment knowledge of test items formats among
teachers in Lagos state. This study adopted descriptive survey research design. Four research
questions and three hypotheses were formulated to guide the study. The population for this study
consisted of all In-service teachers in Education District I and V in Lagos State. The samples for
this study are sixty (60) teachers. In selecting schools for the study, stratified sampling technique
was used. The study used a self-structure questionnaire to collect data from respondents. The results
revealed an insignificant relationship between gender (r = -.076, p> 0.05), academic qualification
(r = -.173, p> 0.05), teaching experience (r = -.104, p> 0.05). and in-service teachers’ extent
ofknowledge of tests items formats. Despite these findings, it was concluded that certain factors such
as teachers’ gender, teaching experience and academic qualification should not be
downplayedwhen it comes to teaching and evaluation of learning outcomes using standardized tests
items formats. The study recommends that government should keep making provisions for teachers
to attend workshop, seminars, and conferences on assessment procedure in order to ameliorate the
failure rate associated with teacher’s inability to utilize a valid assessment tool in learner’s
evaluation.
Key Words: Test formats, In-service teachers, Academic qualifications, Teaching Experience
Introduction Inservice teachers are professional

Teaching and evaluating go hand in teachers with certification from degree
hand. It is the responsibility of teachers in awarding bodies. Teachers are essential in
schools to carry out these two vital the entire educational system of any nation
processes of teaching and assessing and are pivots on which education wheels
students in order to ascertain that learning revolve. Murati (2015) observed that
has taken place. In the process of teaching teachers are vital prerequisites for students’
and learning, assessment is crucial. Without attainment of educational goals and
accurate student assessments, instruction objectives. According to Olutola, et al
cannot be productive or of high caliber. The (2016) in their study on assessingteachers’
term “assessment” refers to the actions perspective of challenges militating
teachers engage in, that provide data that againstimplementation of school-
may be utilized as feedback to moderate the basedassessment in South West, Nigeria. It
teaching and learning activities. The was revealed that the main challenge faced
preparation and writing of questions by teachers in South Western States in
inschools are the sole responsibilities of the implementingSchool-Based Assessment is
teachers. Tests are instruments used by teachers’ assessment skills followed by in-
educators to assess, measure and evaluate service training andsupervision, while the
achievements of learners (Hayati, et al. least challenge was recorded in teachers’
2020). Test can be said to consist of a set of laxity. Bassey, et al (2012) study
questions or tasks to which a student is to alsorevealed that the observed level of best
respond to independently and the result can assessment practices exhibited by teachers
be treated to provide a comparison of the was not significantly higher than expected,
performance among different test takers except in assessment administration and
(Obinne, 2011). It is a measurement tool scoring but assessment practices were
used by educational evaluators to assess significantly poor in construction,
educational outcomes. It is used to know interpretation, communication, analysis
the extent of knowledge of a learner in and trial implications. According to
order to determine the ability of that Rasyidah, et. al (2020) many variables
individual (Jimoh et al., 2020). contribute to a teacher’s assessment
145
knowledge and practice. The teacher’s efficacious instruments to evaluate a large

knowledge is required to comprise not only sample of students on a wide expanse of
those of the subject matter and general course contents and process objectives,
pedagogy but also that of students. What with difficult values or indices that come
the teacher experienced as a student-teacher closest to the desired selection ratio, test
in higher education context likely items should be easy and simple and so that
transformed into their knowledge of tests could have a peaceful and less tense
teaching, intertwining with their insights of psychological environment. Teachers could
the current development in teaching and be given information as regard this and
learning. On the part of teachers, they other basic principles of test characteristics,
opined that their knowledge about construction and administration.
classroom assessment is likely to influence
their practice. (Rasyidah, et. al, 2020) Statement of the Problem
The National Policy on Education Overtime, teachers have been
(2004) emphasizes continuous assessment saddled with the responsibility of assessing
of the progress of the students on a students’ performances by setting test items
continual basis. This has to be systematic, to test degree of knowledge. There is need
comprehensive, and cumulative and to investigate teachers’ knowledge of
guidance oriented. The aspiration and classroom test item formats because test
expectation of the school in the National instruments used in assessing the
Policy on Education and the laudable goals achievement of students may create
of the education is measured through an problems in ascertaining the level of
instrument to ascertain the level of success recorded and mastery of the subject
attainment. The instrument available to by students. The reason for this may be as a
carry out this task includes but not limited result of inability of teachers to clearly
to questionnaire, check list, observational define what the intention of the instrument
tools and test. Periodically, the objectives are, use of ambiguous language on testing
of each subject areas are assessed using instrument, inadequate trained teachers in
different test item format to determine the the area of instrument development and
level of success attained and student lack of use of test blue print in validating
mastery of the skills of the subject in the the test and non-use of variety of
public and private schools. assessment tools. Knowledge of test items
Classroom test format exists in will overtime help teachers in making
different format namely essay test, which informed decision about assessment and
can be further divided into restricted evaluation of students. It is on this premise
response essay test and extended response that this study was conceived to investigate
essay test and objective tests which can be the relationship between teachers’ factors
further divided into short-answered tests, and assessment knowledge of test items
alternative choice tests, matching items and formats amongst teachers in Lagos state.
multiple-choice test. No matter which This study answered the following research
format a test exists, the main purpose of the questions:
test is to measure the learning outcome and 1. What is the extent of knowledge of
level of objective attain in the curriculum tests items format among teachers?
(Eneja & Ikeh, 2016). Also in consideration 2. What is the relationship between
of the increase in student’s population in academic qualification and extent of
schools today, objective test items which knowledge of tests items construction,
include Multiple Choice (MC) and administration and scoring among
alternative choice tests became very useful teachers?
and expedient as assessment techniques and
146
3. What is the relationship between years were drawn from each of the two schools
of teaching experience and extent of selected for participation from each
knowledge of tests items construction, Education District involved in the study.
administration and scoring among The stratified random sampling technique
teachers? was used in drawing respondents to
4. What is the relationship between participate in the study. Stratification was
gender and extent of knowledge of based on Education District.
tests items construction, A self-developed questionnaire
administration and scoring among named “Test Items Assessment
teachers? Questionnaire (TIAQ) was used for data
collection in this study. This questionnaire
Research Hypotheses consisted of two sections. Section A was
The research hypotheses of this study are: designed to elicit information on the
1. There is no significant difference demographic characteristics of respondents
between male and female teachers’ such as gender, age, school type,
extent of knowledge of tests items educational qualifications, work
construction, administration and experience. Section B consists of 25 items
scoring. designed to obtain information on
2. There is no significant difference knowledge of test items formats among
between academic qualification and teachers in the two districts. This section
extent of knowledge of tests items was developed on a four-point Likert scale.
construction, administration and This required the respondents to tick one of
scoring among teachers. the alternatives below to express their
3. There is no significant difference opinion on each item. Strongly Agree (SA)
between years of teaching experience Agree (A) Disagree (D) Strongly Disagree
and extent of knowledge of tests items (SD).
construction, administration and Data collected were analyzed using
scoring among teachers. descriptive statistics of frequency counts,
Methodology mean and standard deviation. The
The descriptive research design was hypotheses were tested using Pearson
adopted in conducting this study. The Product Moment Correlation analysis.
population studied are in-service teachers
in Lagos State. Focus in this study are on
in-service teachers in Education District I
and V in Lagos State.A total of sixty
respondents were selected in all from the Results
population to participate in the study. Sixty Demographic Characteristics of the
respondents were drawn from the two Respondents
Education Districts with thirty respondents The demographic information collected are
drawn from Education District I and thirty analyzed in tables below.
from Education District V. Fifteen teachers
Table 1: Sex Distribution Percentage of Respondents

Status Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
Male 26 43.3 43.3 43.3
Valid female 34 56.7 56.7 100.0
Total 60 100.0 100.0
147
Table 1 reveals the sex status of were 34 representing 56.7%. It therefore

respondents; male teachers were 26 implies that the majority of the respondents
representing 43.3%, while female teachers are female teachers.
Table 2: Academic Qualification Distribution Percentage of Respondents

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
B.Sc 35 58.3 58.3 58.3
PGDE 15 25.0 25.0 83.3
Valid
M.Sc 10 16.7 16.7 100.0
Total 60 100.0 100.0
Table 2 reveals the academic Master’s Degree holders were 10

qualification of respondents; Bachelor’s representing 16.7%. It therefore implies
degree holders were 35 representing that the majority of the respondents are
58.3%, Postgraduate diploma in Education Bachelor’s degree holders.
holders were 15 representing 25% and
Table 3: Teaching Experience Distribution Percentage of Respondents

Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative
Percent Percent
< 1 year 6 10.0 10.0 10.0
1-5 years 12 20.0 20.0 30.0
Valid 5-10 years 17 28.3 28.3 58.3
10 years and above 25 41.7 41.7 100.0
Total 60 100.0 100.0
Table 3 reveals the teaching were 25 representing 41.7%. It therefore

experience of respondents; less than 1-year implies that the majority of the respondents
teaching experience were 6 representing have taught for 10 years and above.
10%, 1-5 years teaching experience were
12 representing 20%, 5-10 years teaching Research Question 1:
experience were 17 representing 28.3% and What is the extent of knowledge of tests
10 years and above teaching experience items format among teachers?
Table 4: Frequency counts and Percentages on Teachers’ responses on Extent of

Knowledge of Test Formats
SN ITEM SA A D SD
1 There is need to plan for a test. 43 (71.2%) 13 (22.0%) 02 (3.4%) 02 (3.4%)
2 Purpose of test must be known to 33 (55.0%) 25 (41.7%) 02 (3.4%) -
construct test items.
3 Tests are used to evaluate students’ 31 (51.7%) 26 (43.3%) 03 (05%) -
performances.
4 Every test should be standardized. 25 (40.7%) 24 (39.0%) 10 (18.6%) 01 (1.7%)
5 Test formats are determined by 25 (41.7%) 32 (53.3%) 02 (3.3%) 01 (1.7%)
subject objectives.
6 Tests administration should be time 27 (45.0%) 30 (50.0%) 03 (5.0%) -
bound.
148
7 Criteria for satisfactory performance 17 (28.3%) 39 (65.0%) 04 (6.7%) -

should be set for every test.
8 Table of specification should be 15 (25.4%) 28 (45.8%) 16 (27.1%) 01 (1.7%)
constructed before every test.
9 Objective tests cover a wide range of 27 (45.0%) 25 (41.7%) 06 (10%) 02 (3.3%)
instructional objectives & contents.
10 Objective tests are standardized tests. 22 (36.7%) 26 (43.3%) 10 (17.7%) 02 (3.3%)
11 Objective test does not measure self- 19 (31.7%) 26 (43.3%) 10 (16.7%) 05 (8.3%)
expression.
12 Essay tests measure deep knowledge 35 (58.3%) 19 (31.7%) 05 (8.3%) 01 (1.7%)
of course content.
13 Essay tests measure problem solving 31 (50.8%) 21 (35.6%) 08 (13.6%) -
ability & originality of students.
14 Administration time of essay tests is 14 (23.3%) 28 (46.7%) 17 (28.3%) 01 (1.7%)
long.
15 Students do better in essay tests than 15 (25%) 10 (16.7%) 30 (50%) 05 (8.3%)
objective tests.
16 Practical tests measures apparatus 34 (57.4%) 23 (37%) 03 (5.6%) -
handling skills.
17 Practical tests are easy to score 18 (30.2%) 29 (49.1%) 09 (15.1%) 04 (5.7%)
without prejudice.
18 Oral test is fair to everyone. 10 (18.5%) 22 (35.2%) 22 (35.2%) 06 (11.1%)
19 Oral test scoring is reliable. 10 (18.9%) 14 (24.5%) 29 (43.4%) 07 (13.2%)
20 Oral test is suitable for all students. 07 (11.3%) 10 (16.7%) 30 (50.0%) 13 (22.6%)
21 Tests must be valid, reliable and 40 (68.5%) 16 (24.1%) 04 (7.4%) -
useful.
22 Non standardized tests are better at 07 (10%) 13 (18.3%) 30 (50.0%) 10 (15.0%)
evaluating students.
23 Timing of test administration should 03 (3.3%) 10 (15.0%) 30 (30.0%) 17 (26.7%)
be limitless.
24 Administration of essay tests is short. 5 (7.5%) 15 (26.4%) 31 (50.9%) 9 (15.1%)
25 Tests formats are determined by the 10 (10%) 8 (11.7%) 21 (31.7%) 21 (31.7%)
students.
The results from Table 4showed greater percentage of the senior secondary
that a higher percentage of senior secondary teachers adopted for this study area will
school teachers of this study area are not take cognizance of this principles of test
ignorant of certain principles of test construction formats.
construction formats. This implies that a
Research Question Two
To what extent is the knowledge of tests items formats among teachers based on
their gender?
Table 5: Mean and Standard deviation on gender and extent of knowledge of tests
items formats among teachers
Sex N Mean Std. Deviation
Male 26 74.62 7.93
Female 34 73.47 7.27
Table 5 shows that the male teachers had a mean score of 73.47 and a
teachers had a mean score of 74.62 and a standard deviation of 7.27.
standard deviation of 7.93, while female Hypothesis Two
149
There is no significant relationship between

gender and extents ofknowledge of tests
items formats.
Table 6: Pearson’s Product-Moment Correlation Analysis of relationship between

gender and extent ofknowledge of tests items formats.
Gender Extent of knowledge
Gender Pearson
1 -.076
Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed) .564
N 60 60
Extent of Knowledge Pearson
-.076 1
Correlation
N 60 60
Table 6 shows that there is a Research Question Three

negative negligible and insignificant To what extent is the teachers’ academic
relationship between gender and extent qualification influence their knowledge of
ofknowledge of tests items formats. tests items formats?
Therefore, the hypothesis is hereby not
rejected (r = -.076, p> 0.05).
Table 7: Mean and Standard deviation on teachers’academic qualification and

knowledge of tests items formats?
Bachelor’s
35 74.49 6.95
Degree
Master’s Degree 15 75.47 9.20
PhD 10 69.90 5.80
Total 60 73.97 7.52
Table 7 shows that teachers with score of 69.90 and a standard deviation of
bachelor’s degree had a mean score of 5.80.
74.49 and a standard deviation of 6.95, Hypothesis Three
teachers with master’s degree had a mean There is no significant relationship between
score of 75.47 and standard deviation of academic qualification and extent of
9.20, while teachers with PhD. had a mean knowledge of tests items formats
academic qualification and extent ofknowledge of tests items formats.
Qualification Test items knowledge
Qualification Pearson
1 -.173
Correlation
N 60 60
Test items knowledge Pearson
-.173 1
Correlation
N 60 60
150
Table 8 reveals that there is a tests items formats. Thus, the hypothesis is
negative negligible and insignificant not rejected (r = -.173, p> 0.05).
relationship between academic Research Question Four
qualification and extent ofknowledge of Did years of teaching experience influence
teachers’ knowledge of tests items formats?
Table 9: Mean and Standard deviation showing the years of teaching experience and
teachers’ knowledge of tests items formats.
Less than 1 year 6 73.83 9.28
1-5 years 12 76.25 6.48
5-10 years 17 73.65 7.25
10 years & above 25 73.12 7.97
Total 60 73.97 7.52
Table 9 shows that teachers with with 10 years & above experience had a
Less than 1-year experience had a mean of mean score of 73.12 and standard deviation
73.83 and a standard deviation of 9.28, of 7.97
teachers with 1-5 years’ experience had a
mean score of 76.25 and standard deviation Hypothesis Four
of 6.48, teachers with 5-10 years’ There will be no significant relationship
experience had a mean score of 73.65 and between years of teaching experience and
standard deviation of 7.25 and teachers extent of knowledge of tests items formats

teaching experience and extent ofknowledge of tests items formats
Teaching Test items
Experience knowledge
Teaching Experience Pearson
1 -.104
Correlation
N 60 60
Test items knowledge Pearson
-.104 1
Correlation
N 60 60
Table 10 reveals that there is a knowledge on setting tests using

negative negligible and insignificant standardized formats because the responses
relationship between teaching experience to items testing their knowledge showed
and extent ofknowledge of tests items that majority are knowledgeable on tests
formats. Thus, the hypothesis is not rejected items formats. This finding supports
(r = -.104, p> 0.05). Rasyidah, et. al (2020) who posited that
many variables contribute to a teacher’s
Discussion assessment knowledge and practice, that
One of the purposes of this research what the teacher experienced as a student-
is to ascertain the extent ofassessment teacher in higher education context likely
knowledge of tests items format among transformed into their knowledge of
teachers. It was revealed that the teaching, intertwining with their insights of
respondents (teachers) have good the current development in teaching and
151
learning. The studied teachers manifested experience have no significant effect on

to a large extent the assessment knowledge teachers’ knowledge on test construction.
of tests items format. This is a good The Education and training
development for the teaching and commission of Europe (2010) posited that
assessment of learning in this study area. teacher qualification is an essential factor
The results also revealed that there that provides learners with personal
is a negative negligible and insignificant fulfillment, better social skills and more
relationship between gender (r = -.076, p> diverse employment opportunities.
0.05), academic qualification (r = -.173, p> Afangideh (2011) observed that
0.05), teaching experience (r = -.104, p> professional preparation is needed by
0.05). and in-service teachers’extent science teachers in particular, through
ofknowledge of tests items formats. adequate and informed exposure to courses
This supports the findings of for teaching effectiveness as it influences
Bassey, et al (2012; 2013) who found that students’ performance. Emmah (1998)
teacher qualifications do not significantly observed that adequately exposed teachers
influence their best assessment practice. who employed probing questions, problem-
Teachers’ role in the preparation of students solving skills, discussion and feedback
to succeed in examinations cannot be during interaction performed significantly
undermined. Teachers’ qualifications in higher than teachers who lacked the
any educational system determine to a great exposure. The teacher cannot teach the
extent the quality of the system itself. It is student well, if he is not well trained and
probably for this reason that Ibukun (2009) grounded in the subject, he is teaching due
asserted that no education system can rise to poor qualification. If a teacher is not well
above the quality of its teachers in any trained, the learning process will not be
nation. effective no matter how carefully a
Teacher experience has to do with curriculum has been marked out, how
the increased awareness of diversifying detailed and scientifically accurate the
search for new ideas, new commitments textbooks, worksheets, equipment and
and new challenges. Teachers’ experience operating instructions are and how
and knowledge of subject matter are unique adequate the physical facilities are (Akpan,
qualities for teaching effectiveness 2012). Adedayo (2012) also examined the
(Etiubon and Benson, 2014). According to effects of teachers’ qualification on the
Rice (2010) the magnitude of the effect of performance of senior secondary school
teacher experience varies depending on the students in physics. The result revealed that
teacher’s level of education and the subject students taught by teachers with higher
area. He further opined that experience qualifications performed better than those
gained over time, enhances the knowledge, taught by teachers with lower qualification.
skills, and productivity of teachers. This is to say, while the academic
Experienced teachers are great asset to qualification of the teacher may influence
novice teachers who need advice, teachers’ output, the particular kind and
encouragement and continuous guidance quality of pre-service and in-service
(Etiubon and Benson, 2014). exposure he has experienced is a crucial
Ibrahim, et al (2022) findings factor for consideration. An effective, goal-
revealed that no significant difference was oriented, teaching-learning sequence
found between teachers’ knowledge of test contains clearly understood objectives,
construction formats and gender and also, productive classroom activities, and a
teachers’ level of experience. It was sufficient amount of feedback to make
concluded that gender and level of students aware of the strengths and
weaknesses of their performances.
152
assessment practices on the basic

Conclusion and Recommendations education teachers’ characteristics: A
Despite these findings, it was case study of the Cross River central
concluded that certain factors such as senatorial district. African Journal of
teachers’ gender, teaching experience and Education and Technology, (3) 1, 37 -
45.
academic qualification should not be
downplay when it comes to teaching and Education and Training commission of Europe
evaluation of learning outcomes using (2010). European Commission:
standardized tests items formats. The study Directorate General for Education and
recommends that government should keep Culture.
making provisions for teachers to attend http://euroopa.eu.int/dgs/educationcultu
workshop, seminars, and conferences on re.
assessment procedure in order to ameliorate
the failure rate associated with teacher’s Etiubon, R. U. and Benson, R. F. (2014).
Teacher Qualification and Experience as
inability to utilize a valid assessment tool in
Determinants of Quality Chemistry
learner’s evaluation. All teachers should be Education in Nigeria. Journal of
encouraged to assess students using Education and Practice, 5 (24):124-132.
standardized tests items formats.
Federal Republic of Nigeria. (2013). National
Policy on Education (4th Ed.) Abuja,
NERDC Publishers.
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154
THE ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY IN ENHANCING BILITERACY IN

INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGES AMONG NIGERIAN
UNDERGRADUATES
APATA, Stella Bolanle
Department of Arts Education, Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba-Akoko
Abstract
The demand for proficiency in international languages, such as English, French Chinese, is
increasing in Nigeria. However, traditional language learning methods have proven inadequate in
equipping Nigerian undergraduates with effective communication skills in these languages. In
response, technology has emerged as a promising tool for enhancing language learning,
particularly in developing countries like Nigeria. This paper explores the role of technology in
enhancing biliteracy in international languages among Nigerian undergraduates. The study aims to
provide insights into how technology can be effectively utilized to support language learning and
promote biliteracy skills in the Nigerian higher education context. Data for this study was obtained
through a comprehensive review of existing literature, including academic articles and relevant
publications on the topic. The analysis of these sources revealed the current landscape of technology
integration in language learning and its impact on biliteracy among Nigerian undergraduates. The
findings indicate that technology plays a crucial role in enhancing biliteracy in international
languages among Nigerian undergraduates. It offers various opportunities for language learning,
including access to online resources, language learning apps, and interactive platforms. These
technological tools provide students with engaging and immersive learning experiences, allowing
them to practice language skills in authentic contexts. Furthermore, technology enhances the
accessibility and convenience of language learning, enabling students to learn at their own pace
and overcome time and space constraints. Based on these findings, this paper advocates for the
integration of technology in language learning programmes at the institutional level, ensuring the
availability of reliable internet connectivity and necessary technological infrastructure, and the
need for training language teachers to effectively incorporate technology into their pedagogical
practices.
Keywords: Biliteracy, International languages, Language learning, Technology,
Introduction communicate effectively in international

In today's globalized world, languages. This is because traditional
proficiency in international languages is language learning methods have certain
becoming increasingly important, shortcomings. Firstly, they often prioritize
particularly for individuals seeking to grammar rules and vocabulary
advance their careers or pursue higher memorization over practical application
education opportunities. Nigeria, as a and conversational skills, hindering
multilingual and multicultural country, learners' ability to communicate effectively
recognizes the importance of language in real-life situations. Additionally, these
proficiency and has made efforts to methods do not provide sufficient exposure
incorporate language learning into its to the cultural aspects of the language,
education system. However, the traditional which are crucial for understanding cultural
methods of language learning, which rely nuances and enhancing communication.
on classroom instruction and textbooks, Moreover, traditional approaches tend to
have proven to be inadequate in providing follow a one-size-fits-all approach with
students with the necessary skills to standardized curricula, lacking flexibility to
155
accommodate different learning styles, different contexts to communicate, to learn,

paces, and individual needs. Learners may and to think critically, according to the
also face limited personalized feedback and National Council of the Teachers of
interaction opportunities, both in classroom English, (2011)
settings and self-study approaches, In addition to English, which is the
impeding their progress. To address these official language, Nigeria has over 500
issues, modern language learning indigenous languages. However, English
approaches adopt technology with its remains the language of instruction in most
interactive online platforms, mobile universities, and proficiency in the
applications, and adaptive learning language is often a requirement for
systems. These tools offer personalized admission to higher education programmes.
instruction, real-time feedback, and Additionally, French, Chinese, Spanish,
immersive experiences, providing Greek and Chinese are becoming
enhanced language learning outcomes. increasingly important in the global
Technology has been identified as a economy, and proficiency in these
promising tool for enhancing language languages can provide Nigerian students
learning, particularly in developing with a competitive edge in the global job
countries like Nigeria. It refers to the market. However, the official language of
application of scientific knowledge and the country is English, and proficiency in
tools to create, modify, and utilize various the language is essential for students
systems, processes, and products to meet seeking to advance their education or career
human needs and solve problems. It opportunities. Hence, there is the need to
encompasses a wide range of techniques, incorporate technology into language
methods, materials, and devices that enable learning among Nigerian undergraduates.
the development, production, and operation Technology has become an
of machinery, electronic systems, computer increasingly important tool in the field of
software, and other innovative solutions. biliteracy and international language
Technology has the potential to provide learning. There are a number of ways in
students with more engaging and which technology can be used to support
interactive language learning experiences, language learning, including. Technology
personalized learning opportunities, and can provide learners with access to
access to high-quality language learning authentic materials in the target language,
materials. such as movies, TV shows, music, and
On the other hand, Biliteracy refers news articles. This can help learners to
to the ability to read, write, and speak immerse themselves in the target language
fluently in two languages. In the Nigerian and culture. It can also, be used to provide
context, biliteracy is particularly important, learners with personalized instruction that
given the country's diverse linguistic is tailored towards their individual needs
landscape. According to Cummin (2000), and learning styles. This can help learners
Biliteracy is the ability to use two to progress at their own pace and to focus
languages, not just to translate but to on the areas where they need help the most.
communicate effectively in a variety of In addition, technology can be used to
contexts. Similarly, García (2009) defined facilitate communication with native
it as the ability to use two languages in speakers of the target language. This can
complementary ways, to function help learners to practice their speaking and
effectively in two cultural worlds, and to listening skills and to get feedback on their
expand one's cognitive and linguistic progress. Similarly, technology can be used
repertoire. Biliteracy is conceived also, as to provide learners with motivation to
the ability to use two or more languages in continue learning, through its interactive
156
nature. Also, it makes the students to be The theoretical framework for this
able to assess themselves and get instant study is based on the following theories:
feedback.
The Input Hypothesis: The Input
Statement of the Study Hypothesis is a theory proposed by linguist
In an increasingly globalized world, Stephen Krashen as part of his broader
proficiency in multiple languages is crucial, theory of second language acquisition
for Nigerian undergraduates. The (SLA), known as the Monitor Model.
undergraduates aspire to learn international According to the Input Hypothesis,
languages like English, French, Chinese language acquisition occurs when learners
and Spanish to gain a competitive receive comprehensible input that is
advantage in the global job market. slightly beyond their current level of
However, the existing traditional methods competence. In simpler terms, the theory
being used to teach these languages are not suggests that learners improve their
helpful, interactive and authentic to make language skills by understanding language
the acquisition of foreign Languages easy. input that is just challenging enough to push
This is because the traditional method them to the next level. This input should
dwells much on rote and memorisation contain language structures and vocabulary
learning. The limitations embedded in it that are slightly more advanced than what
include limited exposure to authentic the learner already knows.
language usage, lack of opportunities for Krashen argues that this process of
practical application, limited receiving comprehensible input allows
individualization and personalized learners to subconsciously acquire
learning, inadequate focus on listening and language rather than consciously learn it
speaking skills, among others. These have through explicit instruction. He
caused setbacks in the efforts of distinguishes between language
undergraduates at acquiring these acquisition, which is the subconscious
languages. In addition, there is no process of acquiring language skills, and
opportunity to relate with the native language learning, which involves explicit
speakers for cultural immersion. Hence, it knowledge about the language. The
is suggested that technology can be a implications of the Input Hypothesis for
valuable tool for language learning, as it language learning are significant;
offers access to high-quality international 1. Importance of Meaningful Input:
language materials, personalized learning According to Krashen, comprehensible
opportunities, and engaging interactive input should be meaningful and
experiences. Technology is also conceived interesting to the learner. It should be
to be able to address the shortcomings of presented in a context that allows
traditional language learning. Therefore, learners to understand the message
this study is aimed at investigating the role without relying heavily on translation
of technology in enhancing biliteracy in or explicit explanations.
international languages among Nigerian 2. Focus on Communication: The Input
undergraduates, as not much have been Hypothesis emphasizes the importance
done in this regard, to the best of the of communication and exposure to
researcher’s knowledge. authentic language use. Learners should
be engaged in activities that encourage
them to understand and use language in
meaningful ways, such as
Literature Review conversations, discussions, and real-life
Theoretical framework situations.
157
3. The Role of Input Modification: languages. Teachers and language learning

Teachers and language materials can professionals can use technology to help
modify input to make it more Nigerian undergraduates to develop
comprehensible for learners. This can biliteracy skills in a variety of ways. There
include the use of visual aids, gestures, are many apps which are specifically
simplified language, and contextual designed for learning and acquiring foreign
clues to support understanding. languages. Some of the popular ones
4. The Affective Filter Hypothesis: among them are;
Krashen's theory also includes the 1. Duolingo: Duolingo offers a gamified
Affective Filter Hypothesis, which approach to language learning with
suggests that factors such as motivation, interactive lessons and exercises
self-confidence, and anxiety can affect covering vocabulary, grammar,
language acquisition. A positive and listening, and speaking skills.
supportive learning environment can 2. Rosetta Stone: Rosetta Stone provides
help lower the affective filter and immersive language learning programs
enhance language acquisition. that focus on listening, speaking,
The implications of this theoretical reading, and writing skills. It
framework for language learning are that emphasizes visual and auditory
technology can be a valuable tool for learning.
language learning. Technology can provide 3. Babbel: Babbel offers interactive
learners with access to input, opportunities lessons that focus on practical
to produce output, and opportunities to conversations and vocabulary building.
interact with other learners and with native It covers various language skills and
speakers of the target language. This provides personalized learning paths.
access, opportunity, and interaction can 4. Memrise: Memrise combines spaced
help learners improve their language skills. repetition and mnemonic techniques to
For example, technology can be used to help learners memorize vocabulary. It
enhance biliteracy in international offers courses in multiple languages
languages among Nigerian undergraduates with a focus on vocabulary acquisition.
via the following ways ; Online courses can 5. HelloTalk: HelloTalk connects
provide Nigerian undergraduates with a language learners with native speakers
structured and interactive way to learn a around the world for language
new language; Apps can help Nigerian exchange. It facilitates text, voice, and
undergraduates to practise their language video chats to practice speaking and
skills on the go; Games can make language listening skills. It also offers translation,
learning fun and engaging; Virtual reality transliteration grammar correction and
can immerse Nigerian undergraduates in a others.
new language environment; and Social 6. Pimsleur: Pimsleur offers audio-based
media can provide Nigerian undergraduates language learning programme that
with opportunities to interact with other focus on conversational skills. It
learners and with native speakers of the emphasizes listening and speaking
target language. practice through repetition and
interactive exercises.
7. Lingodeer: Lingodeer provides
Technological tools for foreign language comprehensive language courses with
learning and their effectiveness interactive lessons, grammar
Technology can be a valuable tool explanations, vocabulary exercises, and
for Nigerian undergraduates who are audio recordings. They offer lessons in
interested in learning international languages such as Japanese, Korean,
158
Chinese and Vietnamese, with language learning outcomes, particularly in

provision for interactive lessons and terms of reading and writing skills.
games. Significantly, technology has been
8. Busuu: Busuu offers interactive found to be very beneficial to the
language courses covering vocabulary, educational wellbeing of both students and
grammar, writing, and speaking skills. their teachers in the actualization of the
It includes personalized study plans and teaching-learning goals, both within the
feedback from native speakers. It offers classroom and outside of the classroom.
language courses in 12 languages, Technology has the potential to overcome
featuring interactive lessons and language learning barriers, such as
exercises. geographical distance, limited access to
9. Tandem: Tandem connects language language learning resources, and time
learners with native speakers through constraints. This is because technological
text, voice, and video chats. It promotes devices and apps are easily accessible to the
language exchange and cultural undergraduates via different platforms,
understanding. Tandem connects users which are not limited by distance or
with native speakers from around the geographical location. Some of these
world for conversation practice and technological devices are mobile apps,
cultural exchange. Computer-Assisted Language Learning
10. Anki: Anki is a flashcard app that uses (CALL), Online language learning
spaced repetition to help learners platforms, Virtual reality (VR), Language
memorize vocabulary, phrases, and Learning Management Systems (LLMS),
grammar rules. It allows users to create etc. which can easily be accessed on their
their own flashcard decks or download mobile phones which are connected to the
pre-made ones. Drops This is a fun way internet. This makes them to be able to learn
of vocabulary-building and language- and acquire foreign languages at their own
learning app that uses visua illustrations paces and at their own convenience.
and games to help users learn new According to Levy and Stockwell
words in 42 different languages. (2006), technology has made it possible for
11. Lingvist: This is a fun app that uses AI learners to access language learning
technology to personalize language resources from anywhere in the world, at
courses to the user’s level and learning any time. This has helped to overcome
style, focusing on vocabulary and barriers to language learning by making
grammar mastery. (accessed online language learning more accessible and
www.google.com) flexible. Technology has the potential to
Numerous studies have examined influence language learning motivation.
the effectiveness of technology in According to Kim and Kwon (2012),
improving language skills. Wang, Chen, technology can increase learners'
and Liang (2011) conducted a meta- motivation by providing them with more
analysis of 46 studies that investigated the autonomy and control over their learning
impact of technology on language learning and by providing them with engaging and
outcomes. They found out that technology interactive language learning activities.
had a positive effect on language learning However, other scholars have suggested
outcomes, particularly in terms of that technology may have a negative impact
vocabulary acquisition, listening on motivation if learners become overly
comprehension, and speaking skills. reliant on technology and do not engage in
Similarly, Li and Wang (2019) conducted a face-to-face interactions with teachers and
meta-analysis of 26 studies and found that peers (Lai & Li, 2011).
technology had a significant effect on
159
Also, technology has made Empirical Reviews

language learning more accessible by Several studies have been carried
providing learners with opportunities to out in relation to the integration of
engage in language learning activities technology into language teaching and
outside the classroom. According to learning in Nigeria. Iloene, Iloene, Mbah,
Stockwell (2012), technology has made it and Mbah (2013) conducted a study to
possible for learners to access language investigate how Igbo language teachers in
learning resources and tools outside the Nigeria utilize technology for teaching the
classroom, such as language learning apps, Igbo language. The findings revealed that
podcasts, and online language courses. This there are accessible and available new
has allowed learners to continue their technologies that Igbo language teachers
language learning outside the classroom, at can utilize, and most of them demonstrate
their own pace and convenience. Similarly, competence in using these technologies.
it has provided learners with access to a The teachers displayed a positive attitude
diverse range of language learning towards incorporating computers and other
resources and tools. According to technological tools in their Igbo language
Stockwell (2012), technology made it instruction. However, the study also
possible for learners to access a wide range identified certain challenges that hinder the
of language learning resources, such as widespread use of new technologies in Igbo
online dictionaries, language learning apps, teaching, such as the absence of Igbo-
podcasts, and language exchange specific application software. In
platforms. This has allowed learners to conclusion, the study emphasizes the need
choose the resources that best suit their for interventions to enhance the integration
learning needs and preferences. of new technologies in Igbo language
Moreover, technology has made teaching, thus expanding the potential of
language learning more interactive and the Igbo language as a medium for
engaging. According to Kukulska-Hulme incorporating innovative technologies in
and Traxler (2005), technology has made it language instruction.
possible for learners to engage in According to Mhonopi, Urim,
interactive language learning activities, Onwumah, and Kasumu (2017),
such as online games, simulations, and information and communication
virtual environments. These interactive technologies (ICTs) have significantly
language learning activities have been transformed the communication landscape,
shown to improve learners' language skills revolutionizing the sharing of information
by providing them with opportunities to and promoting greater interaction among
practice their language skills in a fun-filled different societal stakeholders. In their
and engaging way. Also, technology has the study, they highlighted the ongoing
potential to make language learning more exploration by researchers regarding the
efficient. According to Warschauer and potential of ICTs in language teaching and
Matuchniak (2010), technology can help learning at tertiary institutions. The
learners to learn more efficiently by researchers asserted that ICT tools such as
providing them with immediate feedback, PowerPoint, e-conferencing, compact disks
facilitating interaction with other learners (CDs, VCDs, and DVDs), and technology-
and teachers, and promoting learner assisted distance learning can effectively
autonomy. Additionally, technology can facilitate knowledge acquisition and
help to overcome language learning language education in tertiary institutions.
barriers in order to make language learning The use of ICTs enabled teacher-student
more efficient and effective. interaction to extend beyond traditional
classrooms, creating a dynamic
160
pedagogical environment. This challenges included insufficient funding,

advancement offered promising prospects inadequate ICT facilities, lack of
for both teachers and students, as it competence among some teachers, and
enhances language teaching and learning inconsistent power supply, as well as
through diverse interactive avenues. The ineffective implementation of ICT policies
authors critically evaluated the utilization by relevant authorities. Based on their
of ICTs in language instruction at tertiary findings, the researchers recommended
institutions in Nigeria, identify limitations several measures. First, there should be
associated with this approach, and provided adequate funding for education and the
recommendations that can guide provision of sufficient ICT facilities in all
policymakers and stakeholders involved in schools across the country, regardless of the
tertiary education. It is now incumbent educational level. Additionally, they
upon teachers and students to embrace suggested the implementation of free and
these technologies and leverage them to compulsory training programmes to equip
enhance their understanding of language English language teachers with the
teaching and learning. necessary skills in utilizing ICT for
Marsida (2015) emphasized the teaching purposes. These recommendations
significance of integrating information and aim to address the identified challenges and
communication technology (ICT) in improve the application of ICT in English
foreign language teaching and learning. language instruction.
The use of ICT presented valuable In the same vein, Bećirović,
opportunities for both teachers and students Brdarević-Čeljo, & Delić (2021) conducted
to engage with the information age and a study exploring the utilization of
adapt to the globalized society. The study technology and teacher support in English
examined the benefits, advantages, and language learning as a foreign language
challenges associated with ICT (EFL) among high school students in
implementation in foreign language Bosnia and Herzegovina. The results
education. Recognizing and effectively indicated that the students had a positive
utilizing ICT in teaching posed integration experience with technology-based
challenges for our society. In Albania, the language learning (TBL), and teachers
integration of ICT in education is a priority, played a crucial role in facilitating
and incorporating ICT into language technology-based foreign language
teaching and learning has become essential learning. The study found no significant
for modernizing the education system and gender and EFL GPA differences, but it did
enhancing learning methods. The use of observe significant differences among
authentic online resources enabled students different grade levels regarding teacher
to improve their communication skills and support. Additionally, the study revealed no
connect with the culture and people significant differences in technology use
associated with the language they are based on gender and grade level, but it did
studying. find significant differences based on
Onyenweaku and Edem (2017), students' EFL GPA. These findings can be
conducted a qualitative study to examine valuable for teachers seeking to effectively
the utilization of information and integrate digital technologies into foreign
communication technology (ICT) in language instruction at the high school
teaching English language in Nigerian level. The researchers recommended
educational institutions. The study raising teachers' awareness of the support
identified various challenges that hindered required to help students enhance their self-
the integration of technological tools by directed use of technology, particularly
English language teachers. These beyond the confines of the official school
161
environment. The education system should 4. Gamification and Interactive Learning:

adapt to these advancements and Technology offers interactive and
implement necessary systemic reforms. gamified language learning experiences
However, this study is aimed at that engage learners through game
investigating the role of technology in elements, rewards, and challenges.
enhancing biliteracy skills in international Gamified language learning apps,
languages among Nigerian undergraduates. virtual reality simulations, and online
language learning communities provide
The Roles of technology in Language a motivating and immersive
learning environment for language practice.
Technology plays crucial roles in (Rankin, 2018)
language teaching and learning. The roles 5. Corpus Linguistics and Language
cut across the classroom and beyond the Analysis: Technology supports
classroom. This makes it to have a flexible language analysis through the use of
learning pace and interactive nature. Here corpora and linguistic tools. Learners
are some of the roles; can explore authentic language data,
1. Enhancing Access to Learning analyze patterns, and gain insights into
Resources: Technology provides vocabulary usage, collocations, and
learners with access to a vast array of language structures. Corpus-based tools
digital resources, including online and language analysis software aid in
courses, language learning apps, language research and learning.
interactive exercises, and multimedia (McEnery & Hardie, 2012)
content. These resources can be
accessed anytime and anywhere, Conclusion and Recommendations
allowing learners to engage with In conclusion, the study on the role
language learning materials at their of technology in enhancing biliteracy in
convenience. (Godwin –Jones, 2018). international languages among Nigerian
2. Facilitating Authentic Language Use: undergraduates has shed light on the
Technology enables learners to engage significant potential of technology in
in authentic language use through language learning and proficiency
digital communication tools. Platforms development. The research findings
such as video conferencing, social demonstrate that technology can be a
media, and language exchange websites valuable tool for promoting biliteracy skills
provide opportunities for learners to and fostering a deeper understanding of
interact with native speakers, international languages. The results of the
participate in discussions, and practice study indicate that technology offers
their language skills in real-world opportunities for interactive and engaging
contexts. (Warschauer, 2009) language learning experiences. The use of
3. Personalized Learning Experiences: various technological resources, such as
Technology allows for adaptive and online language platforms, mobile
personalized language learning applications, multimedia materials, and
experiences. Intelligent tutoring virtual learning environments, has been
systems, language learning software, found to be effective in facilitating
and online platforms can adapt to language acquisition, vocabulary
individual learner needs, track progress, expansion, and cultural understanding. The
and provide customized feedback and findings highlight the ability of technology
content based on learners' strengths and to provide authentic and immersive
weaknesses. (Chen & Heish, 2018) language experiences, enabling students to
162
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READING HABITS AND STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

IN THE ERA OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGIES
OJETUNDE, Cecilia Folasade
College of Languages and Communication Arts Education, Oto/Ijanikin,
Lagos State, Nigeria
Abstract
This study examined the reading habits of students at the tertiary level of education to determine
their level of academic performance in this era of Information and Communication Technologies
(ICTs). The data for the study were drawn from a self-designed questionnaire administered on 30
students of English in a Nigerian College of education, using purposive random sampling technique
and the academic records of the selected students in the selected English core course (ENG324
Language Testing). Three null hypotheses were formulated and tested. The data were analyzed using
descriptive and inferential statistical techniques of Chi square. The findings revealed that students’
reading habits and their academic performance are not statistically related (r=.528, N=30, P=120
tailed). Thus, there is no significant correlation between reading habits and students’ academic
performance: also, there is no significant correlation between students’ academic performance and
ICTs (r=.192, N=30, P=.310,2 tailed). However, the study found out that there is a significant
relationship between students’ reading habits and ICTs (r=.7555, N=30, P=0.59,2 tailed). This
suggests that ICTs are veritable tools for boosting students’ reading habits. Based on the findings,
students rely on e-books as their sources of information and ICTs provide impetus that motivates
students to read either for academic purposes or leisure, this is because they are constantly on the
internet. By this, reading habits are unconsciously developed and this could in turn improve their
English proficiency, and enhance their academic performance. The study therefore recommended
that students should be more educated on the importance of cultivating good reading habits and
time management both at home and in school, and be encouraged to shift their attention from social
media but concentrate on internet resources that will make them highly focused, more
knowledgeable in their fields of study, and relevant wherever they find themselves in the future.
Keywords: Reading, Reading Problems, Reading Habits, Academic Performance, Information

Communication Technologies.
Introduction decoding symbols to derive meaning. It is a

Reading is one of the language means of language acquisition,
skills that are very vital to students’ communication and sharing of information
academic performance in all and ideas. It is a complex interaction
subjects/courses across the curriculum. It is between the text and the reader shaped by
an essential tool for lifelong learning, thus, prior knowledge, experiences, and
it is termed a literacy skill. Balan, Katenga language community in which the text and
and Simon (2019) define reading as the the reader are culturally and socially
meaningful interpretation of words, phrases situated. Reading requires different types
and sentences. It is a process by which of critical thinking skills such as analyzing,
individuals can understand the words creating, imagining, evaluating and
contained in a document and make use of problem solving. The process of reading
the knowledge therein for personal growth also includes the ability to understand,
and development. Latha (2020) describes question, interpret, predict and define the
reading as the complex cognitive process of words contained in a text and give meaning
167
to the writer’s message. Reading occurs The poor reading habits of students
through the understanding of the message in tertiary institutions have been the major
contained in the reading material correctly concern of stakeholders in the field of
(Arzu and Sule, 2021). Reading is done for education for many decades even before the
different purposes, some of which include advent of the Information and
forpleasure, relaxation, leisure,information Communication Technologies. This era of
and for knowledge. It is a communication ICTs has proven to be the most
process through which information is disheartening and lamentable, considering
passed from the writer to the reader by a the attitudes of students to reading for
means of written symbols. Reading is a academic purposes and even for leisure.
goal-directed, mental and systematic They hardly have time to read any
activity which is relevant to all academic materials, be it newspapers, journals,
undertakings. As reading develops the magazines, etc even when they have every
mental skills, it follows that students will facility that can motivate them to read; both
ultimately have better academic outcomes. young and old are glued to the social media
The activities of reading are and their passion for reading is dwindling.
regarded as habits when such are repeatedly The resultant effects of this could be seen in
carried out. Reading habit is considered in students’ internal and external examination
terms of the frequency by which reading results across the different levels of
takes place. In other words, it is determined education, especially in the institution used
by the volume of the material read and the for this study. Though most of the non-
average time spent on reading .Chettri and academic activities on the internet force
Rout (2013) also submit that the volume them to read certain operational
and the extent to which materials are instructions, this cannot be compared to
learned and the maximum number of hours devoting their time to reading. Reading is a
spent reviewing and reflecting on the very important tool that could impart life
concepts determine the reading habits. time knowledge and transform lives.
Diwan, (2020) affirms that cultivating
reading habits empowers students to have Literature Review
effective meaningful study skills, acquire There have been numerous
knowledge of various study resources, and researches on Information and
effective retention capacity. He further Communication Technologies, as well as,
posits that early guzzling of reading habits any other independent studies on reading
is a fundamental aptitude important in habits in previous years. The impact of
securing knowledge which is profoundly ICTs on teaching and learning in relation to
required in the life of every learner in the digital media, mainly computers and the
academic environment. Pertinent questions internet cannot be overemphasized. ICTs
bothering every concerned scholar are: are the technologies used in this age to
How would this country survive at the convey, manipulate and store data by
dearth of passionate readers? Readers are electronic means. The misuse of the
builders; who will be the future builders if internet has been a major concern of the
our students refuse to read? How would stakeholders in the education industry as
they acquire desirable knowledge without well as parents as it is generally believed
reading? How would they successfully that students are affected by giving valuable
climb the academic ladder without reading? time to internet activities, and as such they
Is the internet a blessing to this generation don’t have time for other academic related
of students at all? These are some of the works such as reading, group work, project,
issues that agitate people’s minds when etc. In a study by Diwan (2020), it was
studies of this nature are being addressed. revealed that reading habits have important
168
impact on students’ academic performance; academic performance. While Aghadiuno

however, the major factor militating against and Onyekweodiri (2019) are of the opinion
students’ reading habits is addiction to that the major hindrances to effective
social media such as WhatsApp, Facebook, reading habits among students are social
Instagram, etc. In the same vein, Ajayi and media and peer group, Tiwari (2022)
Akole’s (2018) investigation on the effects however, averts that reading could be
of social media on reading habits of influenced by many factors such as
students of Ikere Ekiti College of Education environment, background, age, etc.
revealed that social networking distracts As there have been many studies on
students from reading. In supporting this reading habits and the Information and
finding, students nowadays, more often use Communication Technologies, the major
ICTs to increase their leisure time and have concern of the present study is the
less time to study. Hussain, Suleman, Din dwindling academic performance of
and Shafique ‘s (2017) study, however, students, especially in English. It is often
posited that ICTs positively affect said that linguistic failure is educational
students’ academic achievement and failure, hence, the need to critically
retention, as they (ICTs) are found to be examine the effect of the ICT on the reading
more compelling, effective and valuable in habits of students and proffer possible ways
teaching and learning process. These of addressing the situation.
findings are in tandem with
Ivwighreghweta & Igere’s (2014) study Objectives of the Study
which indicated that students are better The aim of this study is to find out
prepared for their examinations with the the impact of Information and
help of the internet, as e-journals and e- Communication Technologies on the
books are among the resources they mostly students’ reading habits and their academic
used. performance.
Kojo & Agyekum (2018), in their The specific objectives of the study are:
study on the effects of social media on the 1. to determine the relationship between
reading culture of students in Tamale reading habits and academic
Technical University, Ghana, revealed that performance of the students,
excessive use of social media by students 2. to examine the effect of Information
has a statistically significant impact on their and Communication Technologies on
reading culture and to an extent, their the reading habits of the students,
academic performance. It should be noted 3. to find out the relationship between
that the internet is an inseparable part of students’ academic performance and
today’s educational system; in fact, the Information and Communication
whole system depends on the internet for Technologies.
academic and administrative purposes.
The emergence of ICTs has ushered
in a new form of knowledge production and
distribution. If properly harnessed, ICTs
provide virtually immeasurable wealth of Research Hypotheses
information resources readily available and In line with the objectives of this
accessible to numerous people across the study, three null hypotheses were
globe all at the same time. In this era of formulated and tested.
Information and Communication H01: There is no significant relationship
Technologies, students’ reading habits between students’ reading habits and
could be enhanced by the use of the internet their academic performance.
which could in turn determine their level of
169
HO2: There is no significant relationship were returned. To derive useful results from
between students’ reading habits and the data, and examine the proposition of the
Information and Communication study, data from the survey were analyzed
Technologies. using descriptive and inferential statistical
HO3: There is no significant relationship techniques of chi square as mentioned
between students’ academic earlier.
performance and Information and
Communication Technologies. Table 1
Socio-Demographic Characteristics of the
Methodology Respondents
The target group for this study was Age Frequency Percent
300 level students of English in Michael 15-20 years 13 43.3
Otedola College of Primary Education, 21-25 years 16 53.3
Noforija Epe, Lagos state, Nigeria. A self- 26 years and above 1 3.4
designed questionnaire, comprising 15 Total 30 100.0
question items, was administered on Note. Field Survey, 2022
selected 30 students of English in the The table above reveals the
institution, using purposive random distribution of the students’ age. As It can
sampling technique and the academic be seen, 43% of the students were between
records of the selected students in the 15 – 20 years, 53% were between 21 -25
selected English core course (ENG 324 years and 3.4% were between 26 years and
Language Testing). The three null above. The processed data indicate that
hypotheses were tested and the data majority of the respondents covered in this
collected were analyzed using descriptive study were adults between the age range of
and inferential statistical techniques of Chi 26 and 30 years. The implication of this is
square. that high percentage of the respondents
participated in the study was relatively
young, active and physically capable of
performing time consuming tasks.
Test of Hypotheses
Results Hypotheses One: There is no significant
The data presented below is based relationship between students’ reading
on the returned questionnaire. 30 habits and their academic performance.
questionnaires were administered and all
Table2: Correlation Analysis between Students’ Reading Habits and their

Academic Performance
Variables N X SD r Significance
Reading Habits 30 20.5000 3.72086
.528 .120
Academic Performance 30 48.4333 8.38588
Note.Not significant at P>0.05
Table 2 shows that there is no performance in ENG 324 was not

significant relationship between students’ statistically related in Michael Otedola
reading habits and their academic College of Primary Education (MOCPED)
performance in ENG 324 (r=.528, N=30, in Epe Local Government Area in Lagos
P=.120,2-tailed). This implies that state.
students’ reading habits and their academic
170
Hypothesis Two: There is no significant habits and Information and Communication

relationship between students’ reading Technologies.
Table 3: Correlation Analysis between Students’ Reading Habits and Information

Communication Technology
Reading Habits 30 20.5000 3.72086 .755 .059
ICT 30 23.7000 3.04166
Note. Significant at P>0.05
Table 3 shows that there is significant Technologies are veritable tools for
correlation between students’ academic boosting students’ reading habits.
performance and Information and
Communication Technologies in ENG324 Hypothesis Three: There is no significant
(r=.755, N=.059.2-tailed). This implies that relationship between students’ academic
Information and Communication performance and Information and
Communication Technologies.
Table 4: Correlation Analysis between Students’ Academic Performance and

Information and Communication Technologies
Academic Performance 30 48.4333 8.38588 .192 .310
ICT 30 23.7000 3.04166
Note. No significant at P>0.05
Table 4 shows that there no internet on daily basis. The findings from
significant correlation between students’ the hypotheses are as follows:
academic performance and Information and The first research hypothesis
Communication Technologies in ENG predicted that there is no significant
324(r=.192, N=30, P=,.310,2 tailed). This relationship between students’ reading
implies that the relationship between habits and their academic performance. The
students’ academic performance and finding of the study revealed that there was
Information and Communication no significant relationship between
Technologies was not statistically related in students’ reading habits and their academic
Michael Otedola College of Primary performance in ENG324 in Michael
Education (MOCPED). Otedola College of Primary Education in
Epe Local Government Area of Lagos
Discussion State. The reason adduced to this finding is
Table 1 above shows the based on the fact that students’ reading
demographic representation of the habits in the era of Information and
participants used for the study. As it would Communication Technologies do not really
be recalled that the respondents were 300 determine their academic performance.
level students of English in Michael Many of them do not have specific or
Otedola College of Primary Education, regular patterns of reading due to the fact
Noforija-Epe, Lagos State, virtually all the that they spend more time in doing some
students are young adults. i.e. 15-20 years other things rather than reading, yet some
(43-3%); 21-25years (55.3%) and 26 years of them pass. Thus, their reading habits do
and above (3.4%). The implication of this is not have significant relationship with their
that majority of the participants use the academic performance. The finding of the
study corroborates Vipene, (2015) who
171
found that no significant relationship adults spend more time reaching electronic
existed between students’ reading habits materials.
and their academic performance in English The last hypothesis predicted that
Language. The finding is however at there is no significant relationship between
variance with Aghadiuno and Oyekweodiri students’ academic performance and
(2022), Egong, (2014) and Owosu-Acheaw Information and Communication
(2014) who found that reading habits help technologies. The finding of the study
to develop necessary study skills that showed that there was no significant
enhance students’ reading comprehension relationship between students’ academic
and academic performance. These performance and ICTs in the sampled
variations in findings depend on a number College. It is observed that most times,
of factors which may be environmental, students do not use the ICTs for academic
social, economic or peer pressure. purposes. They seldom go online to
The second research hypothesis download materials to be submitted when
predicted that there is no significant given assignments. Thus, the usage of the
relationship between students’ reading ICTs does not have any correlation with
habits and Information and communication their academic performance. However, if
Technologies.This finding, however, they decide to make good use of the ICTs
revealed that regular usage of the to complement the learning resources
Information and Communication provided by their teachers, their academic
Technologies enhances students’ reading performances will surely be improved. The
habits; even if for any other activities, there finding is similar to those of Agrahari and
is always every likelihood that they are Singh, (2013) who found no significant
reading something on the internet, which correlation between students’ academic
will definitely add to their reservoir of performance and Information and
knowledge in their fields of study or any Communication Technologies. However,
field that could be beneficial to them in the Okoro and Ekpo (2016) cited by Hussain,
future. The finding is in line with that of Suleman, Din and Shafique (2017)
Tiwari (2022) who reported that younger concluded that students perform well when
generation students sometimes prefer they study using ICTs compared to those
reading through the internet or access the who study via conventional strategies.
internet every day or follow up book Utilizing ICTs in carrying out academic
reviews as such opportunities can be activities, especially reading and studying,
thought of as effective means for fostering aids students in processing data better,
reading habits. Hymavathi and Babu (2018) enhances their comprehension and also
confirmed that majority of students rely on boosts their memory.
e-resources as their sources of information
and are of the opinion that printed materials Conclusion
are costlier compared to e-books. He The study revealed that students
further reported that majority of the nowadays are versed in the use of the
students agreed that e-resources could be internet for various purposes, particularly,
quickly accessed and easy to read. non- academic purposes. Thus, their
Similarly, Abdullah &Husaini (2022) frequent contact with the internet propels
submitted technologies have taken over them to read something at a given time on
human activities as people seldom visit the the internet. The use of the ICTs in the
library to use physical resources in this education sector and other fields of human
digital age, as there is increased digital endeavours is a welcome development
information, people, particularly young anywhere in the world. With this
knowledge, students should constantly
172
have the consciousness of spending students in chemistry at secondary level

appreciable time on their studies, and of CBSE and UP Board in India.
access the internet when the need calls for International journal of science and
it. Though reading habits are unconsciously research (USR). 2.(8) 126-
developed through the ICTs and this could 129.www.ijsr.net
enhance their academic performance, the Ajayi, S. O.& Akole, O. B. (2018).Impact of
conscious effort at reading is needed for social networking on reading habits of
excellent academic performance. N.C.E students of college of education,
Ikere-Ekiti, Ekiti State,
Recommendations Nigeria.International Journal of
Based on the findings, the following Research and Analytical Reviews, 4 (5),
recommendations are made: 7-13 Retrieved from
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cultivated in children right from the achievement of high school students in
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students on admission, on the use of www.oapub.org/edu.
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174
ASPECTS OF UNETHICAL PRACTICES PERPETUATED BY

UNIVERSITIES DURING NUC ACCREDITATION EXERCISES IN
NIGERIA
LOUIS Okon Akpan
Department of Educational Foundations, National Open University of Nigeria
Abstract
University institution was first introduced in 9th Century in Bologna, Italy to train high level
manpower for the society. In fact, over the years, university institutions have produced professionals
in various fields. This feat was made possible due to operational efficiency and uprightness of its
professionals. However, in recent times, particularly in Nigeria, the place has gradually become
avenue where unethical practices are perpetuated. In light of the above, the researcher was anxious
to unpack the unethical practices perpetuated by most Nigerian Universities during National
Universities Commission (NUC) accreditation. Two research questions were developed to arrive at
the findings. Additionally, qualitative method was adopted for the study. In line with qualitative
method, interpretive paradigm was deployed as lens to make sense of narrative by the participants.
Furthermore, sixty participants were purposively selected for the study. Semi structured interview
was an instrument used in gathering information from the participants. The analytical tool employed
to analyse the data was thematic analysis. Findings indicated that most universities in the country
engaged on unethical practices such as borrowing of texts, equipment and academic staff to make
up the shortfall in the departments during the accreditation exercise. Based on the findings, it is
recommended that management of universities should ensure that during NUC accreditation
exercise, funds are released to the departments and faculties to procure the necessary things needed
for the accreditation instead of resorting to unorthodox means of borrowing.
Keywords: Accreditation, National Universities Commission, perpetuated, unethical practices,

universities
Introduction the world. In fact, new innovations are

University institution the world emerging in area of hypersonic flights.
over is a place where scientific Moreso, energy weapons to space
intellectualism is generated. In fact, it is a militarisation are ongoing in universities
place where human beings enjoy the laboratories specifically in countries such
freedom to scientifically think and act as America, Russia, Britain and others.
concretely, abstractly, rationally and Furthermore, investments in battlefield
logically in order to generate new electrification techniques through electric
knowledge. It is as a result of this freedom propulsion and hydrogen fuels for military
to reason in certain ways that brought about aircraft have been invented by universities
landmark inventions and discoveries in the in America. Similarly, defense
world today. Recently, we have noticed and organisations have commissioned
still noticing great innovations and universities in America to advance research
inventions from universities in the areas of in biotechnology and nanotechnology in
agriculture, chemistry, engineering, creating self-healing armours and other
medicine and life sciences. In area of innovative equipment. These landmark
military, universities are developing more innovations and inventions are made
sophisticated and advanced defense possible on the ground that these countries
equipment to counter emerging threats in invest heavily in university education.
175
Hapompwe, AsifMahbub Karim and The researcher adopted

Kambikambi (2020) asserted that deontological ethics theory to underpin the
developed countries are called developed study. This theory is associated with
because of their willingness to exceed the philosopher known as Immanuel Kant who
budgetary benchmark of twenty-six percent posited that ethical actions follow universal
stipulated by UNESCO in university moral laws which place an injunction that
education alone. one should not lie, one should not cheat or
In Nigeria, the UNESCO steal irrespective of the circumstance. In
benchmark of 26% of national budget for other words, this theory emphasize that a
funding of education has never been met human being should follow moral rules in
since 1979.The present civil administration doing his/her duty instead of adopting
promised in different international fora that unethical practices. The proponents of
the budgetary allocation to university deontology theory such as Birnbacher
education would be increased by at least 50 (2003), Hurley (2013) argued that there are
per cent in the next few years and by about some things that should not be done even
100 per cent by 2025. However, it is though they maximize the total utility.
unfortunate that the budgetary allocation to Holyoak and Powell (2016) say that it is
this sector in 2022 and 2023fiscal years still morally wrong to adopt unethical methods
fell short of expectation. It has been in conducting business or carrying out duty
observed that the entire education sector because the risk inherent in adopting the
budgetary allocation for 2022 and 2023 unorthodox method may be catastrophic.
stood at N1.29 trillion (7.9%) and N1.79 In applying this theory in
trillion (8.8%) respectively. Based on the construction sector, Ameh and Odusami
short fall in the allocation of fund to (2010) reported that corrupt practices are
university education in Nigeria, all found in every phase of the procurement of
university institutions are unable to meet its building projects. Starting from planning
financial obligations to university and design, award of contracts,
community in particular and the nation in construction process and post construction
general. stage which include maintenance of
In spite of poor funding of completed projects, hence frequent collapse
universities by governments (states and of buildings in the country. In another vein,
federal), one striking issue which is using accounting profession to explain the
unfortunate is that during accreditation relevance of the theory, Uyar, Kuzey,
exercise by National Universities Güngörmüs and Alas (2015) argued that the
Commission (NUC), stakeholders in some ethical discourse is paramount in
universities in their bid to ensure full accounting profession, because it guides
accreditation of their various programmes against wastage and embezzlement of
do engage in unethical practices. It is based funds. The theory is borrowed and adapted
on this background that study seeks to in education to tease out challenges it would
unravel unethical practices perpetuated by play out in education sector. Based on the
most Nigerian Universities during NUC above discourse, deontology theory is
accreditation. In other words, questions that relevant since it is use in teasing out the
guided the study are: What are the unethical unethical practices perpetuated in
practices perpetuated by universities during university community by key stakeholders.
NUC accreditation exercise.? Secondly,
how could these unethical practices be Literature Review
eradicated? NCU Accreditation of Universities
Accreditation as conceptualised by
Theoretical Framework Reyes et al. (2008) involves procedure by
176
which creditability is given by an external attain an aggregate score of not less than
body to a 60%. A programme with a total score above
programme/department/institution when 70% but less than 70% in any of the
the programme outcome is compared with indicated four core areas is awarded Interim
the attributes and objectives using available status which could be rectified for a period
evidences. Javed et al (2009) averred that of not more than two academic sessions.
accreditation involves an evaluation and Denied accreditation is granted to any
assessment of undergraduate and academic programme which has failed to
postgraduate programs offered by satisfy the minimum academic standard. It
universities and other educational is applied to programmes with less than
providers, through a well-defined, peer 60% aggregate score. Therefore,
review process in which endorsements universities always aimed at full
based on broadly designated parameters accreditation without necessarily putting
and criteria are rendered. In Nigeria, it is the required things in place, hence resulting
mandatory that in every five years, each to unethical means. Ekpoh and Edet (2017)
department in university should go through reported that key stakeholders in university
accreditation exercise that will be community have known that when their
conducted by the NUC. Currently, NUC programme is denied, they seize to admit
has reviewed and replaced the Benchmark student for the programme until the re-
Minimum Academic Standards (BMAS) accreditation is conducted and full
with Core Curriculum Minimum Academic accreditation attained. The fear of not
Standards (CCMAS). CCMAS was admitting students for those programmes
introduced in order to keep with the that were denied accreditation is the basis
mandate of making university education in for universities adopting unethical method
the country more responsive to the needs of in obtaining full accreditation.
the society and to address 21st century
realities. However, the main essence of the Unethical practices during university
accreditation exercise is to ensure that accreditation exercise
quality is maintained in the university Before now, university community
system. Furthermore, the main objective for was a place where the highest level of
the accreditation exercise is to ensure that honesty, adherence to the work ethics and
at least the minimum academic standards morality were the order of the day. In recent
are attained, maintained and enhanced in times, dishonesty, immorality and unethical
each of the universities. practices have permeated institutions of
The accreditation of programmes in higher learning (Ekpoh & Edet, 2017). The
Nigerian universities is of three categories issue of unethical practices perpetuated by
namely Full, Interim and Denied key actors in the university has been
Accreditations. Full Accreditation is examined by scholars. For instance,
granted to programme that satisfy the looking at politics of facilities’ borrowing
provision of the Minimum Academic during university accreditation, Utuka
Standard (MAS). The programme that will (2011) argued that the current situation
get FULL accreditation must have attained where a particular university borrows
minimum of 70% aggregate score as well as facilities from another during the
70% in four core areas of academic content, accreditation is a panacea for achieving
staffing, physical facilities and library. desired quality results for the time being,
Interim accreditation is granted to but an invitation to permanent damage of
programme that have minor deficiency that the university system at the long run.
should be rectified within a stipulated Similarly, Otokunefor (2013) opined that
time/period. The programme should also most institutions engage in unethical
177
practices such as borrowing books into the select eight federal and states
library and equipment into the laboratories universitiesrespectively for the study.
during programmes accreditation. The Similarly, the population of the academic
scholar went further to say that when the staff in these sixteen universities selected is
accreditation is over, those books and fifteen thousand, two hundred and three
laboratory equipment are returned and the staff (NUC, 2022). Apparently, since this
place remains the way it was. Akinyanju study is located on the realm of qualitative
(2012) asserted that the level of fraud that method, it is incumbent of the researcher to
the university environment is alarming. adopt a small sample size. The researcher
Using universities in South West of Nigeria draws from Sim, Saunders, Waterfield and
as an example, the scholar stated that three Kingstone (2018); Mocănașu (2020) who
different departments of Microbiology posited that sample size is require in
were granted full accreditation in three qualitative research because it tend to
different universities where the same 26 support in-depth study of the phenomenon
microscopes from a particular university under investigation. Additionally, small
were borrowed by two different universities sample size is often deployed in qualitative
at different timesduring accreditation. method based on Sandelowski (1995) the
Akinyanju concluded that the borrowed quality of information to be collected. In
facilities if carefully scrutinized by fact, Sandelowski (1995, p.183) reiterated
accreditation teams it will reveal the labels that “when the sample size of the study is
of the real owners. small, it provides ‘a new and richly textured
understanding of experience’ or the
Research Methodology phenomenon under enquiry.” Drawing
The research methodology adopted from these scholars’ position, the
for the study is a qualitative approach. The researcher selected five academic staff
reason for the use of qualitative approach is from each of the twelve universities making
to ensure that the researcher establish the it a total of sixty participants.
narrative and understand the phenomenon
from the views of participants (Cannella, Ethical Issue
2015). In line with the qualitative approach The study focuses on the unethical
adopted, the researcher deployed practices perpetuated by most universities
interpretive paradigm to make sense of the in Nigeria. The researcher took into
phenomenon under investigation. After all, consideration the integrity and image
Yanow and Schwartz-Shea (2011) stated universities involve on unethical practices
that interpretive researcher tries to discover if their names are mentioned. Therefore, the
reality through participant’s views, researcher finds it incumbent to maintain
background and experiences, hence its the highest-level of secrecy and
application in the study. confidentiality of the identity of the
The study focuses on federal and universities and academic staff involved in
states universities only, therefore, National the research hence the use of pseudonyms.
Universities Commission Bulletin (2022) Furthermore, consent letter was drafted and
indicated that there are forty-three and given to all participants to sign for the
forty-eight federal and states universities willingness to participate in the study.
respectively. In other words, the population
for the study is ninety-one universities in Research Instrument
all. In line with qualitative approach The research instrument used for
deployed for the study, and due to large gathering information from participants is
number of universities, the researcher semi-structured interview. Semi structured
employs purposive sampling technique to interview is a two-person conversation
178
initiated by the interviewer for the purposes Most of the participants interviewed
of obtaining research-relevant information, indicated that during NUC accreditation
and focused by him on content specified by exercise, principal officers of the university
research objectives of systemic description, directed the Heads and Deans involved in
prediction and explanation (Cohen, Manion the exercise to borrow books, journals and
& Morrison, 2017). In the light of the encyclopedias from other sister’s
position advanced by Cohen, Manion, and universities for the university. A particular
Marrison, this researcher adopted semi Professor who doubled as Head of
structured interview schedule to ensure that Department of History clearly stated that he
thick and in-depth information is gathered was forced to go to another university in a
from the participants. near-by state to borrow books and other
During actual interview section important historical artifacts during NUC
with the participants, audio recorder was accreditation exercise. This statement was
used to record verbatim the participants’ corroborated by another Head in the
narrative. Accordingto Rutakumwa, Department of Crop Science was not
Mugisha and Seeley (2019), audio reluctant to narrate how his department
recorder allows interviewer to concentrate went into Memorandum of Understanding
on the important points the interviewee is (MOU) with a particular university to use
making without worrying about jotting their farmland for practicals. The narrative
everything down, it always makes the prompted the researcher to ask, who gave
review process much easier. After the him the directive to go into MOU with
interview, the information was transcribed another university? In his response, the
and subjected to open coding. The essence Head of Department of Crop Science said:
of subjecting the data for open codingis Directive came from the chief
Khandkar (2009), Saldaña, (2013) to build principal officer of the
a descriptive, Kuckartz (2019) multi- university, who instructed the
dimensional preliminary framework for legal unit of the university to
later analysis. Saturation point (Islam & draft MOU. In fact, all the
Aldaihani, 2022) was reached after open paper works were done in the
coding was done on the data, thereafter, legal unit of the institution
themes that emerged was analysed using and signed by the parties. The
thematic analysis. document was signed, it was
only given to me for sight-
Result and Discussion seeing, retention and
Research question 1: What are the implementation.
unethical practices perpetuated by
universities during NUC accreditation In a similar circumstance, a
exercise? Professor in the Department of Fisheries
From the analysis, the themes which and Marine Ecosystem was quick to point
emerged were borrowing of books, journals out that in spite of the fact that his students
and encyclopedia, borrowing laboratory constantly use facilities of a particular
equipment, and the hurriedly recruitment of Research Institute for the study; he often
adjunct lecturers or outright borrowing borrowed the institute’s facilities during
lecturers from other universities. The NUC accreditation exercise. He went
themes are subsequently explained below. further to mention that during 2021 NUC
accreditation exercise, he borrowed almost
Books, Journals and Encyclopedias were all the facilities needed by the accreditation
Borrowed team. He concluded that immediately the
accreditation team finished their work, he
179
was forced to arrange for the return those so many attempts for the
facilities to the institute he borrowed from. management to procure the
In addition to the narrative by the Professor equipment for the department,
in the Department of Fisheries and Marine but my effort did not yield any
Ecosystem, the Dean of Faculty of fruit. I want to say that the few
Education clearly reported that the faculty equipment you have seen now
has been subjected to borrowing most of her were provided to the
facilities during NUC accreditation department by Tertiary
exercise since the establishment of the Education Trust Fund
faculty in 1992. He mentioned that even (TETFund).
successive Deans wrote various
memoranda (Memo) informing previous In a similar circumstance, a
Vice Chancellors of the need to provide Professor in Department of Agricultural
necessary books, recent journals and even Engineering lamented the poor state of the
computers in the library, but all their efforts department. He stated that the department
were in vain. He concluded by saying that lack basic farm implements for the students
“in a situation like the only option is for the to use during their practicals. He went on to
faculty to borrow continually each time state however that during practicals and
there is accreditation.” NUC accreditation, the department always
borrowed most of the equipment from the
Laboratory Equipment were Borrowed Ministry of Agriculture and Rural
The participants interviewed Development in the state capital. In quoting
revealed that aside from books, journals Professor’s words:
and encyclopedias borrowed, other The department is often at the
facilities such as laboratory facilities, mercy of Ministry of
chemicals, tractors, among others were Agriculture and Rural
solicited for from other sister universities. Development that always
A Professor who incidentally was the Head serve us from the
in Department of Chemical Engineering embarrassment. In fact, each
narrated how the university compelled the time there is NUC
department to borrow equipment such as accreditation exercise, they
planetary mixer, disperser, slurry often provided us with most
homogenizer, calendaring press, prismatic essential farm implements to
electrode punches, labcoater, multicoater showcase. The department
and rheometer. When the researcher probed expressed gratitude for the
further why the department failed to acquire assistance the ministry
the equipment in spite of its relevant in the always rendered each time we
teaching and learning process. Professor are faced for the challenges.
replied: When the researcher interrogated
The previous Heads of the Head of Department whether he likes
Department have written the idea of borrowing most farm
severally to the authority on the implements during NUC accreditation, he
need to acquire important and angrily replied;
relevant equipment for the What do you expect the
department for teaching and department to do in that
learning process to be effective, circumstance? Do you want
their efforts were fruitless. In NUC to deny us full
fact, when I assumed as the accreditation? Let me inform
Head in the department, I made you that one may loss his/her
180
job if the department is denied how the event unfold thereafter. In her
accreditation. Therefore, one response, she said:
needs to try by hook or crook to It was a humorous situation,
get full accreditation. because when a member of the
From all indications, from the above accreditation team enquired
excerpt, it is obvious that the very essence from ‘our newly imported staff’
of borrowing most of farm implements when he was employed in his
during NUC accreditation by the present university and when did
department, aside from awarded full he resign from his former
accreditation, but also ensuring that every institution, he was short of
academic staff maintained his/her job. words.
Recruitment of Adjunct Lecturers From the excerpt, it is obvious that

The participants were unanimous of even some members of the accreditation
the issue of the university sourcing for team are aware of the unethical practices
academic staff to represent the department perpetuated by most of the universities
during NUC accreditation. A senior during the accreditation exercise.
Lecturer in Faculty of Law reported that Aside from cases reported by Senior
during NUC accreditation, the university Lecturers in Faculty of Law and
goes out to look for academic staff from all Department of Philosophy, the Head in
over Nigeria to act as permanent staff of the Department of Architecture narrated that
department. He went further to say that how he inherited twelve academic staff
immediately after the accreditation since his resumption as the leader in the
exercise, these staffs usually return to the department. He went on to say that out of
university(s) that originally its came from. the twelve academic staff, four of them are
Another lecturer in the same department without doctorate degrees and they have
expressed her view this way: gone for further study, leaving six of them
The department always live a on ground to teach, conduct practicals and
borrow life since its inception. even mark scripts. Furthermore, he stated
Important recent Law Reports that he had requested for more hands, but
and professors in law are often his request did not see the light of the day.
borrowed from other However, he concluded that during NUC
universities. In fact, most times accreditation exercise, the authority would
renowned chambers in town employ adjunct lecturers for those days that
assisted the department in so the exercise lasted. When the researcher
many areas. asked him if there is a way out of this
challenge, he responded:
Additionally, a Lecturer in the What do you expect me to do as
Department of Philosophy stated that an individual? I have done all
during the last NUC accreditation exercise that I need to do as the head. I
in 2019, the department was ridiculed by have met the principal officers
the accreditation team, when they (Vice Chancellor, and Deputy
discovered that a particular senior lecturer Vice Chancellor Academic)
who was ‘imported’ few days to the over the issue of adequate
commencement of the accreditation staffing of the department, but
exercise was recognised by one of the the response was that
members of the accreditation team. The government has given the
researcher was curious to know what approval for employment. The
happen, therefore, he asked the lecturer situation is frustrating.
181
and humanities that they noticed some ugly

Research Question 2: How do these trend in the university in recent times.
unethical practices being perpetuated by Specifically, the Dean of Faculty of
universities be eradicated? Education of one institution, clearly stated
The themes which emerged from that there is evidenceof bias exhibited by
second research question indicated that the current Vice Chancellor in the
unethical practices perpetuated by distribution of instructional resources to the
universities could only be eradicated by faculties. He went to say that before he
ensuring principal officers are morally became the VC, he taught in many years in
upright and unbiased in the running of the Faculty of Natural Sciences. Therefore,
university system. as soon as he was appointed to the position
of VC, he made sure that his former faculty
Eradication of Moral Decadence in the is given priority over others in the area of
University System provision of instructional resources and
Participants interviewed were facilities. The Head in the department of
unanimous in their response as they stated Educational Foundations declared:
that principal officers must be morally The VC was busy providing
upright on the issue of adhering to the ethics staffers and other necessary
of teaching profession. According to the facilities to his former faculty,
participants, it is unfortunate and while other departments were
unacceptable to see universities being turn starved. I was usually ignored
to places where cultists, rapists and handout each time he placed a request
contractors, instead of institutions for for a particular thing by the VC.
scholarship and intellectuals. Be that as it Education and other
may, a professor in the Department of departments do not enjoy the
English Language informed the researcher administration of this VC. I am
that he frowned at the situation where of opinion that VC should
intellectuals in the universities failed to regard the all departments in
make the system work. He concluded by the University as his
saying that scholars in the universities constituency.
should be a model for other members of the
society to emulate. Similarly, another Quotation above indicated that VC
lecturer in the Department of Human has been showing some levels of
Nutrition re-emphasised that the favouritism in the distribution and
appointment of principal officers in the allocation of essential facilities to his
university should be based on certain department. In fact, it was clearly reported
criteria such as integrity, uprightness, men that VC should exhibit high sense of
and women of impeccable character and neutrality in the affairs of all departments
above all fear of God. Rather, politics has during and after NUC accreditation.
permeated university system, therefore, the
appointment of principal officers is now Discussion
based on ethnicity, linguistic affiliation, In Nigeria, all universities are
among others. Therefore, it is on this licensed by NUC to operate. Every five
ground that unethical practices flourish in years, NUC subjected every programme
the university system. run by the university to accreditation
exercise to ensure that the programme meet
Unbiased in Running University international standard. However, findings
It was reported by most lecturers revealed that instead of ensuring that the
from the faculties of education, law, arts programme to be accredited are provided
182
with all the required textbooks, local and borrowing senior academic staff from other
international journals and encyclopedias, universities in the country to stand for the
university resort to borrowing texts from department. The findings aligned with
sister universities or research institutions Nnorom’s (2021) position who reported
each time there was NUC accreditation that during NUC accreditation, some
exercise. The findings are support of Ekpoh departments fraudulently listed professors
and Edet (2017) who reported that most of other universities (without their consent)
universities received full accreditation as their staff.
through the borrowing of texts to boost Findings also indicated that
their library stock. Otokunefor (2013) had unethical practices perpetuated by
already stated that texts are brought universities can only be eradicated when
overnight to put in the department before key stakeholders in the university
accreditation and disappear immediately community maintain high degree of
after the exercise, an indication that these uprightness. In fact, participants observed
facilities have been returned to the original that any organisation where key
owners. stakeholders are corrupt, such organisation
Aside from the texts and other is wallowed in self-destruction. This
textual materials that were borrowed, finding goes to support deontology theory
findings revealed that various equipment adopted in the study which frowned at
ranging from planetary mixer, disperser, anyone from lying, cheating or stealing
slurry homogenizer, calendaring press, irrespective of the circumstance (Holyoak
prismatic electrode punches, labcoater, & Powell, 2016).
multicoater to rheometer were also
borrowed from neighbouring universities. Conclusion and Recommendations
Similarly, findings have further shown that University education in Nigeria has
most agricultural implements lacking in the been subjected to all forms of unethical
department going for the accreditation were practices such as examination malpractice,
also borrowed from the Ministry of admission racketeering, embezzlement of
Agriculture and Rural Development. funds, among others. In recent times, it was
Findings from this study is in line with observed that most departments on NUC
Oribabor’s (2008) position who stated that accreditation exercise was given full
the high accreditation scores gotten by accreditation, whereas, the situation on
many academic programmes cannot be ground did not justify it from being
justified because it is a function of awarded full accreditation. It was on that
fraudulent practices by the university. basis that the study explored the unethical
Additionally, the findings corroborated practices perpetuated by some universities
byNnorom’s (2021) assertion who stated during NUC accreditation exercise.
that during NUC accreditation, some Findings indicated that most universities in
universities lend equipment and chemicals the country engaged on unethical practices
from sister universities to satisfy such as borrowing of texts, equipment and
accreditation requirements academic staff to make up the shortfall in
It was discovered from the findings the departments during the accreditation
that during NUC accreditation, the exercise.
university management quickly Based on the findings reached, the
arrangement for adjunct lecturers for the following recommendations has been
department. It was further held that in a highlighted.
situation where these adjunct lecturers a) Management of institutions should
cannot be hurriedly employed for the ensure that during NUC accreditation
accreditation, efforts were made to towards exercise, funds should be released to the
183
departments and faculties to procure the Holyoak, K. J., & Powell, D. (2016).
necessary things needed for the Deontological coherence: A framework
accreditation instead of resorting to for commonsense moral
unorthodox means of borrowing. reasoning. Psychological
b) The accreditation team should ensure Bulletin, 142(11), 1179.
that all lecturers’ pay slips should be Hurley, P. (2013). “Deontology.” In The
placed on their files to establish the International Encyclopedia of Ethics.
authenticity of the lecturers’ claim of Edited by
being a permanent staff of the
university. Hugh LaFollette, (pp.1272–1287). Malden,
MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
Islam, M. A., & Aldaihani, F. M. F. (2022).

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185
EXPLORING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TECHNICAL

EDUCATION TEACHERS' GOAL ORIENTATION PROFILES AND
PARTICIPATION IN PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
ACTIVITIES
1
Abidemi O. SHODEINDE & 2BamideleM. EFUWAPE
1&2
Department of Industrial Technical Education
Tai Solarin University of Education, Ijagun
Abstract
This study explored the relationship between technical education teachers' goal orientation profiles
and their participation in professional development activities. The study aims to investigate the
factors influencing goal orientation among technical teachers and examine how it relates to their
engagement in professional growth opportunities. A descriptive survey research design was
adopted, and data were collected from 45 technical education teachers in colleges of education in
South West Nigeria using a questionnaire. The data were analyzed using mean, standard deviation,
Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation, and multiple regression analysis. The findings indicate that
gender has the strongest relative influence on technical teachers' goal orientation profiles, followed
by age and previous work experience, although the level of influence was not statistically significant.
However, there is a positive and strong relationship between technical education teachers' goal
orientation profiles and their participation in professional development activities, which is
statistically significant. This suggests that fostering a goal-oriented mindset among teachers could
enhance their motivation and commitment to professional growth. The findings have important
implications for educational institutions and policymakers, emphasizing the need to understand and
support teachers' goal orientation profiles in designing targeted interventions and support systems
for professional development. Further research is recommended to explore additional factors
influencing goal orientation and investigate the long-term effects of goal-oriented behavior on
teacher performance and student outcomes. Summarily, this study contributes to the understanding
of goal orientation among technical education teachers and highlights the significance of
professional development in their ongoing growth and development.
Keywords: Technical Educators, Professional Development, Gender. Age and Orientation
Introduction they are the educator, instructor, and

The duty of every Technical teachers in technical education which will
Education programme includes the impact all skills and knowledge to the
preparation of its prospective graduates for technical education students to make the
job opportunities through impartation of goal of the programme well realized. So
skills for self-reliance, gainful employment therefore, technical education students can
and to develop career related decisions and never attain any skills without the
choices in their areas of specialization. intervention of skilled technical education
Thus, National Association of State teachers.
Directors of Career Technical Education Technical education teachers are
Consortium (2012) stated that, for the goal instructor and educator who lead the
and objective of technical education to be technical education students towards
achieved, technical education teachers are acquisition of practical and applied skills as
the major factors to be consider because well as basic scientific knowledge
186
(Adeyemi & Aviomoh, 2011). Technical making the objectives of technical

education teachers are found in secondary education programme to be realized.
school, technical colleges, college of Traditional professional
education and universities. They impart development includesactivities such as
knowledge into learners in order to produce short workshops, conferences, seminal
competent workers who are capable of while non-traditional professional
developing and utilizing technologies for development activities are mentoring,
industrial and economic development. coaching, peer observation. Professional
Technical education can be regarded as a development activities of Technical
means of preparing for occupational field Education Teachers can also be through
and effective participation in the world of information acquisition from books,
work, and for the goal of technical journals, television and internet, trying out
education program to be achieved, new work methods or procedures apart
technical education teachers must be from the method been used always, to have
updated, innovative, knowledgeable and broad ways or method of teaching,
skillful, and this can be achieved when they participating in meeting inside and outside
participate in professional development the school, courses, conferences and
activities. workshop (Offenbeek, 2001). Feedback
According to Ozer and Beycioglu asking behaviour such as, asking colleague
(2010), the goal of professional for help or advice on work, seeking ideas
development is to provide opportunities for from experts also enhances the knowledge
teachers to learn and grow within the of technical education teacher for student
profession. Professional development is to benefits (Runhaar, Sanders, & yang, 2010).
strengthen individual with practical skill Decision of Technical Education teachers
that helps oneself and others (Talis, 2009). to engage in professional development
Effective professional development enables activities involves motivation that may be
the development of knowledge and skills fueled by their personal goal orientation.
needed to address technical education Runhaar et al. (2010) asserted that
students learning challenges and make goal orientation is the degree to which a
them well updated (Hershberg & Kraft, person organization focuses on tasks and
2010). Effective professional development the result of the tasks. Goal orientation is an
helps technical education teachers in their individual disposition toward development
profession and refines the instructional or validating one’s ability in achievement
strategies required to teach effectively. setting (Runhaar et al., 2010). Nitsche,
Professional development of teachers is Dickhauser, Fasching, and Dresel (2013)
critical to support the increasingly complex found that it is likely that teachers’
skills students need to learn in order to motivation to participate in professional
succeed in the 21st century (Ozer & development activities is related to their
Beycioglu, 2010). Sophisticated forms of goal orientation, which is in line with
teaching are needed to develop student achievement goal theory. The core
complex problem solving, effective assumption of the theory is that different
communication and collaboration, and self- achievement goal orientations create
direction. Professional development of different motivation system. For the most
technical education teachers is paramount part, research literature discriminates
in order to acquire more skills, knowledge among three different goal orientation,
and to be updated on new developments in which are learning goal orientation,
their profession. This will increase the performance approach goal orientation and
chances of producing students that will be performance avoidance goal orientation
self-reliant or gainfully employed, thereby
187
(Chughtai and Buckley, 2010, Runhaar et academic performance of technical

al., 2010). education students (Oshen, 2018) and
Learning goal orientation aim to widespread unemployment of technical
expand one’s own competence (Retelsdorf, education graduates (Jwasshaka & Fadila,
Butler, Streblow, & Schiefele, 2010). When 2020). Teacher quality is a significant
learning goal orientation is adopted by factor in predicting Student achievement.
technical education teacher, environment Hence, Technical Education Teacher might
cues such as positive and negative feedback not have been participating in professional
and experimenting with new ways of development activities. Hence,
working or teaching are considered relevant participating in professional development
to improve skills, and not as a judgment of activities by technical education teacher
performance. Retelsdorf et al. (2010) found would have a great influence on students’
that teachers with a learning goal academic performance, future career and
orientation invest more in their professional society at large. A Technical Education
development and more supportive towards Teacher that is updated through consistent
their students, using learning goal oriented engagement in professional development
instructional practices Performance activities will in turn produce skillful
approach goal orientation aim to students that will be able to excel in the
demonstrate own competence (Elliot& world of work. Since the participation of
McGregor, 2001). A technical education Technical Education Teachers in
teacherwith performance approach goal professional development activities has
orientation deals will be concerned with been linked to their goal orientation
showing that he can perform better than profiles, it is pertinent to establish the type
coworkers. He will also try to figure out of relationship that exist between Technical
what it takes to prove individual activities Education Teachers goal orientation
at work, and will prefer to work on projects profiles and their participation in
where he can prove his ability to others professional development activities. This
(Elliot& McGregor, 2001). Furthermore, will generate information that can be used
performance avoidance goal orientation to improve Technical Education Teacher’s
aims to avoid demonstrating own performance.
competence deficits (Parker, Martin, The following hypotheses guided
Colmar, & Liem, 2012). A technical the study:
education teacherwith performance 1. There is no significant relative
avoidance goal orientation would prefer to influence age, previous work
avoid showing low ability rather than learn experience and gender of technical
new skills. education teachers on their goal
All the different goal orientations orientation profiles.
have different impact on technical 2. There is no significant relationship
education teachers’ participation in between technical education teachers’
professional development activities. goal orientation profile and
Therefore, technical education teacher must participation in professional
be willing to purse a goal orientation that development activities.
will contribute to the achievement of the
aim of technical education, which is to
produce updated students with acquired Methodology
skills that will be self-reliant and gainfully The study adopted descriptive
employed. survey research design. The research work
In recent years, concerns have been was carried out in South West Nigeria
raised by most researchers about low which consists of six (6) states which are
188
Oyo, Osun, Ondo, Ekiti, Lagos and Ogun into two portions which are Information
State. The population for this study Acquisition of technical education teachers
comprisesall Technical Education Teachers (Offenbeek, 2001), measured with five (5)
in College of Education in South West items; and Feedback Asking Behavior of
Nigeria. There are forty-five (45) Technical Technical Education Teachers (Wong,
Education Teachers in five (5) Colleges of 2004), measured with four (4) items. The
Education that offers Technical Education participant indicated their responses
in South West region of Nigeria. Due to the regarding their participation in professional
small size of the population, all the forty- development activities on a 5-point likert
five (45) Technical Education Teachers scale ranging from 1 (Never) to 5 (Always).
constituted the sample for the study. A mean score of 3.00 or below indicates
poor participation in professional
Instrument for Data Collection development activities, while 3.00 and
The instrument used for data above signify maximum participation in
collection is titled ‘Goal Orientation and professional development activities.
Participation in Professional Development The questionnaire was validated
Activities Questionnaire (GOPPDAQ)’. three (3) experts. Cronbach alpha was used
GOPPDAQ was divided into section A to to determine the internal consistencies of
C. Section A solicited personal information the instrument, and it yielded an overall
from technical education teachers. Section reliability coefficient of 0.89. Copies of
B measured Goal Orientation of Technical questionnaires were distributed to
Education Teachers Scale (GOTETS). The Technical Education Teachers in Colleges
questionnaire was adapted from of Education in South West region of
VandeWalle (1997) with 13 items which Nigeria. The instrument was administered
are sub divided into 3 portions, which are and retrieved with the help of two research
‘Learning Goal Orientation (LGO)which assistants. Data collected for the study
was measured with five (5) items, wasanalyzed using mean, standard
Performance Approach Goal Orientation deviation, Pearson’s Product Moment
(PAGO) which was measured with four Correlation (PPMC) and multiple
items and Performance Avoidance Goal regression analysis.
Orientation (PAVGO) which was also
measured with four items. The GOTETS Results
evaluate the goal orientation profile Hypothesis 1
adopted by technical education teachers. There is no significant relative
Section C measured Participation in influence age, previous work experience
Professional Development Activities of and gender of technical education teachers
Technical Education Teachers Scale on their goal orientation profiles.
(PPDATETS) with 9 items, it was divided
Table 1: Regression analysis showing influence of age, previous work experience and
gender of technical education teachers on their goal orientation profiles
Model Unstandardized Standardized t Sig.
Coefficients Coefficients
B Std. Error Beta
(Constant) 14.587 .795 18.355 .000
189
Age .708 .370 .219 1.914 .059

Previous work experience -.518 .317 -.199 -1.634 .106
Gender .908 .551 .223 1.648 .103
Dependent variable: Goal Orientation Profiles
Table 1 shows the influence of age, orientation profile is not significant (p ˃

previous work experience and gender of 0.05). Thus, hypothesis 1 was not rejected.
technical education teachers on their goal Hence, there is no significant relative
orientation profiles. The table shows that influence age, previous work experience
gender has the strongest relative influence and gender of technical education teachers
(β= .223) on technical teachers goal on their goal orientation profiles.
orientation profile followed by age (β=
.219) and previous work experience (β= - Hypothesis 2
.199). However, the level of influence of There is no significant relationship between
age, gender and previous work experience technical education teachers’ goal
of technical education teachers on their goal orientation profile and participation in
professional development activities.
Table 2: Pearson correlation showing relationship between technical education

teachers’ goal orientation profile and participation in professional
development activities
Variables Teachers’ Goal Participation in
Orientation Professional
Profile Development Activities
Teachers’ Goal Pearson’sCorrelation 1 .526**
Orientation Sig. (2-tailed) .000
Profile N 45 45
Participation in Pearson’sCorrelation .526** 1
Professional Sig. (2-tailed) .000
Development
N 45 45
Activities
Table 2 shows the relationship participation in professional development

between technical education teachers’ goal activities.
orientation profile and participation in
professional development activities. The Results
table shows that there is a positive and 1. The study found that gender has the
strong relationship between technical strongest relative influence (β= .223) on
education teachers’ goal orientation profile technical teachers goal orientation
and participation in professional profile followed by age (β= .219) and
development activities (r = .526). The table previous work experience (β= -.199)
further revealed that the relationship but the level of influence are not
between technical education teachers’ goal significant (p ˃ 0.05).
orientation profile and participation in 2. The study found a positive and strong
professional development activities is relationship between technical
significant (p˂ 0.05). Thus, hypothesis 2 education teachers’ goal orientation
was rejected. Hence, there is a significant profile and participation in professional
relationship between technical education development activities (r = .526) and
teachers’ goal orientation profile and the relationship is significant (p ˂ 0.05).
190
growth opportunities. This finding is in line

Discussion with Retelsdorf et al. (2010) who found that
The findings of this study provide teachers with a learning goal orientation
interesting insights into the factors invest more in their professional
affecting technical teachers’ goal development and more supportive towards
orientation profile and its association with their students, using learning goal oriented
their participation in professional instructional practices.
development activities. Regarding the These findings have important
relative influence of gender, age, and implications for educational institutions
previous work experience on goal and policymakers. By understanding the
orientation, the study found that gender had factors influencing goal orientation and the
the strongest relative influence, followed by role it plays in professional development
age and previous work experience. participation, educational stakeholders can
However, it is important to note that the design targeted interventions and support
level of influence for these factors was not systems that enhance teachers’ motivation
statistically significant. This suggests that and commitment to their own professional
while these factors may have some growth. It is crucial to recognize the
association with goal orientation, their significance of goal orientation in driving
impact alone may not be strong enough to teachers' engagement and to provide
significantly shape technical teachers' goal resources and opportunities that align with
orientation profile. Additional research their specific goal orientation profiles.
may be necessary to explore other variables Further research is recommended to
that could potentially influence goal delve deeper into the factors influencing
orientation in this context. In agreement goal orientation and to explore the long-
with this study finding, Nitsche et al. (2013) term effects of goal-oriented behavior on
asserted that it is likely that teachers teacher performance and student outcomes.
motivation, based on age, gender and Additionally, examining the potential
previous work experience, to participate in moderating or mediating factors in the
professional development activities is relationship between goal orientation and
related to their goal orientation. professional development participation
On the other hand, the study could provide a more comprehensive
revealed a positive and strong relationship understanding of this complex relationship.
between technical education teachers' goal Generally, these findings contribute to the
orientation profile and their participation in broader understanding of the factors
professional development activities. This influencing goal orientation among
finding highlights the importance of having technical teachers and emphasize the
a specific goal orientation profile in importance of professional development in
motivating teachers to engage in supporting their ongoing growth and
professional development. Teachers who development.
exhibit a particular goal orientation are
more likely to actively participate in Conclusion
activities aimed at improving their In conclusion, the findings of this
professional skills and knowledge. The study reveal important insights into the
significant relationship between goal factors influencing technical teachers’ goal
orientation profile and participation in orientation profile and its relationship with
professional development suggests that participation in professional development
fostering a goal-oriented mindset among activities. While gender, age, and previous
teachers could be a valuable strategy for work experience were found to have the
promoting their engagement in professional strongest relative influence on goal
191
orientation, the level of influence was not

statistically significant. This suggests that
these factors alone may not significantly
shape technical teachers' goal orientation References
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On the other hand, a significant and technological delivery in Nigeria
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specific goal orientation profile are more Assessing the effects of organizational
likely to engage in professional identification on in-role job performance
development activities. The strength of this and learning behaviour: The mediating
relationship suggests that fostering a goal- role of learning goal orientation.
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Recommendations National Association of State Directors of

Based on the findings in the study, Career Technical Education Consortium
the following recommendations were (2012). Career or technical education
made: teachers career profile,
1. The goal orientation profile of http//:Japrofile.org/career-profile/career-
and-technical-education-teachers.
technical education teachers should be
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2. Engagement and participation in Dresel, M. (2013). Teachers'
professional development activities professional goal orientations:
should not be optional for technical Importance for further training and sick
education teachers. leave. Learning and Individual
3. The government should be in full Differences, 23, 272–278.
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193
INVESTIGATING TEACHERS’ PERCEIVED SATISFACTION AND

EFFECTIVENESS OF ICT UTILIZATION IN PUBLIC SECONDARY
SCHOOLS IN BAYELSA STATE
1GABRIEL Chibuzor Job and 2ARCHIBONG, Florence Imaobong.

1&2
National Open University of Nigeria, Abuja.
3
Federal Government College, Odi
Abstract
The pervasiveness of Information Communication Technology in all spheres of life has become a
global phenomenon. The impact of these technologies is gradually been felt in our learning
institutions, particularly in their classrooms, though in a snail speed. But the case is not the same
with the public secondary schools in Bayelsa state. This study investigated teachers’ perceived
satisfaction and effectiveness of ICT utilization in public secondary schools in Bayelsa State. The
population comprised 4015 teachers, while a sample of 803 were selected through proportional
stratified random sampling technique using 20%. A self-designed questionnaire titled, ‘Investigating
teachers’ perceived satisfaction and effectiveness of ICT utilization questionnaire’ (ITPSEIUQ) was
used. Four research questions were formulated for the study and percentage counts were used to
find solutions to the research questions. The findings of the study include that most teachers do not
have job satisfaction in general and in the effectiveness of ICT utilization particularly. The factors
ranged from poor remuneration, poor welfare package, lack of in- service training, lack of qualified
ICT teachers, non-availability of computer, and so on. Based on these findings it was recommended
that Government should grant soft loans for teachers to have their own computer, acquire computer
knowledge, provision of internet/data, regular workshops/ seminars and so on. All these should be
initiated and sustained to motivate and make teachers have job satisfaction so that they can
effectively utilize ICT.
Keywords: Teachers’ Satisfaction, Effectiveness, ICT Utilization, Secondary Schools.
Introduction Most of the expectations of workers

Organizations are established to somewhat correlate worldwide, although
accomplish specific goals and objectives there are divergent differences due to
through activities which largely dependon sociological, political and cultural
available resources. Material resources are backgrounds. However, there are similar
often viewed as the passive agents of expected aspects from a job from all global
production and it includes equipment, workers, such as good pay, good
materials, funds and facilities necessary for environment, recognition and respecting
carrying out organizational activities their human rights (Christopher, 2014).
(Okorie, 2011). Many organizations are concerned
Job satisfaction like motivation is with the concepts of motivation and job
one of the important areas in organizational satisfaction. This is so because of the belief
behaviour. While motivation is primarily that both concepts constitute the foundation
concerned with goal-oriented behaviour, for the success of any organization. It is
job satisfaction refers to the fulfillment noted that because most people spend
acquired by experiencing various job almost half of their working lives at work,
activities and rewards (Peretomode, 2013). only the most callous employer would think
Job satisfaction is a universal phenomenon. that workers’ satisfaction is unimportant. It
194
is generally believed that a happy employee is rather not yet developed. Teachers seem
is a production employee and what is good to be very conservative as far as adopting
for the company (organization) is also good modern pedagogies in teaching and
for the worker (Nwideeduh, 2014). learning and ICT has brought pedagogical
When the physiological needs innovations to classroom teachings
otherwise called need for biological (Akomolafe, 2018).
maintenance (and which are the most basic The classroom turns out to be a
of all human needs) are not available, the curious, demanding, crowded and chaotic
teachers are not only frustrated but they place where groups, individual strangers
become unproductive. Similarly, because are packed and expected to work together in
of the important role which money plays in harmony. The classroom is the main
the life of workers including teachers, some component and compartment of the
writers have regarded it as a motivator teaching-learning process that entails the
contrary to those who play down on its use of human and material resources. The
importance. Sequel to that, the non- human resources consist of students,
payment of teachers’ salaries for many teaching and non-teaching staff, all of
months in Anambra state of Nigeria in 2002 whom would have to be put in an orderly
sparked off endless strikes. Both the manner so as to facilitate teaching and
Academic Staff Union of Universities learning activities while the material
(ASUU) and the Academic Staff Union of resources constitute the material plants. The
Polytechnics (ASUP) have from time to challenges of the classroom management
time engaged both the Federal and State towards effective teaching and learning will
Governments in running battle over issues be incomplete if the demand of ICT is not
affecting their welfare. In order to motivate fully integrated into the school curriculum
the staff further, payment of sustainable at all levels of education (Anumnu, 2018).
wages and salaries is important as well as ICT is an increasingly powerful
promotion of staff which shows that his means to enhance one’s ability to learn, to
performance is recognized and this may communicate and to use one’s brains
make him work harder to justify the creatively and logically (Imison et al,
recognition (Nwideeduh, Nwabueze and 2001). ICT provides the means by which
Udoh respectively cited in Nwideeduh, one can search out vast stores of up- to-date
2014). relevant as well as archive information. It
Information Communication makes it easy for students and teachers to
Technology (ICT) is a tool to advance the get in touch with world experts in every
progress of education globally. Recent field. It gives every school the opportunity
development across the world have moved of becoming instantly recognized
much beyond the vision of using ICT as a worldwide. ICT consist of hardware,
teaching and learning aid but of re-shaping software, networks and media for
the delivery of instruction and bringing collection, storage, processing,
about changes in education. Availability of transmission and presentation of
ICT resources in Nigeria is still low, information (voice, data, text and images)
attempts to make ICT tools available meet (Isoun, 2013). The internet is a powerful
with challenges ranging from financial tool for improving the efficiency and
constraints, inadequate electricity and the quality of a wide range of public services
problem of getting technical experts to that are important for education among
handle the maintenance of ICT resources. others (The World Bank, 2002a).
Teachers’ knowledge on the use of ICT as ICT is a necessary tool for active
a tool to enhance teaching and learning and learning as it is central to the evaluation of
even to make a total re- shape of education learning outcome and classroom
195
management. For instance, ICT facilities dissatisfaction and that they are both
could be useful to prepare lesson plans, opposites. The motivators are the satisfiers
write students’ reports, store data, collect (intrinsic) which include achievement,
and analyze students’ achievement. recognition, responsibility, meaningful
Curriculum content could be enriched work, challenging jobs while hygiene
through the search in the internet by a factors are dissatisfiers (extrinsic) and
teacher or curriculum experts. Information, includes salary, working conditions,
message, skills and strategies that cannot be company policies and security. The
found in recommended school textbooks presence of hygiene factors do not
could be easily downloaded for the necessarily cause satisfaction but should be
information and academic development of present so that workers earn a living but the
students (Anumnu, 2008). real factors that propels workers are the
The use of ICT in classroom motivators–satisfiers which is intrinsic.
situations see the teacher as facilitator This theory suggests that to improve job
rather than dispenser of knowledge as the attitudes and productivity, administrators
teacher serves as guide in teaching and must recognize and attend to both set of
learning. Some of the tools of ICT characteristics. Therefore, the relationship
commonly used in classroom for between the two-factor theory and teachers’
educational purposes include laptop perceived satisfaction is that teachers need
computer, local area network (confined in a to be encouraged through challenging
particular classroom building) and the assignments, adequate pay and facilities
internet. The computer has the capacity to because once lower needs such as
put texts, graphics, pictures on screen and physiological, safety and social needs are
accept students input which can be easily met, challenging and interesting work
retrieved and analyzed. The major problem motivate employees which in variably lead
attached to ICT tools is that they are to job satisfaction.
expensive and out of reach to students
(Anumnu, 2018). Statement of the Problem
The National Policy on Education The ICT revolution as a modern
(FRN, 2004) recognizes that the quality of trend has brought about increased use of the
education depends on the quality of its computer which has placed different
teachers. This is based on the fact that demands on secondary education. Modern
teachers are responsible for the effective teaching is gradually moving from
implementation of curriculum at all levels chalkboard to various use of e-learning
of education and should have unconditional facilities like hardware, software, network
access to ICT facilities like computers, the and media for collection, storage,
internet sourcing among others. Where processing, transmission and presentation
teachers have access to a computer of their of information to achieve instructional
own, they rapidly become competent and objectives.
above all, confident in using it. However, in a situation where a
This study was anchored on teacher does not have job satisfaction based
Frederick Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory on some variables (like low pay, lack of
(1959) as cited by Wikipedia (n.d.3, p.1) in welfare package, irregular promotion and
Archibong (2014) a behavioural scientist or increment, lack of in-service training,
who proposed a two-factor theory or the lack of facilities and especially ICT, poor
motivator-hygiene theory. The theory states electricity supply, data, unfavourable
that there are certain factors in the school climate among others) one wonders
workplace that cause job satisfaction while how the teacher will truly embrace and be
a separate set of factors cause effective in the utilization of ICT in
196
secondary education. This study therefore

investigates teachers’ perceived Methodology
satisfaction and effectiveness of ICT The research design used for this
utilization in secondary schools in Bayelsa study was the correlational design
State. concerned with determining the
relationship between two variables
Purpose of the Study (teachers’ perceived satisfaction and
The general purpose of the study is to find effectiveness of ICT utilization). The study
out how satisfied and effective the Bayelsa population comprised of
State public secondary school teachers are 4015teachers.Thesample size was 803
in ICT utilization. Specifically, the study which were selected by proportional
seeks to: investigate Bayelsa state teachers’ stratified random sampling technique using
perceived job satisfaction in ICT 20%. An 18–item questionnaire titled
utilization; find out if computers are “Investigating teachers’ perceived
available in the schools under study as well satisfaction and effectiveness of ICT
as adequate power supply; whether Bayelsa utilization questionnaire (ITPSEIUQ)” was
State public secondary school teachers are used to elicit information from the
provided with data and whether the teachers respondents. The questionnaire items were
are being trained for ICT education. structured in Yes and No format. The
instrument was validated by three experts in
Research Questions the department of Educational
1. What is the level of teachers’ Management and Educational Technology.
perceived job satisfaction in ICT A reliability index of 0.64was established
utilization in Bayelsa State public using the Pearson Product Moment
secondary schools? Correlation Coefficient method. The data
2. What is the level of computer was analyzed using simple percentages.
availability for teaching in Bayelsa
State public secondary schools as well Data Analysis
as adequate power supply? The data is organized and analyzed in
3. To what extent are the Bayelsa State accordance with the research questions.
public secondary school teachers
given data for ICT education? Research question one: What is the level
4. How often do Bayelsa State public of teachers’ perceived job satisfaction in
secondary school teachers go for ICT utilization in Bayelsa State public
workshops as regards ICT education? secondary schools?
Table1: Percentage counts on the level of teachers’ perceived job satisfaction in

ICT utilization.
S/N ITEMS YES NO
(A) The level of teachers’ perceived job satisfaction
inICT utilization.
1. Are you comfortable with the fact that you are using ICT 353 (44%) 450 (56%)
to teach?
2. Is your salary always paid promptly? 382 (48%) 421(52%)
3. Do you like your condition of service or welfare? 81 (10%) 722 (90%)
4. Is your school climate (work culture) friendly? 303 (38%) 500 (62%)
Number of Teachers= 803
Research question Two: What is the level of Computer availability for teaching in Bayelsa
state public secondary schools as well as adequate power supply?
197
Table2: Percentage counts on the level of computer availability for teaching and
adequate power supply.
S/N ITEMS YES NO
(B) The level of computer availability for teaching
andadequate power supply.
5. Are you computer literate? 329 (41%) 474 (59%)
6. Do you own a personal computer? 149 (18.5%) 655 (81.5%)
7. Does your school have ICT laboratory with the latest 128 (15.9%) 676 (84.1%)
versions of computer?
8. Does your school have qualified teachers to teach ICT? 380(47%) 423(53%)
9. Is there adequate funding for ICT in your school? 137(17%) 666(83%)
10. Is there adequate power supply in your school? 95(12%) 708(88%)
Research question 3: To what extent are Bayelsa state public secondary school teachers
given data for ICT education?
Table 3: Percentage counts on the extent of data availability for ICT education.
S/N ITEMS YES NO
(C) The extent of data availability for ICT education.
11. Does your school provide you with stipend to buy data? 5 (1%) 798 (99%)
12. Are you comfortable with the modern trend of converting 185 (23%) 618 (77%)
instruction from chalkboard to online?
13. Are you mentally ready for ICT education? 249 (31%) 554 (69%)
14. Is your school compound internet friendly? 387 (48%) 416 (52%)
Research question 4: How often do Bayelsa state public secondary schools go for
workshops as regards ICT education?
Table 4: Percentage counts for the frequency of ICT workshop.

S/N ITEMS YES NO
(D) Frequency of ICT Workshop
15. Does your school always organize workshops for ICT 131 (16%) 672 (84%)
education?
16. Are you comfortable with the idea of always looking forwho 316(39%) 487(61%)
to assist you with computer?
17. Whenever workshops are organized are the instructorspatient 632(79%) 171(21%)
with you?
18. Does your school give award for best performances? 575(28%) 228(72%)
Discussion particular. This is inconformity with

The statistics from Government of Nwideeduh (2014) who posited that for the
Bayelsa State of Nigeria (2022) reveals that teacher to be productive and perform his
the total number of teachers in the state statutory duties to the best of his ability, his
public secondary schools are 4015 while welfare (like accommodation, salaries,
the schools are 2016. leave bonuses, transportation and medical
It is evident from the study that facilities etc.) must be taken seriously.
most teachers do not have job satisfaction Also, in his studies Kedaganason (in
generally and even in ICT utilization in Nwideeduh, 2014) reveals that teachers
198
who left the teaching profession to take up al (2019), Slinger and Austin (2003) in
appointment in other organizations did so Aniefiok et al(2019) which reveals that lack
because of poor conditions of service, lack of application of data processing in
of facilities and equipment to work with and handling university activities affects
the poor impression the society has on university growth. Therefore, their access
teachers. and application of data will enable the
The findings on computer institution know the direction of expanding
availability and adequate power supply are for better results. Others are the facts that
in consonance with that of Rokunzzaman’s competencies in the use of ICT entails
2006 study cited in (Aniefioketal, 2019) skills, knowledge and understanding in
which revealed that majority of personal application of ICT data, mastering
development technological institutions a range of educational paradigms that make
often experience epileptic power supply use of ICT and use of ICT as mind tolls for
which have continuously hindered the teaching and mastering arrange of
growth of ICT knowledge towards assessment paradigms that make use of
development of society. Similarly, Iji 2006 ICT. Ekpo (2012) in identifying
and Onuma 2007 respectively cited in institutional challenges in the effective
Agihand Joseph (2018) advocates that utilization of ICT opined that few teachers
computer illiteracy is now regarded as the are still scared of innovations. They are
new type of illiteracy hence the need for probably worried about their identity, tasks
teachers to acquire computer education and the impact of the change to come.
since they play a very important role in the Again, Ekpo (2012) asserts that ICT tools
development of the society. There is the (internet) are used to enhance e-learning
need for them to be computer literate so as using a network of computers to deliver
to pass on the required knowledge; all ICT content to support discussions and
tools depend heavily on steady supply of interactions. Thus, internet is the central
energy if they are to function effectively to component of the e- learning but with
perform their role insustainable myriads of other national challenges and
development. Krigbode and Tonye-Apiri internet connectivity has not been achieved
(2019) identifies lack of qualified teachers by most institutions of learning. They
to teach ICT in secondary schools. therefore, resorted to using “blended
According to them, the demand for ICT learning system”–a system that combines
learning has been tremendous and the both the traditional facet of ace learning
number of teachers who are trained to teach opportunities with online learning.
ICT cannot meet the demand. There are The findings on frequency ofICT
more students willing to be taught workshops is in congruence with Okorji,
computers kills than there are teachers to Nwogbo and Ezeugbor (2007) as cited in
transfer the skills. Okoye (2019) who found out that another
Akpotohwo, Yabrifa and Ogeibiri area of key concern is the issue of training
cited in Alfred-Jaja et al (2017) submits and retraining of teachers and
that dearth of trained teachers fore-learning, administrators for the ICT programme
lack of facilities, inadequate funding, management. With such training, there is a
inadequate infrastructure and equipment tendency for teachers to face the challenges
militate against the implementation of of ICT usage rather than resist change or
vocational and technology education in use avoidance approach in matters relating
Niger Delta University, Wilberforce Island, to ICT utilization. In essence, all hands
Bayelsa State Nigeria. must be on deck to provide ICT training for
The findings on data availability for teachers as stakeholders have enormous
ICT education is supported by Aniefiok et roles to play in their capacity building.
199
Teachers’ welfare package and

Conclusion favourable working conditions should be
ICT has come to reduce the world put in place. Awards for best performances
into a global village and with other sundry should be initiated and sustained to
benefits. For our society to remain relevant motivate and make teachers have job
in this new age, our educational system satisfaction.
must equally identify with the realities of
the time by acquiring ICT status. Although
there are some challenges like some References
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not having requisite knowledge of literacy and utilization among the
computer, lack of power supply, lack of academic and non-academic staff of
qualified ICT teachers, lack of data and Niger Delta University, Bayelsa State.
internet, not being mentally ready, lack of Nigerian Journal of Educational
fund, poor remuneration, lack of facilities, Administration and planning,8 (1) 77-
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aforementioned factors may impede Akomolafe, C. O. (2018). The use of
Information Communication
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Technology (ICT) in secondary schools
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Recommendations developing countries. Ibadan: NAEAP
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the constraints in the application of e-
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201
INFLUENCE OF SOCIAL MEDIA ON STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC

PERFORMANCE: IMPLICATION FOR COUNSELING
ABIDOYE A. B.
National Open University of Nigeria, Lagos Centre
Abstract
This study investigated the nexus between social media and student academic performance in
Educational District VI in Lagos State. The objectives of this study were to examine the relationship
between use of social media and student academic performanceand the significant difference in
students’ use of social media site by gender. The study employed a descriptive design of the survey
type. A stratified sampling technique was used to draw a sample of three hundred and fifty-five (355)
respondents of five selected schools. Hypotheses were tested using inferential statistics Pearson
Product Moment Correlation and t-test. The findings of this study showed that there is significant
relationship between Social Media and academic performance of students in Educational District
VI (correlation coefficient of r = 0.258 at a probability (P = .009) < 0.01 ); social media when used
in a positive manner helps students in gaining knowledge that enhances their academic
performance. The findings also revealed that students are more exposed to facebook site than any
other social media sites (Mean =1.1500 and Standard Deviation =.35887). The study concluded
that there is no significant difference in students’ use of social media site by gender. The study
recommended that, as the effect of social media is bi-directional, teachers and counselors should
ensure that students focus more on the positive side to improve academic performance.
Keywords: Social Media, Networking, Gender, Academic Performance, Counseling
Introduction social media (Iwamoto & Chun, 2020).

In this modern era, a subtle This growing population of social media
revolution in the area of technology has usersspendmore and more time on social
occurred which has resulted in the sudden network groupings. Similarly, Abbot
development in the world of (2017) tacitly stated that at least two hours
communication and learning process. This are spent on different social media
revolution in the communication process platforms sending messages, tweeting,
has also paved way for the spread of updating status, exchanging pictures or
internet creating a kind of communication commenting on information shared on
that links different individuals and groups. platforms.
Social media has turned into an essential Kaplan and Haenlein, (2010)
element of individuals’ lives including viewed social media as a group of internet-
students in today’s world of based applications that allow the creation
communication. Its use is growing and exchange of user generated content. To
significantly more than ever before them, social media allows users to meet old
especially in the post-pandemic era, marked and new friends, exchange ideas, images,
by a great revolution happening to the videos and audios. Social Media is also
educational systems. Recent investigations defined as websites and applications that
of using social media show that enable users to create and share content or
approximately 3 billion individuals to participate in social networking. It is the
worldwide are now communicating via collective online communications channels
202
dedicated to community based input, impactful on the younger generation than

interaction, content sharing and the older persons. Similarly, Lenhart (2007)
collaboration websites and applications observed that social media sites are now
dedicated to forums, microbiology, part of young adult’s daily activities as they
tweeting, instagram, facebook, youtube, spend at least 30minutes daily on facebook
linkedln. Owusu and Larson, (2015) noted usage.
that the influence of media depends largely In the same vein, one of the studies
on the content. The use of social media found that about half of twelve to seventeen
among students has become popular due to year olds log on daily at social networking
its usefulness in making connections with sites: 22% logged on several times per day,
friends in both school and outside the 26% once a day, 17% three to five days per
school and availing teachers and students week, 15% one or two days per week, and
the opportunity to look-up information and only 12% every week or less (Lenhart and
find it in real-time. However, Owusu et al. Madden, 2007). Nigeria is not left out as it
(2015) observed that academic was reported that Nigerians are enthusiastic
performance is increasingly being affected about the Internet, hence, 82% connect at
in today’s world due to proliferation of least once a day which suggests that a
social media channels. Social media is the minimum of two hours is spent surfing the
collection of online communication web per day (Emeka & Nyeche, 2016).
channels dedicated to community-based Social media platforms that are commonly
input, interaction, content sharing and used are Facebook, Twitter, YouTube,
collaboration. Websites and applications Wikipedia, LinkedIn.
dedicated to forums, microblogging, social According to Kaplan and Haenlein
networking, social bookmarking and social (2010), teenage students dominate social
curationare among the different types of media space worldwide, spending a
social media. The advanced and improved substantial volume of their time on the
usage of social media platforms such as internet surfing various platforms. These
Facebook has become a worldwide teenagers spend more time usually multi-
phenomenon for quite some time. Though tasking by visiting several sites and
it all started as a hobby for several computer accessing volumes of contents at the same
literates but has become a social norm and time. This is buttressed by Lenhart et al.,
existence-style for students around the (2007) that 64 per cent of teens on social
world (Nicole, 200). media have presence on one or more
In the foregoing, researchers have platforms. About 55 per cent of teenagers
also observed that Social Media have made have created a profile on social networking
information dissemination easy in the sites, 47 per cent uploaded photos, 14 per
history of human development by creating cent posted videos, with nearly all of them
platforms for people to connect and having posted an image or comment on a
communicate in such a dynamic way as we platform (Lenhart et al., 2007). Social
are witnessing today. media has become a global phenomenon,
Social media encompasses a wide becoming very central to the lives of many
range of online, word-of-mouth forums people. Incidentally, students form a major
including blogs, company-sponsored percentage of the population in almost
discussion boards and forums, moblogs every country using social media.
(sites containing digital audio, images, The issue that is generating public
movies or photographs) and social debate is whether there is a relationship
networking websites specially Facebook. between the use of social media and student
However, researchers such as Nardi (2004) academic performance. Specifically,
argued that the use of social media is more researchers have identified knowledge
203
sharing with one another and conducting to the media circulated through social
group projects more efficiently as benefits interactions.
of the use of social media in learning Students’ use of social media is on
process. Again, there is a proposition that the climax as it affects their study time,
few social media sites are more preferred by grammar, spellings, diverting their
secondary school students which have attention from their studies (Kaplan &
significant influence on their academic Haenlein, 2010).
performance. It is also argued that students’ Students spend more of their study time on
use of social media is influenced by gender. social networks than in their academic
It becomes imperative to critically undertakings and it has affected their Grade
investigate the nexus between social media Point Average (GPA).
and student academic performance in According to Nicole, (2007),
Educational District VI. students and teenagers have especially
1. Is there any relationship between recognized these social media platforms to
Social Media and academic be able to contact their peers, share
performance of students in information, reinvent their personas and
Educational District VI? showcase their social live. People around
2. Does gender influence the use of the globe have been addicted to the internet
social media? which has given rise to more students using
social media more often than before.
Research Hypotheses Nalwaand Anand (2003) observed that
The following hypotheses are those who are addicted users love to use the
generated by the researcher and were tested internet to set back their personal and
in this study: professional responsibilities in which the
H01: There is no significant relationship final outcome is poor academic
between Social Media and performance.
academic performance of students It was highlighted in the finding of
in Educational District VI Karpinski (2009) that the users of social
H02: There is no significant difference in media platforms (Facebook,
students’ use of social media site by Whatsappamong others) usually devote
gender in Educational District VI lesser time to their studies compared to non-
users and subsequently the former come out
Literature Review with lower GPAs. It was also mentioned by
Conceptual Framework Karpinski, and Duberstein (2009), that
The Concept of Social Media among the major distraction of current
Social media, which comes from the generation that social media platform (such
Latin word Socius, meaning ‘friend’ or Facebook, Whatsapp among others)
‘ally’, refers to human societies, remains a major source of distractions.
communities, or groups of persons living
together or doing things together (Merriam Social Media Sites
Webster, 2019). The word ‘‘media’’ refers The following are common social
to one of the dominant routes, means, media Sites
channels, or instruments for
communication, information-sharing, or Facebook is a popular free social
entertainment. It involves activities in networking website that allows registered
which people spend time talking to each users to create profiles, upload photos and
other, relating with people or society in video, send messages and keep in touch
general. Social media in simple term refers with friends, family and colleagues.
204
Twitter is a free microblogging service that

allows registered members to broadcast
tweets by using multiple platforms and The use of Social Media and its Impact
devices. on Academic Performance of Students
The rapid advancement of media
Google: google plus was google’s social technology has had a great impact on the
networking project designed to replicate the way people communicate on a daily basis.
way people interact offline more closely The growing dimension of the use of the
than is the case in other social networking social media among the youth of today
services. This website is no longer offered cannot be over emphasized. Over the years,
to new users and plan to shutdown social networking among students has
remaining accounts in 2019. become more and more popular. It is a way
to make connections, not only on campus
Wikipedia is a free open content online but with friends outside of school. Social
encyclopedia created through the networking is a way that helps people feel
collaborative effort of a community of users they belong to a community. Due to the
known as wikipedians. Anyone registered increased popularity of it, social
on the site can create an article for commentators are questioning whether
publication, however registration is not grades of students will not be affected by
required to edit articles. Wikipedia was how much time is spent on these sites.
founded in 2001. MehMood and Taswir, (2013) noted that
the use of technology such as internet is one
Linkedin is a social networking site of the most important factors that can
designed specifically for the business influence educational performance of
community. The goal of the site is to allow students positively or adversely. Many
registered members to establish and parents and guardians are worried that
document networks of people they know students are spending too much time on
and trust professionally. Facebook and other social media sites and
have no enough time to study. Though
Reddit is a social news website and forum parents are worried about students’
where stories are socially curated and constant use of the social media sites, many
promoted by site members. The site is students continue to utilize these sites on a
composed of hundreds of sub-communities daily basis.
known as sub-reddits. Each sub-reddit has According to Lenhart et al., (2010),
a specific topic such as technology, politics about 57% of social network users between
or music. The goal is to send well regarded the ages of 18 and 29 years old and have a
stories to the top of the sites main thread personal profile on multiple social media
page. websites. Similarly, the amount of time
spent daily on social network sites varied
Pinterest is a social curation website for greatly. However, an analysis of Lenhart et
sharing and categorizing images found al. (2010) study indicated that participants
online. Pinterest requires brief descriptions, approximately spend thirty minutes a day
but the main focus of the site is visual. socializing, mostly during the evening
Clicking on an image will take you to the hours between 9p.m to 12a.m students
original source. For example, clicking on a spent an average of forty-seven minutes a
picture of a pair of shoes might redirect day on Facebook. More than 50% of
users to a purchasing site and on image of students go on a social networking sites
blue berry pancakes might redirect to the several times a day (Choney, 2010). They
recipe. reported that 82% of students’ log into
205
Facebook several times a day. Hence, one of the most important benefits of social
younger students tended to use Facebook media is that it enhances how an individual
more frequently than older students to keep understands himself by engaging with
in touch with friends from school or from others and becoming creative through
their hometown. Many researchers such as blogging. This leads to better outcomes in
Choney (2010) study on students’ use of the their individual school work. Another
social media sites revealed a negative effect important benefit according to O’Keeffe
of the use of social media sites on students’ and Clarke-Pearson (2011) is the fact that
academic performance. Similarly, using social media gives students the
Jacobsen and Forste (2011) stated that opportunity to improve their learning, since
almost 25% of students’ time on the they have theopportunity to share
internet is spent on social networking sites knowledge with one another and conduct
(Jacobsen & Forste 2011). group projects more efficiently (O’Keeffe
In the same vein, it is argued that and Clarke-Pearson, 2011). Social media
social media users study less and generate helps students to create study groups which
lower grade. Furthermore, a study enables multicontact conversations,
conducted by Karpinski and Duberstein allowing students to share their
(2009), observed that students who use assignments. Students can also ask their
social network have significantly lower peers questions they do not understand
Grade Point Averages (GPAs) than those though it is argued that social media gives
who do not. They also mentioned that different drawbacks and opportunities that
among various unique distractions of every enable and disable possibilities of having
single generation, Facebook remains a face-to-face interaction (Naizabekoy,
major distraction of current generation. 2012).
According to Khan (2009), Facebook users
often time experience poor performance Usage of Social Media and Students’
academically. Ahn, (2010) stated that using Academic Performance
online communication has both negative The social media engages students
and positive effects, because there are and have to be examined as entrepreneurs
harmful ways in which the internet could be of understanding. The interactive character
used. They also added that nowadays, of online conditions has extended with
schools are trying their best to control how social networking which improved usage of
students use digital media on school Websites that has become a worldwide
grounds. In some schools, teachers believe phenomenon. Teens and teenagers have
that social media has a positive impact on especially recognized these internet sites to
the development of the student’s education. be able to contact their peers, share
In other schools, teachers have banned the information, reinvent their personas, and
access of social network sites, because they showcase their social lives (Nicole Ellison,
fear the student’s interaction with them, 2007). Nalwa and Anand (2003)
although, they know the positive impact recommended that addicted users prefer
social media has on the students’ education using internet setting back their personal
(Ahn, 2010). Basically, the examples of the and professional responsibilities which
media platforms the younger generation use ultimately leads to poor academic
are YouTube, to share and stream videos, performance. In the same vein, Karpinski
and Facebook to have a complete identity (2009) pointed out that social media users
online, and a network of friends. devoted lesser time to their studies in
According to O’Keeffe and Clarke- comparison to nonusers did and
Pearson (2011), there are a couple of subsequently had lower GPAs. Karpinski
benefits to social media use. They believe and Duberstein (2009) also mentioned that
206
among various unique distractions of every easily on social media. Again, teachers may
single generation, Social media remains a post on social media about class activities,
major distraction of current generation school events, homework assignments
Academic performance, which is measured which will be very useful to them.
by the examination results, is one of the
major goods of a school. According to Negative effect of Social Media on
Hoyle (1986), he argued that schools are Education
established with the aim of imparting The first major negative effect of
knowledge and skills to those who go social media that readily comes to mind is
through them and behind all this is the idea the kind of distraction to the students
of enhancing good academic performance. present in the class as teachers would not
Olubiyi (2012) noted that these days’ able to recognize who is paying attention in
students are so engrossed in the social the classroom. One of the biggest
media that they are almost 24 hours online. breakdowns of social media in education is
Even in classrooms and lectures theatres, it the privacy issues like posting personal
has been observed that some students are information on online sites. In some of the
always busy pinging, or face booking, scenario there were many in appropriate
while lectures are on. Times that ought be information posted which may lead the
channeled towards learning, academic students to the wrong side.
research and innovating have been crushed Similarly, some students are so
by the passion for meeting new friends carried away that even as they are walking
online and most times busy discussing along the highway, they keep chatting.
trivial issues. Hence, most students’ Attention has been shifted from visible to
academic suffer setback as a result of invisible friends, while important ventures
distraction from the social media. On the like study and writing are affected in the
other hand, serious students can still benefit process. The youths have made the social
from each other through the social media. media their top priority and continued to
They can exchange ideas, learning need more usage in order to feel satisfied.
materials and harvest educational This phenomenon has become a source of
information that can useful in their worry to many who believe in knowledge
academics. According to Kuppuswamy and and skill acquisition (McQuail 2008). Jeong
Shankar (2010) social network websites (2005) noted that internet addiction is
grab attention of the students and then significantly and negatively related to
diverts it towards non-educational and students’ academic performance, as well as
inappropriate actions including useless emotional attributes.
chatting. On the basis of the above
statement we can say that social networking
sites may badly affect the academic life and
learning experiences of the student. As Student’s Addictiveness to Social Media
students began to spend more time using Students engage in a variety of
the social media, they are not able to give activities on the internet, some of which
adequate time to their studies which is one may be potentially addictive (kuss and
of factors for poor academic performance. Griffiths, 2011). The mass appeal of social
Social media giveway to the students to media on the internet could be a cause for
effectively reach each other in regards to concern, particularly when attending to the
class assignments or help on homework gradual increase amount of time students
assignments. Many of the students who do spent online. Students spend more time on
not take interest consistently in class might Facebook, Twitter and other social media
feel that they can express their thoughts through smartphones that are now in
207
abundance among these youths. Many purpose or just mere waste of time they
students cannot go for two-three hours would have spent in their studies. Thus, the
without checking and updating their role of guidance and counseling in
profiles on these social networks even at the awakening desired consciousness for
detriment of other activities such as proper use of social media for educational
educational and career pursuit. gains is greatly felt in secondary schools.
Many concerned parents have Apparently, many students who are
expressed grave concern that they could addicted to social media use start losing
hardly get the attention of their children and concentration in studies and these results in
wards, as they seem to have been carried a fall in their overall academic
away by the fascinating world of social performance. Azuonwu, (2020) has
networks. consistently maintained that students need
to be guided and continuously reminded on
Social Media Use: Implication for the dark side associated with social media
Counseling use. It is on this premise that Oye (2012)
Azuonwu, (2020) noted that with so posited that counseling intervention
many social networking sites displayed on programmes will help students understand
the internet, students are tempted to how to manage their study time and prevent
abandon their homework and reading times distractions from social media.
in preference for chatting online with
friends. Similarly, Junco (2011) observed Theoretical Framework of the Study
that social media if not used properly, have The Theoretical framework for this
a negative impact on academic study is Constructivism Theory
performance. Researchers have argued that propounded by Jerome Bruner.
students’ devotion of more of their on Constructivism is a theory of learning, and
social use is detrimental to their academic the key concept of constructivism is that
performance. In another dimension, it is a learning is an active process of creating,
usual occurrence that students who are rather than acquiring, knowledge (Woo &
addictive to social media do not actively Reeves, 2007).
take part in class or group discussions.
While some students do not engage in face- Constructivism Theory
to-face communication with their Constructivism basically explains
classmates; others find it easy and that learning and understanding occurs
comfortable to taking part in online study when practices and experiments are
discussions on social media. Junco, (2011) activated and reflected upon. It promotes
argued that the school counselors can be of the usage of real-world, real-time, and
help in the area of assisting students in active techniques to create and influence
creating a balance between social media use new ways of thinking and learning.
and their studies, so that they do not get Constructivism differs, as it tends to shift
distracted while studying. He opined that the role from teacher-to-student to student-
most students lack the discipline and self- to-teacher. John Dewey, an educational
control to use more of social media for reformer, used the theory of constructivism
educational purposes such as acquiring or as one of his foundations to explain
sharing information, seeking help from learning as well as how learning occurs.
friends, classmates or teachers for Liu, Chui and Chen, (2010), reported that
clarification of doubts on academic work. there are sources outside an individual
Similarly, there is a proposition that school which give rise to experience. Learning can
counselors have a role to play in order to be derived from authentic tasks, physical
limit social media use for enjoyment actions, and thoughtful reflections. Both
208
share the common belief that classrooms and guardians are worried that students now
must be constructivist environments; spend too much time on facebook and other
however, they have overlapping views. social media sites and do not have enough
Piaget explains the learning process by time to study.
schemes, assimilation, and accommodation Owusu-Acheaw and Larson (2015)
(Driscoll, 2000). carried out a study to assess students’ use of
social media and its effect on academic
Social-Constructivism theory performance of tertiary institutions students
The Social Constructivism theory, in Ghana with a focus on Koforidua
according to Woo and Reeves, (2007), now Polytechnic students. The study revealed
validates online interaction in terms of it that majority of the respondents had mobile
being classified as a “form of meaningful phones which also had Internet facility on
learning. This is based on the learning them and had knowledge of the existence of
theory that interaction is an indispensable many media sites. The study further
ingredient in the learning process (Woo & confirmed that most of the respondents visit
Reeves, 2007). Technology, computer their social media sites using their phones
usage, and the implementation thereof are and spend between thirty minutes to three
now catalysts for learning. The hours per day. In addition, the study
constructivist’s theory is based on tasks revealed that the use of social media sites
given to students and their electronic forms had affected academic performance of the
of virtual learning, allowing students to respondents negatively and that there was
explore, implore and form conclusions direct relationship between the use of social
based on their own searching/research and media sites and academic performance
surfing activities. Constructivism also Hasnain, et al (2015) carried out a
designates that learning is ever changing research on the relationship between the use
and the students’ interpretations are derived of social media and students’ academic
by what is experienced and shared, which performance in Pakistan. The results
occurs while online using such tools. Social revealed that social media has an inverse
Constructivism and constructivism do relationship with academic performance.
differ, but they both also incorporate the The study concluded that Social media
theories of student learning and higher platform used in a positive manner helps
order thinking skills. Social constructivism, students and youth in gaining knowledge
in summary, constitutes collaborative that can be used to enhance their academic
learning through cognitive development performance
and individual efforts. E-learning is an Emeka and Nyeche, (2016) also did
indication of a structured learning a study on the impact of internet usage on
environment with individualized student academic performance of undergraduate
exploration, discipline, and self-directives. students using University of Abuja,
The theoretical thrust as it relates to social Nigeria, as a case study. Survey method
media is that social interaction and using questionnaires as the instrument for
information sharing are indispensable data collection was adopted. The result
ingredients in the learning process revealed that the use of internet is a
beneficial tool to students and enhances
Empirical Review their skills and capability which will assist
Jacobsen and Forste, (2011) found them in studies and professional life.
that the use of technology such as internet Raut and Patil (2016) carried out a
can influence educational performance of research on how social media influenced
students either positively or negatively. education sector. The study revealed
However, they observed that many parents various positive and negative impacts of
209
social media on education and students. It questionnaire was used to elicit response
also highlighted measure to minimize the from the respondents. The data collection
negative impact of social media on method for this study was specifically
students’ academic performances such as; primary source. The population of this
moderating their access to social media study comprised 3,162 Senior Students and
sites, reducing the amount of time spent on teachers in Educational District VI, Zone 1
social network sites. in Ikeja, Lagos State. The Educational
Zahid, et al (2016) did a study to District VI, Zone 1 comprised the following
determine the effect of growing use of schools: State Senior High School Ikeja,
social media sites on the academic Ikeja Senior High School, Omole Grammar
performance of the students of universities School, Grace High School Gbagada and,
and colleges. On the basis of random Engreg High School and Baptists Senior
sampling, 300 students were selected. High School, Obanikoro. Hence, the study
Questionnaire was used as the instrument is limited to Educational District VI, Ikeja
for data collection. The questionnaire in Lagos State. Thus, the sample size for
received from respondentsas analyzed with this studywas 355 students and teachers of
descriptive statistic. Results indicate that the selected schools and a stratified
social media positively affect academic sampling technique was adopted in this
performance of students. Tamayo and Dela study. However, 350 copies of
Cruz (2014) studied the relationship questionnaire were returned. Thus, data
between the use of Social Media sites and analyses were based on the number of
the Academic Performance of the students returned questionnaire. Inferential statistics
of Bachelor of Science in Information used was Pearson Product Moment
Technology at Centro Escolar University Correlation Coefficient and T-test Analysis
Malolos. The study showed that using were adopted in testing the hypothesis
Social Media impedes student’s learning
and directly affects the students’ attendance Results
at school. Hypothesis One
H01: There is no significant relationship
Methodology between Social Media and
This study adopted a descriptive academic performance of students
design of the survey type. Thus in Educational District VI
Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation Matrix showing relationship between social

media and academic performance of students.
Correlations
Social Media Academic Performance
tools of students
Social Media Tools Pearson 1 .258**
Correlation
N 350 350
210
Academic Performance of Pearson .258** 1

students Correlation
N 350 350
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
As evident on the Table, social Whatsapp 1.1826 .37842 2

media correlated strongly and significantly Twitter 2.0200 .56818 3
with academic performance of students at a Instagram 2.6900 .46482 4
correlation coefficient of r = 0.258 at a Linkedln 3.6200 .48783 5
probability (P = .009) < 0.01. Pinterest 4.5100 .65897 6
Given the above result, there is a Valid N
significant connection between the (listwise)
dependent and independent variable in this Source: Field Survey, 2023
study. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected
while the alternative hypothesis is accepted Table 4.2 shows rating of the social
with the conclusion that there is significant media platforms allocating 1 to the most
relationship between social media usage preferred and 5 to the least preferred.
and academic performance of students in Therefore, in the Table, the most preferred
Educational District VI. social media tool is facebook with
Frequency Mean (1.1500) and Standard
Hypothesis Two Deviation (.35887), followed by Whatsapp,
H0: There is no social media site that twitter. In like manner, Instagram, linkedln
students are more exposed to in and the least preferred, Pinterest. The result
Educational District VI simply means that senior secondary school
In testing this hypothesis, rating of students in Educational District VI prefer
the social media platforms available to Facebook more than any other social media
students such as twitter, Facebook, platform. Thus, we conclude that “there are
Instagram, Whatsap, Linkedln and Pinterest preferred social networking sites that
was done allocating 1 to the most preferred students are more exposed to among
and 6 to the least preferred. secondary school students in Educational
District VI. This further implies that most
of the respondents use facebook more than
any other social media.
Hence, H1is accepted with the
conclusion that ‘‘there is social media site
that students are more exposed to in
Educational District VI’’.
Rating of the following social media Hypothesis Three

platforms allocating 1 to the most H0: There is no significant difference in
preferred and 6 to the least preferred students’ use of social media site by
Mean Std. gender in Educational District VI
Deviation Data generated for this hypothesis
Facebook 1.1500 .35887 1 are tested using the independent T-test and
the results are summarized in Table below.
Table 4.7: Summary of t-test analysis of difference in students’ use of social media site
by gender in Educational District VI
211
Variable Selected No of Mean SD DF T P Remarks

Firms respondent
Social Male Significant
Media 180 2.574 .7673 179 -5.071 0.00 (p<0.05)
Female 0
170 2.963 .7514
Total 350
Use of Male 180 2.574 .7673 -5.071 0.00 Significant
Social Female 170 2.963 .7514 0 (p<0.05)
Media 169
Total 350 348
Table 4.8 above shows the result of with academic performance; Social media
independent T-test of difference in male platform used in a positive manner helps
and female usage of social media. It is students in gaining knowledge that can be
observed that the mean rating on male used to enhance their academic
students’ use of social media (Mean = performance. Result of the hypothesis two
2.574, SD= .7673), and female students use also revealed that there is social media site
of social media (Mean= 2.963, SD= .7514). that students are more exposed to in
To test for significance of difference, the Educational District VI (facebook with
data is subjected to t-test and the results Frequency Mean =1.1500 and Standard
indicate a calculated t-value (Tcal) of -5.071 Deviation =.35887), This result
as against a critical value (Ttab) of 1.960 at corroborates with Quan-Haase and Young
0.05 alpha level. Since the calculated t- (2010) finding that more students log into
value of -5.071 is less than the tabulated t- Facebook several times a day than any other
value of 1.960, we accept null hypothesis social media site. Hence, younger students
(Ho) and conclude that there is no tend to use Facebook more frequently than
significant difference in students’ use of older students to keep in touch with school
social media site by gender in Educational friends. The result of the t-test analysis 3
District VI. revealed that there is no significant
The finding revealed that there is no difference in students’ use of social media
significant difference in the level of social site by gender in Educational District VI
media use between male and female (calculated t-value (Tcal) of -5.071 as
secondary school students in Educational against a critical value (t-tab) of 1.960 at
District VI. These results simply suggest 0.05 alpha levels; -5.071 < 1.960). This
that although there is a difference in the result simply suggests that the difference in
male and female students’ use of social students’ use of social media site by gender
media, such difference is insignificant in (Male and Female) in Educational District
Educational District VI. VI is insignificant.
Discussion Conclusion and Recommendations

Result of the correlation analysis of Social media users experience
hypothesis one revealed that there is drawbacks and opportunities that
significant relationship between social distinctively enable and disable
media usage and academic performance of possibilities of having face-to-face
students in Educational District VI interaction. In addition, Facebook as a
(correlation coefficient of r = 0.258 at a learning environment has given the
probability (P = .009) < 0.01).This result is opportunity to have multiple
line with Hasnain, et al (2015) finding that representations of students voices and has
social media has an inverse relationship created an educative and aesthetic space,
212
taking into consideration the opposing side Boyd, D. M. (2008). Taken out of context:
However, Facebook’s learning American teen sociality in networked
environment has caused limitations of publics. University of California,
individuals to realize their self-interests. It Berkeley
is also revealed that students who are Choney, S. (2010). Facebook use can lower
addictive to social media often time grades by 20 percent, study says.
experience poor performance academically Retrieved, 11(7), 11-25
as they spend more time on social media
Emeka, U. J., & Nyeche, O. S. (2016) Impact
sites. Obviously, students’ use of social of Internet Usage on the Academic
media has both positive and negative Performance of Under-Graduates
implications. In spite of positive impact of Students: A case study of the University
social media on education such as exchange of Abuja, Nigeria. International Journal
of ideas and collaboration in academic of Scientific & Engineering Research, 7,
work among students without face-to-face (10), 1018 - 1029 ISSN 2229-5518
interaction, it is negatively associated with
Iwamoto D. & Chun H. (2020). The emotional
academic performance of students. As the impact of social media in higher
study established the fact that impact of education. International Journal of
social media usage on academic Higher Education 9(2)239-247
performance is bi-directional (positive and
negative influence), it is suggested that Jacobsen, W. C., &Forste, R. (2011). The wired
teachers through effective supervision and generation: Academic and social
outcomes of electronic media use among
guidance, should ensure that students focus
university students. Cyber-psychology,
more on the positive side to improve Behavior, and Social Networking, 14(5),
academic performance. As it is reported 275-280
that most of the younger students use social
networking sites mainly for socializing Junco, R. (2011). Too much face and not
activities, rather than for academic purpose, enough books: The relationship between
it is recommended that school counselors multiple indices of Facebook use and
academic performance. Retrieved from
should ensure that students understand how
https://
to manage their study time to prevent reyjunco.com/wordpress/pdf/JuncoCHB
distractions from social media. Most FacebookGrades.pdf
importantly, school counselors should be
able to educate students on the negative and Kaplan, A. M. and Haenlein, M. (2010). Users
positive influence of Social media on their of the World, Unite! The Challenges and
academic performance Opportunities of Social Media.Business
Horizons, 53 (1), 59-68.
Karpinski, (2009). A description of Facebook
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A CASE STUDY SURVEY OF STUDENTS’ PERCEPTION ON THE

USE OF MOTHER TONGUE INTERFERENCE IN THE TEACHING
AND LEARNING OFCHEMISTRY
OLADIRAN, Elizabeth Titilope and OLUDIPE, Olajumoke Shakirat

Science & Technology Education Department, Lagos State University
Abstract
This study investigated how students perceive and respond to the influence of their mother tongue
in Chemistry. Mother tongue interference involves the interpretation of Chemistry concepts through
the native language. Notwithstanding its overlooked status, understanding these students’
214
perceptions is of paramount importance. This study adopted descriptive survey research design.
Two research questions were raised and one hypothesis were formulated to guide the study. The
population for this study consisted of all science students in Education District V in Lagos State.
The samples for this study are seventy (70) chemistry students. In selecting schools for the study,
stratified sampling technique was used. The study used a self-structure questionnaire to collect data
from respondents. The results revealedthat use of a mother tongue does not interfere with the
teaching and learning of Chemistry. Also, there was significant relationship between the students’
gender and perception on the use of mother tongue interference in the teaching and learning of
Chemistry. (r= 0.35; p<0.05). The results showed that students appreciate mother tongue
interference in Chemistry as it fosters comprehension and personal relevance. Yet, translating
technical terms poses challenges. The study recommends further research to explore its impact on
learning outcomes and develop strategies to address the identified challenges.
Keywords: Mother tongue interference, mother tongue, student perceptions, chemistry.
Introduction to avoid certain topics due to their lack of

During pre-colonial Nigeria, the mastery in the subject.
Nigerian indigenous languages covered According to the findings derived
every aspect of the speech community, from previous SSCE examinations, it has
including religious, cultural, traditional, been observed that chemistry failure is
political, economic, and social domains. widespread, primarily attributed to a lack of
However, with the advent of British traders, comprehension of the subject and its related
missionaries, educators and colonialists, concepts. To address this issue, researchers
new ideas, knowledge, concepts as well as have conducted a number of studies aimed
values were introduced. Consequently, at identifying the root cause of this massive
resulting in the previously self-sufficient failure at the secondary school level, as well
indigenous language inadequate in dealing as suggesting strategies to checkmate these
with these new concepts, particularly in challenges in the teaching and learning of
formal education, canonical laws, and chemistry. This study proposes that
practices. This intrusion however led to the employing the use of students' mother
complete dominance by the British tongue can serve as an effective approach in
influence, impacting sectors that were once delivering chemistry lessons. Research has
exclusively governed by the indigenous consistently demonstrated that students
language. Since Chemistry holds great often grasp concepts more easily when they
importance as a subject taught in Senior can relate them to familiar ideas and
Secondary Schools, it enables students to experiences in their own unique way. This
comprehend the workings of the world and principle should likewise be applied to the
its contributions to enhancing the quality of study and comprehension of the intricate
life on our planet (Ware, 2011). It was aspects of chemistry as a subject.
decided that it should be included in the Scholars define the mother tongue
curricula for Senior Secondary School as an individual's native language, which
students as it often incorporates abstract they acquire and understand from an early
concepts that are pivotal for further learning age. In this study, the term mother tongue
in Chemistry and other sciences. Therefore, represents the language that a child grows
many students find Chemistry challenging, up speaking and understanding. However,
because it primarily revolves around the it is paramount to note that utilizing the
structure of matter and some Chemistry mother tongue in education also presents a
teachers in Senior Secondary Schools tend disadvantage in the form of interference.
215
The influence of the native language of the of how their native language affects
learner on his/her acquisition of the target their chemistry learning experience.
chemistry knowledge is known as mother Nelson Mandela the great freedom
tongue interference. fighter once said "If you speak to a man in
While Chemistry is known mainly a language he understands, it hits his mind.
as one of the branches of pure sciences, it is If you speak to him in his language, it
commonly regarded as a ‘central science’ touches his heart."Also, the Oxford English
by world scholars and academicians. Dictionary defines language as the primary
Ababio (2001) in his new school chemistry, method of human communication,
defined chemistry as a branch of science involving structured and conventional use
that deals with composition, structure, of words, expressed through speech,
properties and uses of matter. In doing so, writing, or gestures. It is a gift every human
he has contributed greatly towards possesses, with the mother tongue being the
interpreting chemistry by providing us with first language he/she learns. This first
a basic understanding of the concept and language is often learned from the family
improving the quality of our lives. As a which defines a person as a native speaker.
matter of fact, many job opportunities are Language is more than just a
available for students with knowledge of communication tool; it is undoubtedly a
chemistry, such opportunities or careers are significant part of our cultural heritage,
the noble teaching services, food processes, reflecting our individual culture. Therefore,
laboratory services, medicine, petroleum it is crucial for human interaction, cultural
and petrol-chemical industries, preservation, and the continuation of our
manufacturing industries, textile industry, species. Studying the language of a
mining industry, etc. But all these positions community reveals insights about their way
depend on the student that performs of life, occupation, patterns, habits, and
creditably well. interests. The mother tongue, being the first
According to Nigeria Policy on language of instruction in schools, will be
Education, Federal Republic of Nigerian an indispensable tool in all fields. Barring
and UNESCO, (2004) it, the outcome is undeniably that
"Chemistry education should intellectual pursuits may face significant
be emphasized in the obstacles.
secondary schools in terms of Chemistry, often seen as a
teaching and learning challenging subject, might become more
because Chemistry as an accessible if taught in the mother tongue.
academic discipline plays a Without this approach, students in Senior
significant role in unifying Secondary School may continue to struggle
other science subjects'’. with the subject, potentially discouraging
Therefore, the primary goal of this them from majoring in Chemistry or related
research is to investigate students’ fields. This will in turn slowdown the
viewpoints regarding the influence of their advancement of science and technology in
native language on their learning a nation.
experience in chemistry. More specifically, Therefore, the primary goal of this
its objectives include: research is to investigate students'
i. To understand how students, perceive viewpoints regarding the influence of their
the impact of their native language on native language on their learning
their chemistry education. experience in chemistry. More specifically,
ii. To investigate any correlations between its objectives include:
a student's gender and their perception i. To understand how students
perceive the impact of their native
216
language on their chemistry population studied are Secondary School

education. science students in Lagos State. Focus in
ii. To investigate any correlations this study are science (chemistry) students
between a student's gender and their in Education District V in Lagos State. A
perception of how their native total sample of seventy respondents were
language affects their chemistry selected from Senior Secondary science
learning experience. class Iin all from the population to
This research aims to explore participate in the study, using stratified
perception of students on use of mother random sampling technique was used in
tongue interference in the teaching and drawing respondents to participate in the
learning of Chemistry. study. A self-developed questionnaire was
used for data collection in this study. This
Research Questions questionnaire consisted of two sections.
The following research questions were Section A was designed to elicit
formulated to guide this study: information on the demographic
1. What is the perception of students on characteristics of respondents such as
theuse of mother tongue interference in school, class and gender. Section B
the teaching and learning of Chemistry? consisted of twelve (12) statements
2. Is there a significant relationship designed to obtain opinion of students on
between gender and students’ the use of mother tongue in teaching and
perception on the use of mother tongue learning of chemistry concepts. This
interference in the teaching and section was developed on a four-point
learningof Chemistry? Likert scale. This required the respondents
to tick one of the alternatives to express
Research Hypothesis their opinion on each item. Strongly Agree
H01: There is no significant relationship (SA), Agree (A), Disagree (D) and Strongly
between gender and the use of Disagree (SD). The data collected were
mother tongue interference in the analyzed using descriptive statistics of
teaching and learning of Chemistry. frequency counts, mean and standard
deviationand inferential statistics of
Methodology Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation to
The descriptive research design was analyse the hypothesis at 0.05 level of
adopted in conducting this study. The significance.
Results
The results are presented as follows:
Respondent’s Characteristics and Classification

Table 1: Sex of Respondents
Valid Male 37 52.8 53.0 53.0
Female 33 47.1 47.0 100.0
Total 70 99.9 100.0
Interpretation: Table 1 classifies were male while the remaining 47.0% were
respondents by sex. As revealed in the female. This implies that more male
above analysis 53.0% of the respondents respondents participated.
217
Table 2: Age of Respondents

Frequency Percent Valid percent Cumulative Percent
Valid 15years 57 81.0% 81.0 81.0
16years 12 17.0% 17.0
17years 1 1.0% 1.0
Total 70 100.0 100
Table 2 classifies the respondents This implies that respondents between the
by age group. The table shows that ages of 15 - 16 years participated more in
respondents between 15 years are 82.0%, the research study.
16years are 17.0% while 17 years are 1.0%.
Table 3: Class of Respondents

Valid SS1 70 100.0 100.0 100.0
Table 3 reveals that SSS 1 students Analysis of Research Questions

were the only ones that participated in this
study. Research Question One
RQ 1: What is the perception of students on
the use of mother tongue interference in the
teaching and learning of Chemistry?
Table 4: Mean and Standard deviation of students' perception on mother tongue

interference in the teaching and learning of Chemistry.
*ITEMS Valid mode Mean Std. dev
Teaching with students’ mother tongue makes learning easy for 70 4 2.86 .905
students.
Student understand better when taught with their mother tongue. 70 4 2.86 1.040
Lack of understanding and utilization of the mother tongue 69 4 2.43 .992
makes students reject being taught with their mother tongue.
Mother tongue interference creates retentive memory for 70 4 2.59 1.083
students.
I understand better when taught with mother tongue. 70 4 2.67 1.188
Students don’t like to be taught with mother tongue because they 70 3 2.47 .737
don’t understand the language.
Students don’t use mother tongue to communicate at home 70 4 2.80 .942
218
Some students can’t speak their mother tongue because they 70 4 2.41 1.123
don’t like to be taught in their mother tongue.
Some parents don’t relate their children with their native 70 4 2.69 1.174
language hence makes learning with their mother tongue
difficult.
Teachers can’t relate with their mother tongue due to the 70 4 2.74 1.073
different tribal system of the students to teach.
Poor usage of mother tongue affects students’ academic 70 4 2.91 1.100
performance.
Teachers' discourse in the class determines language to use in 70 4 2.86 1.067
teaching the subject.
Based on the table above, Research Question Two

“Teaching with your mother tongue makes RQ 2: Is there a significant relationship
learning easy for students and “Student with gender and students’ perception on
understands better when taught with their the use of mother tongue interference in
mother tongue” had the highest mean of learning of Chemistry?
2.86, which suggests that most students
find it easy to learn when their mother Research Hypothesis:
tongue is used."This implies that students HO1: There is no significant relationship
generally have a positive perception involving gender and the use of mother
toward using their mother tongue in the tongue interference in learning of
teaching and learning of Chemistry and it Chemistry.
does not interfere with the teaching and
learning of chemistry.
Table 6: Correlation showing the relationship between students’ gender and students’
perception towards mother tongue interference in the teaching and learning of
Chemistry in public senior secondary schools.
Variables N Mean SD R Sig. Remark
Mean of Perception 70 2.7731 .41911 .351 .003
Gender 70 .47 .503 Significant
The table above reveals that there is agrees with that of Oludipe (2017). The
a positive significant relationship between study investigated the. The researcher
gender and students' perception towards the found that the use of Yoruba language in
use of mother tongue interference in the chemistry instruction had a positive impact
teaching and learning of Chemistry. It was on students' perception of chemistry and
further revealed that the relationship was their interest in the subject. They suggested
statistically significant at (r= 0.35; p<0.05). that using the mother tongue can help to
create a more engaging and inclusive
Discussion learning environment, which can enhance
The first research question students' perception of chemistry. Also
investigated students' perception on mother agrees with the findings of Olaniyi &
tongue interference in the teaching and Akinyemi (2017). This study investigated
learning of chemistry. It was revealed that the perceptions of chemistry students in
the use of mother tongue does not interfere Nigeria regarding the use of Yoruba
with students' perception in the teaching language in chemistry instruction. The
and learning of Chemistry. This finding researchers found that most of the students
219
had positive attitudes towards the use of Furthermore, Oluwole and

Yoruba language in chemistry instruction, Fakolade (2016) found that there was a
and that this helped them to better significant relationship in the attitudes of
understand the subject matter. They male and female students towards the use of
concluded that the use of mother tongue can mother tongue interference in the teaching
enhance students' perception of the of Chemistry, with male students being
teaching and learning of chemistry. more positive towards the use of mother
The second research question tongue interference than female students. In
investigated whether there was a the same vein, Osman and Al-Khalifa
relationship between gender and students’ (2020) found that the use of mother tongue
perception on the use of mother tongue interference in the teaching of Chemistry
interference in the teaching and learning of had a significant effect on students'
Chemistry. It was revealed that there was a attitudes and achievement, with male
positive significant relationship between students performing better than female
gender and students' perception towards the students. The study recommended that
use of mother tongue interference in the teachers should consider the gender
teaching and learning of Chemistry. This differences in their instructional practices
finding is in agreement with that of and use a variety of teaching methods to
Adeyemo & Adeyemo (2013), who found cater for the different needs of male and
that students' perception and attitude female students.
towards the use of mother tongue
interference in the teaching of Chemistry Conclusion and Recommendations
was influenced by gender, with male The study concluded that the use of
students being more positive towards the a mother tongue does not interfere with the
use of mother tongue interference than teaching and learning of Chemistry. Also,
female students. Furthermore, Oluwole and there was significant relationship between
Fakolade (2016) found that there was a the students’ gender and perception on the
significant relationship in the attitudes of use of mother tongue interference in the
male and female students towards the use of teaching and learning of Chemistry. The
mother tongue interference in the teaching study recommends that teachers should
of Chemistry, with male students being consider the gender differences in their
more positive towards the use of mother instructional practices. Also, recognizing
tongue interference than female students. In and promoting multilingualism in the
the same vein, Osman and Al-Khalifa classroom and in society at large can help
(2020) found that the use of mother tongue to create a more inclusive learning
interference in the teaching of Chemistry environment. Encouraging students to
had a significant effect on students' embrace and value their linguistic diversity
attitudes and achievement, with male can lead to increased cultural awareness
students performing better than female and a deeper appreciation of different
students. Similarly, Hamdan and Abu perspectives. This can ultimately contribute
Hmaid (2019), concluded that the use of to a more positive learning experience for
mother tongue interference in the teaching all students.
of Chemistry had a positive effect on
students' learning, regardless of gender.
However, female students were found to
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222
FLIPPED CLASSROOM APPROACHFOR BRIDGING SKILLS

ACQUISITION GAPS
1OSO Senny Oluwatumbi; 2ODEYEMI Ade &3AMBODE Akinbiyi Benard

1&2
Department of Vocational and Technical Education
Faculty of Education, Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti.
3
Department of Educational Technology
Faculty of Education, Federal University OyeEkiti
Abstract
This paper examined flipped classroom approach as a bridge to students acquiring skills they would
need to function in the world of works, become employers of labour and be self-reliant. Some factors
were identified to be militating against the use of flipped classroom like lack of appropriate
technology facilities, high cost of technology facilities, internet connectivity, teachers’ technology
literacy and poor learning environment. Flipped classroom is a new trend in the field of education.
It is an emerging technology that has been widely accepted and used by most of the developing
countries of the world at all levels of education like primary, secondary and tertiary to develop skills
in students. Nations of the world are constantly updating their educational system by introducing
new methods of instructional delivery in order to build up their citizens to acquire relevant
workforce skills to compete in the global market. Skills are indispensable factor for economic growth
and sustainability and are highly required in the 21st century world of work. Education reformers
are urging that all students meet new and more challenging expectations needed for today labour
market. Students who are leaders of tomorrow are expected to possess practical skills to uphold
their nation economy. The onus lies on the teacher to initiate ideas and innovative methods to assist
the develop and acquire the necessary skills to make them employable in today labour market.
Teachers and schools are being called upon to change the ways teaching and learning process is
carried out to enable students develop skills for the world of works. Flipped classroom offers
students opportunities to acquire some of these skills which include critical thinking, problem
solving, discussion, collaboration, team work spirit, self-learning, listening to bridge skills gaps.
The paper recommended among others that capacity development for teachers, provision of funds
by the government, technology facilities, enabling learning ICT equipped environment, internet
connectivity and regular power supply.
Keywords: Flipped Classroom, Bridging, Skills, Acquisition Gaps
Introduction new generation students are lazy and prefer

The goal of education is for students to learn at their convenience sticking to
to be able to contribute to national their mobile phones. Therefore, teaching
development through training, lifelong and learning process should be tailored
learning that can prepare students with towards using emerging technology like
knowledge and skills for self- reliance and flipped classroom to create fun, enthusiasm
world of works. It helps reduce skill for learning to motivate and engage them.
shortages through the production of skilled This can also expose them to workforce
manpower relevant to the needs of today skills, gain confidence and social
digital labour market which can only be credibility, friendships, interrelationships
realized if teaching and learning process is and ability to speak publicly.
relevant to the skills and needs of the labour Flipped classroom is paradigm shift
market. Observation has shown that the in learning and is a type of blended
223
classroom. It is a new trend and innovative 4. Are there some constraints to the
pedagogy in field of education world. The applicability of a flipped classroom?
Flipped classroom approach has been
widely accepted by most of the countries of Concept of Flipped Classroom
the world due to its importance in teaching Flipped classroom is a practical
and learning process in all levels of learning approach that enhances students’
education in primary, secondary and engagement, performance and learning
tertiary. Researchers agreed that Flipped activities in classroom situation. Flipped
Classroom approach brings benefits to learning is an innovative educational
teaching and learning process. Flipped modelin which most appropriate content is
learning approach is totally opposite to the studied at home, students worked on
conventional teaching and learning process applying what they learned to engage in
as it “flipped” the conventional method of interactive and collaborative activities.
learning. In a flipped classroom, the Bishop and Verleger (2013) define flipped
students are provided with out-of-class classroom as a student-centred learning
materials which they are to study method consisting of two parts with
individually. Thereafter they engage in interactive learning activities during lesson
collaboration, discussion, questioning and individual teaching directly on
session and team works. This allowed them computer out of the lesson. Milman (2012)
to know what they should be focusing on explains that it is an approach aimed at
during the lesson and participate actively efficiency of lessons by transferring
since the materials are already with them. A knowledge to students through video clips
flipped classroom gives the students podcasts as well as discussions, group
opportunity to review materials on their works and applications during the lesson.
own and at their own pace. Danker (2015) Students are believed to prefer this
opines that flipped classroom enables the innovative way of learning to the
students to review the materials in their conventional method of teaching.
comfortable speed based on their The concept of flipping in flipped
competency level. The implication is that classrooms is derived from the idea of
the students need to be competent in the use exchanging homework for classwork, as
of technology tools like video/lecture. This described by Danker (2015). Traditionally,
approach helps both students and teachers students would complete their assignments
to have adequate time to discuss and have at home, where the level of assistance they
in-depth knowledge of the topics. Flipped receive may vary depending on the
classroom is characterized by engagement knowledge of their parents. However,
in active learning, critical thinking, Schell (2013) explains that in a flipped
collaboration, knowledge construction, classroom, students come to class already
scaffolding and enhancement of content exposed to the content and can seek
knowledge using emerging technology guidance from the teacher, who is an expert
tools like video/lecture. in the subject matter, while working on
Therefore, this present study seeks to their homework. This approach allows
answer the following salient questions students to receive in-class support for their
among others. assignments.
1. What are the essential components of a The main purpose of flipped
flipped classroom? classroom is to create an active learning
2. What procedural steps of application environment to motivate students learn at
are available for its implementation? their own pace and assist teachers to engage
3. Where and how does technology come them in individualized teaching instead of
in a flipped classroom? the entire class. This advocacy for flipped
224
classroom, is to ensure that students are the iterated that the content materials used are
prime consideration in teaching and delivered using the conventional method
learning process. Students are the focus of and is made easier. The students
every activity that goes in the classroom. If comprehend after discussing and watching
the students are not available, there will not a video of the lesson. Teacher’s classroom
be teaching activities. Therefore, the effort interaction with the students is greatly
of the teacher is to ensure students gain improved. Observation has shown that not
maximally from every learning activity. many teachers are aware of this technology
From all indications, today classroom is yet innovation in the field of education.
to switch to this emerging technology. Rahman et al (2019), noted that a number
Students’ preferences should be the focus of studies have been done in countries like
of every teacher. For instance, students who Malaysia on flipped learning. He stressed
have preferences for visual over sound, that Flipped learning approach is gaining
should gear the teachers towards meeting some position in the Malaysian education
such learning preference in order for them domain. If the students are not available,
to benefit maximally. In flipped classroom, there will not be teaching activities.
the need of each student is clearly and Students’ preferences should be utmost
properly deciphered while in conventional priority of teachers.
classroom, the needs of all the students are
not all met because their learning abilities Advent of Flipped Classroom
differ. Jonathan Bergmann and Aaron
Researchers have considered a Sams are believed to have propounded the
number of ways in which technology could concept of flipped classrooms in 2012.
enhance teaching and learning process, one They were said to be chemistry teachers
of such approach is flipped classroom. It from Colorado who used recorded lectures
affects students’ productivity and develops in 2006. Sams believes that fipped
skills as they engage in discussion, classrooms need to be flexible to allow
teamwork, independent study and students choose when and where to learn,
collaboration (Fulton, 2013; Hamdan et al., create a culture where they participate in a
2013). This could assist them in their learning environment actively, maximising
expectations towards their future careers class time and provides feedback. He
and world of work. The students are given highlighted four components of flipped
task with technology based approaches classroom which include flexible
through the direction of the teacher with environment, learning culture, intentional
video to watch at their leisure, audio content, and professional educator
resource materials to solve real-world (en.m.wikipedia.org>wiki>AaronSams).
problem solving and the students watch the
lessons. Thereafter the teacher arranges an The Theory of Flipped Classroom
interactive session in the classroom like The theory of Flipped classroom is
discussion, quiz, brainstorming, leadership a pedagogical strategy in which basic
role, critical thinking, problem solving, concepts are provided to students for pre
among others. The teacher also designs class learning so that class time can apply
lessons\tasks that add values to active and build upon the concepts. It is a
learning of social skills and creativity. paradigm shift in learning from teacher-
These qualities enable students acquire 21st centred to student-centred which involves
century skills to shift from passive to active active student engagement. It has some
learning. Stone (2012) stated that teachers similarity with Vygotsky theory which
make extra efforts in achieving desired states that the flipped classroom provides a
learning outcomes in flipped classroom, He suitable environment for transmission of
225
culture, a contemporary educational solve real-world problem solving lessons.

application which is reciprocal teaching Thereafter the teacher arranges an
used to improve students’ ability to learn interactive session in the classroom like
from text. Teachers and students discussion, quiz, brainstorming, leadership
collaborate in learning and practicing skills role, critical thinking, problem solving,
of questioning, summarizing, clarifying and among others. He also designs lessons\tasks
predicting. He states that a student’s that add values to active learning of social
cognitive development and learning ability skills and creativity. These qualities enable
can be guided and mediated by their social students acquire 21st century skills to shift
interactions. These strategies assist in from passive to active learning. In the word
scaffolding a student. There are several of Lipomi (2020), flipped classroom relies
approaches to implementing the flipped on the students preparing for class by
classroom strategy in teaching and learning. watching a video and completing an
Thakare (2018) identified eight main types assignment. There will be problem solving
of flipped classrooms, which include the lesson in groups with the teacher acting as
Standard Inverted Classroom, Micro a coach. He described how he opted for
Flipped Classroom, Discussion-Oriented recording his courses and used them as
Flipped Classroom, Demonstration-Based video textbook instead of repeating same
Flipped Classroom, Faux-Flipped lectures year in year out in the conventional
Classroom, Group-Based Flipped lecture method. He ‘flipped all his
Classroom, Virtual Flipped Classroom, and classrooms to transform class time into a
Role-Reversal 2.0 (Flipping the Teacher). variety show comprising real-world
applications, problem-solving strategies
Components of a Flipped Classroom and group design challenges’. He put the
In a flipped classroom, the teacher lectures online and made them freely
provides students with out-of-class available and today he has over 5,000
materials which they read, study carefully, subscribers with course materials viewed
and review individually. Discussion, 500,000 times over.
collaboration works and questioning Video is a natural medium for
session take place afterwards. The teacher Millennial and digital Generation students.
picks a standard to follow and develop It is already part and parcel of their lives.
assessment strategy. The instructional Using video therefore will be a welcome
contents are located and thereafter plan in- idea and motivating for them to learn. In
class activities. The activities can be case flipped classroom, tasks which are assigned
studies, quiz, class discussion which may as homework are done in class while the
be online group discussion, games among students do the teaching.
others. The teacher can assign reading with According to Ozdamli and Asiksay
questions to answer. He can also create (2016), flipped classroom has four different
lecture videos, demonstration videos, roll elements which teachers need to take into
out the activities and then evaluate to consideration. They include the acronym
receive feedback. F.L.I.P
• F-flexible environment. The teacher
The Role of Students and Teachers in a creates learning condition based on
Flipped Classroom questioning and one on one interaction
Flipped classroom involves the with the students (Cohen &Brugar
students who are given task with 2013), creating interactive discussion
technology based approaches through the conditions to increase participation of
direction of the teacher with video to watch students (Millard 2012)
at their leisure, audio resource materials to
226
• L-learning culture, in conventional engagement, self-learning,

learning approach, the teacher is collaboration among students and
repository of knowledge but in flipped teachers in Pakistan. They believed it
classroom approach, there is a transition was successful because they had
from teacher-centred approach to technology appliances needed in the
student-centred approach. The teacher classroom to function and the method
is a guide in flipped classroom to make was so productive that the students and
learning easy. Instead of transferring their teachers wanted to eliminate the
knowledge directly (Johnson & Renner conventional method of teaching and
2012). shift to digital pedagogies in the
• I- intentional content which refers to classroom. Their findings revealed that
how a teacher should think about using flipped classroom is a practical learning
education to provide fluency and strategy that could improve students’
develop cognitive understanding of performance and acquire skills of
students by sharing lecture videos as out collaboration, team work, public speech
of class activity (Bishop &Verleger and self-learning.
2013). The role of the students in flipped
• P- professional educator which means classroom cannot be played down. The
the responsibility of flipped classroom flipped classroom approach transforms
teacher is more than that of the students from passive receiver of
responsibility of the teacher who uses knowledge to active promoter of
conventional method for instruction. In knowledge. The students according to
a flipped classroom, the teacher Bergmann & Sams (2012) take their own
constantly observes the students during learning responsibilities, watching lesson
lessons, individualizing learning for videos before the lesson and prepare for the
each student (Schmidt & Ralph, 2014), lesson by using learning materials Milman
correcting misunderstanding (2012). They learn at their own speed and
(Bergmann &Sams 2012), evaluates interacting with teacher and friends, taking
their studies and gives feedback and giving feedback and participating in
(flipping learning network, -FLN 2014) teamwork, a skill that will enable them
using pedagogical strategies. In flipped work in harmony with others in a wider
classroom, teachers’ roles are world.
enormous. Stone (2012) noted that There is advocacy for integration of
teachers make extra efforts in achieving innovative technology into teaching and
desired learning outcomes. He stressed learning process to ensure students are the
that the content materials used was focus of classroom activities. Today
made easier and students classroom is still lagging behind in
comprehended after discussion and switching over to integrating technology
watching a video of the lesson. into learning environment. The 21st century
Teacher’s classroom interaction with students are believed to be lazy and not
the students was said to be greatly interested in hard work but want learning
improved. During the locked down as a environment to be saturated with
result of COVID 19 pandemic, Asad, technology wonders students are
Ali and Chumi (2022), reported that experiencing mass failure while some
Flipped classroom pedagogy was used others resolve to examination malpractice.
by teachers, students and parents when
all schools were closed down. Technology Needed in Flipped
According to them the strategy Classroom
promoted active learning, motivation,
227
The following are some of the learning opportunities outside the

technology facilities needed in a flipped classroom.
classroom. They include computer system,
recorded sounds, recorded videos. PDFS, Benefits of Flipped Classroom
photographs, websites, YouTube, Students believe that flipped
broadcasting materials, Adobe presenter, classroom allowed them to learn at their
google Apps for Ed, among others. The own convenient time and provided a more
teacher does not have to be necessarily a flexible learning speed for them (Alghasab,
professional video producer but can source 2020; Fauzan & Ngabut, 2018. Other
for a relevant lecture videos online that benefits include:
explains the topic. Tucker (2012), ➢ allows self-learning at students own
explained that flipped classroom teachers pace.
are not needed to prepare their own videos ➢ allows students develop independent
but can source for lecture videos from learning skills
internet sites like YouTube among others ➢ encourages students’ active
though most times teachers prefer to participation in learning and learning
prepare their own lecture videos. The materials
teacher forms the video and place it online ➢ provides opportunities for students to
for the students to access. The teacher also gain first exposure prior to class work
need interactive software video, Adobe ➢ assists students to prepare for class
presenter, Google Apps Ed which help before hand
access information which the students ➢ provides mechanism to assess students’
watch with lecture video showing how long understanding.
to watch it and how to answer questions. ➢ provides opportunities for students to
The videos can also be accessed by using develop the skill of teamwork which
learning management system (LMS) to will go a long way to prepare them for
broadcast and interact with students. world of work.
➢ enables the students to engage in public
Flipped Classroom and Skills speech because all the students are
Acquisition Gaps allowed to participate in the discussion.
The students are provided with Everyone has a voice. No student is left
learning resources by their teachers for behind.
them to study on their own and perform the
process of knowledge transfer before the Constraints in using Flipped Classroom
class. The students can also search for more Approach
materials on the internet or watch videos There are many constraints in
from YouTube or listen to the audio implementing flipped classroom. Students
prepared by the teachers. This enables them may not come to class prepared. Teachers
to develop the skill of listening, on the other hand may not prepare high
independent study and self-learning. The quality video that will motivate students’
time they come together to interface with learning. The preparation of the lesson
the teacher and other students for video may be difficult. (Herreid & Schiller
discussion can promote the skill of 2013). There are other factors militating
socialization and ability to speak publicly against the use of Flipped Classroom
without stage fright. Carhill-Poza (2019) Approach. These include inadequate
corroborated the statement by saying that technology facilities, high cost of
flipped learning allows language teachers technology facilities, internet connectivity,
to focus on interaction and socialization in teachers’ technology literacy and poor
the classroom while providing more learning environment.
228
of relevant technologies to meet the needs

Inadequate Technology Facilities of academic and non-academic staff needs.
There are obstacles of not having Ogunode, Babayo, Jegede & Musa (2021),
equipment such as smart phones, tablets stated that many universities have no funds
and computers with internet connectivity. to purchase adequate technology facilities
Nigeria education sectors lack many and distribute to offices that required them
emerging technology facilities. Ogunode, for use. Flipped classroom needs computers
Hammadu, Ahmed and Ojo (2021), and other gadgets. This inadequacy hinders
submitted that many institutions lack basic the implementation of flipped classroom
technology facilities. This problem of approach in learning.
inadequate technology facilities hinders
both the teachers and students from using Lack of Internet Connectivity.
flipped classroom for learning. According Lack of internet connectivity is a
to Adeyemi and Mary (2013), Nigeria is huge challenge in the use of technology
short of necessary infrastructural facilities facilities. Internet connections in Nigeria is
to embark on using emerging technology to not strong and stable to support effective
teach. The problem of power connectivity, browsing. Many cannot carry out online
internet connectivity and insufficient research and even source for materials or
computers and slow speed of downloading submit assignment. Ohiwerei, Azih and
learning materials are there. The dearth of Okoli (2013) observed that some
these facilities contributes to the constraint universities are not able to connect to the
in the effective use of technology. world wide web even if there is connection,
students will not be able to connect due to
High Cost of Technology Facilities high cost of data. This inevitably affects the
The high cost of technology use of flipped classroom approach in
facilities is one of the major constraints learning.
preventing the use of flipped classroom
approach in learning. Many teachers and Teachers and Students’ Poor Technology
students are not financially buoyant enough Literacy Skill
to purchase these facilities for learning. The use of flipped classroom
Ohiwerei, Azih and Okoli (2013), noted approach in learning requires teachers and
that laptops and other technology facilities students’ digital literacy. Teachers and
are still very expensive. There is high cost students’ technology literacy skills are vital
of internet data and electronic services that to engage in flipped classroom. Ogunode
are frequently used for browsing. (2020), found out in a study that poor
Ogunode, Babayo, Jegede & Musa (2021), computer literacy of lecturers/teachers,
observed that the high cost of these unstable power supply, lack of personal
facilities is responsible for not laptop, unstable network services, high cost
implementing flipped classroom. Babatude of ICT services and poor infrastructural
& Pascal (2016), observed that there is high ICT facilities contributed to the challenges.
cost of internet and fast tariff set by internet Airen (2011) found after carrying out a
providers which is a great challenge. study on ICT literacy of undergraduates
that they had poor ICT literacy skill in the
Poor Funding use of computer and internet. It was also
There are many teachers and found that there was inaccessibility of ICT,
students who cannot afford the purchasing lack of skills to use the facilities, frequent
of technology facilities for self-use. computer breakdown and irregular power
Ogunode (2020), opined that the under- supply. Ajuwon (2003) reported also that
funding of institutions hinders the provision insufficient computers and internet use
229
proficiency are some of the factors implemented it and also introduce it to her
militating against the use of computers and education system. Flipped classroom can be
internet among students. According to challenging but the benefits are enormous.
Adavbiele (2016), there is a gap in the Teachers who used flipped classroom had
teachers and students’ technology usage in their students test scores significantly
the classrooms hence many resorted to higher than the conventional classroom.
cyber cafes before they could have access The challenges included poor
to computer and internet facilities. This gap funding of schools, inadequate supply of
poses hindrance in the use of flipped ICT facilities, high cost of ICT facilities,
classroom in instruction. epileptic electric supply, teacher and
students’ poor technology literacy and lack
Conclusion of conducive technology learning
There has been paradigm shift in environment.
classroom learning bringing about new
ideas in teaching and learning process. The Recommendations
paradigm shift has brought critical thinking, Based on the discussion, it is
problem solving among others which is the recommended that students should be
implementation of flipped classroom. motivated to learn by exposing them to
Flipped classroom enables teachers provide flipped classroom teachers and students
learning opportunities outside the four should be technology or ICT literate and
walls of classroom. Learning has hitherto compliant.
been done in the classroom using textbooks Educators need to upgrade
and lecturing method. Students digest class themselves to be able to apply the flipped
content and practice problem solving and classroom in their teaching and learning to
critical thinking in form of homework after build autonomous learning ability that
class. But with a flipped classroom, could help the students.
students are exposed to class content at Provision of modern technology
home as homework and when they come to facilities cost of modern technology
classroom environment it is totally critical facilities should be subsidized. There
thinking and problem solving environment. should be technology Capacity
Flipped class lessons replace teacher development for both teachers and students
lectures with instructional materials like provision of constant Electricity and
video the students watch and interact with internet services. Enabling and conducive
at home. The students ask questions and learning environment.
think critically and brainstorm about what
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232
INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT)

POTENTIALS IN TECHNICAL VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND
TRAINING (TVET) FOR JOB CREATION IN AN ERA OF GLOBAL
ECONOMIC CHALLENGES
1ABIDEMI, O. Sodeninde; 2SEGILOLA, S. Ayodele and

3SEGILOLA, Victoria Omowumi
1
Department of Industrial Technical Education. Tai Solarin University of Education, Ijagun
2
Department of Vocational and Technical Education, University of Ilesa, Ilesa, Osun State
3
Department of Home Economics, School of Secondary Education (Vocational and Technical
Programme), Federal College of Education (Special), Oyo, Oyo State
Abstract
The challenge of unemployment, job creation and skills development and training for job seekers is
becoming accentuating nowadays. Considering the era when the forces of economy are highly
fluctuating and are becoming unstable, application of Information and Communication Technology
(ICT) potentials in Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) appears as one of the
major counter balance that will make the economy stable, by creating skilled work force that could
operate independently in the labour market. This article discussed the concept of Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) and its potentials in Technical Vocational Education and
Training (TVET), concept, scope and the role that TVET plays towards creating sustainable jobs for
our teeming unemployed and underemployed youths in Nigeria. The paper also highlighted the
consequences of neglecting TVET on Nigeria’s economy and challenges of ICT utilization in TVET.
The article therefore recommended that government should encourage more innovations and
introduce advanced services in the ICT sector, sincere and sustained government funding of ICT
and TVET sectors, attract local and foreign investment in ICT business.
Keywords: ICT, TVET, Job, Global, Economic, Challenges.
Introduction knowledge as a means to provide for

The technological development of society's material needs.
any society means an improvement in the There is no doubting the fact that
quality of life of its people in all spheres. national development is a function of the
Olaitan (2000) asserts that “Technology is extent to which science and technology is
a basic to modern life experiences and applied to the production and delivery
permeates every facet of life”. Technology system. Realizing the importance of
has a prominent role in national technology education, the Federal
development. It empowers individual Government of Nigeria came out with a
towards the attainment of the needs and good package for technical education as
goals of society. Therefore, technology enshrined in National Policy on Education
may be defined as a systematic application (NPE, 2004) include national unity,
of scientific knowledge used for the strength, self reliance, great and dynamic
production of goods and services. It is a economy and adequate opportunities for all.
branch of knowledge that deals with One of the ways to achieve the stated
industrial arts and the utilization of such objectives is the use of Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) in
233
teaching vocational subjects. Information industrialization of this nation. It is in

and Communication Technologies (ICTs) the recognition of the important role of
are major factors in shaping the new global technology to national development that the
economy and producing rapid changes in federal government established the
the society. Within the past decade, the new Department of Technology Acquisition and
ICT tools have fundamentally changed the Assessment (TAA) within the Federal
way people communicate and do business. Ministry of Science and Technology.
They have produced significant Technology Acquisition and Assessment
transformation in industry, agriculture, (TAA) functions, according to Okon (2010)
medicine, business, engineering and other include:
fields. They also have potentials to • technology from academic and
transform Vocational and Technology research institutes:
Education in the training process, (Berg • assessment and acquisition of relevant
1997) in Tee & Taylor (2006). and profitable foreign technology:
Understanding the role of • assessment and acquisition of
Vocational and Technology education in technological development by
national development enlightens us on what investors and entrepreneurs;
contribution their growth and development • development of industries resulting
could make to the progress of this nation. from technologies and establishment
Olaitan (2000) believes that Vocational and of pilot arid catalytic plants and;
Technology Education is reputed for being • protection and export of indigenous
the best form of education that prepares an technology
individual for a specified work and not for
world of work assumption. Agba (2001) A critical challenge that faces
mentions that the extent of development of Nigeria is the development of a competent
any society is usually attributed to its ability workforce for sustained economic growth
to create, utilize and harness its resources, in the global economy. Human resources
knowledge and application 'of science and development, through well planned TVET
technology. Technology is an important initiatives can contribute significantly to
factor in any country’s development and promoting the interest of individuals,
this involves production of goods and enterprises, economy and society within the
services for the upliftment of living nation. Utilization of Information and
standards. Therefore, technology does not Communication Technology (ICT)
only concern with the acquisition of pre- potentials in Technical Vocational
requisite skills for various jobs but also Education and Training (TVET) will help
solves the issue of job creation and raises individuals to gain access to decent work
the productivity level of the work force. A and sustainable jobs, and escape poverty
well-trained worker is more productive and and marginalization.
earns more remuneration than a poorly TVET can impact positively on the
trained one (Olaitan, 2000). economic development, achieving full
The function of technology and employment and promoting social
science as the basis for socio economic inclusion. A well structured TVET system
development of any country is universally will enable productivity, enhance
recognized. Okon (2010) is of the opinion competitiveness and promote
that the government has over the years entrepreneurial activity. TVET
devoted considerable and continuing programmes are defined as those that are
interest in the effective application of designed mainly to prepare students for
research and developmental efforts in direct entry into particular occupations or
science and technology for the sustainable
234
trades, or into a class of occupations and understanding and knowledge relating to

trades. occupation in various sectors of economic
The aim of this study therefore is to and social life.
harnessing Information and Technical vocational Education and
Communication Technology potentials in Training is further understood to be:
Technical Vocational Education and • An integral part of general Education
Training that will enhance job creation in • A means of preparing for occupational
this period of global economy crisis. field and for effective participation in
the world of work
Literature Review • An aspect of lifelong learning and
Concept of ICT in TVET preparation for responsible citizenship
Information communicate • An instrument for promoting
Technology (ICT) refers to all kinds of environmentally sound and sustainable
electronics that are used for broadcasting, development
telecommunication and all forms of • A method of alleviating poverty
computer mediated communication
(Akindola, 2015). These are features that TVET plays a vital role in national
variously support the teaching and learning development. A number of developing
of TVET. Advances in ICT have its full countries have embraced and recognized
advantage in all aspects of life. The use of technology as a means of realizing
ICT in TVET has brought many online economic independence. According to
packages which gives technical students Okala (2004) in a survey on job creation
greater control over what they learn and through TVET, opportunities revealed
how they learn. It provides them with vast tremendous job creation outcome for those
electronic learning activities. with requisite TVET skills, thus
Akindola (2015) stated that “ICT is encouraging skill training to reduce
able to bring technical students and teachers unemployment.
together for lectures, tutorials and one-to- The emphasis on TVET is as a
one interaction across geographical result of its wide utility in vast spectrum
locations”. With ICT the tradition world of and products service industries. Today’s
paper has become obsolete. every advancing technology world requires
specialized skills, which will enable
Concept and Scope of TVET individuals to fit into the productivity of
One of the cardinal requirements of service lines of industries. Technical
Technical Vocational Educational and vocational Education and training is the
training is the acquisition of both physical programme that prepare individuals to
and intellectual skills which enable an acquire the relevant job skill for
individual to be self reliant and useful employment
members of the society. Hence TVET is The most important characteristic of
seen as education for employment and not a system of TVET is that it should be
leisure precisely all skill areas in TVET are relevant in functional term, and the content
designed to achieve optional employment. should be selected and designed to cover
The national policy on education the spectrum of engineering needs of the
(FRN, 2004) defines TVET as a community for skill and power stage of
comprehensive term referring to those development among the Nigerian citizens
aspects of the educational process and economic growth and development in
involving, in addition to general the study Nigeria.
of technologies and related science and the Technical subjects include the
acquisition of practical skills attitude following: Technical Drawing, Building or
235
Architectural Drawing, Building (CAI), the computer is to be used as a store

Construction, Carpentry and joinery, of information, which can answer questions
plumbing, Basic electronics, principles of that is as a processor of answers to given
electricity, Metal work, Auto mechanic questions, and to demonstrate visually or
e.t.c. via educational robot’s ideas and concept.
TVET has a lot of merit for instance Walker(1986) quoted in Akpan (2008)
an electrician serves the society by helping talked about computer that it is almost as if
to wire people’s houses. Those trained in a new discipline has been discovered that
carpentry & joinery help to root houses & encompasses all others and that is capable
make furniture: and those in plumbing help therefore of helping us to recognize and
to lay water pipes. Those trained in deal with others on scale of complexity. He
technical drawing help in designing houses further indicates the strength to include,
and simple equipment. The auto mechanics more active learning more varied sensory
is the one who helps in fixing cars. and conceptual modes and nearer speed of
thought and an aid to abstraction.
ICT as a Potential Tool in TVET Graham (2004) also submitted that
National policy on education (2004), computer has two very vital and effective
section 10 stipulates that most of our books contributions to teaching and these are:
at present are unsuitable, inadequate or stimulating the interest of the children and
expensive e.t.c. Radio, and Television are give individual a flexible tuition at the
product of the technological age designed child’s own pace and direction. Ezeliora
among other things to improve (2001) in his paper titled fundamental use
communication. They are also used for of computer in teaching and learning
development and improvement of illustrates that computer serves as medium
education as well as for the expansion of of instruction and also subject of
instructional techniques. Afe (1989) in instruction; and one of the many media that
Daniel (2011) posits that the impact of could be used in teaching. In the teaching
computer technology compared to radio, process, both teachers and learners are
films, television and teaching machine is assisted by the computer. The computer is
unsurpassed by any innovation in the field used to programme technical courses. The
of technology education. programming is done by the programmer
A common working tool for high who is a specialist in the field to be
productivity in the information age is the programmed. These programmed technical
computer. Computer has been used in many courses are stored in the hard disk in the
countries of the world and has advanced in computer or as software package or in the
its application to teach all diskette. The learner can use it to learn the
vocational and technical courses for lessons at any time after the teacher has
developing countries like Nigeria. taught it in the class. The learners can go
Computer is expected to have a place in through the lesson several times at his or
technical education no matter the demands herown pace. With this, the assumed
it places on technology teachers and difficult courses or topics will be mastered
resources of acquiring them. well. The computer programmed process
Danladi (1996) in Okon(2010) takes care of individual differences in
postulates that one can now find vocational learning ability. This computer learning
and technical instructional materials process will enhance students
prepared within the computer in understanding and achievement in technical
programmed form which are carefully education courses (Brusilovsky, 2001).
structured for teaching specific technical For the teacher, the computer is an
course. In computer assisted instruction able companion and helper. Using the
236
computer programmed instruction, the domain according to Ikuomela and

teacher can teach as many students as Akindolu (2008) enable students to:
possible without overworking himself for • Develop new thinking and learning
herself. This, according to Ezeliora (2001), skills that produce creative and
takes care of the dearth of qualified innovative insight.
teachers. It should be noted that the richer • Develop more productive ways of
the teachers are in their innovative ideas, working and solving problems in
the more competent they would certainly be individual and collaboratively.
in preparing their students for future • Create information products that
challenges. In this regard, teachers’ demonstrate their understandingof
education programrne in need of urgent concepts. Issues. Relationship and
attention, as clearly observed by Tahir process.
(2005) who mentioned that teacher • Express themselves in contemporary and
education in Nigeria is obvious of the recent socially relevant ways.
advances in the areas of telecommunication • Bring students and teachers together for
and digitalization of information lectures, tutorialsand one-to-one
technology. In order to encourage the use of interaction across geo-graphical location
ICTs in our educational institutions for the with ICT, the tradition words of papers
teaching and learning, Nigerian has become obsolete.
government need to improve on the roles • Brought many online packages which
they play in making ICTs more affordable give students greater control over what
to the populace through: they learn and how they learn.
• drastic reduction in tariff and reduction
or water of import duties on ICTs ICT Application Areas in TVET
equipment: This list of ICTs which are used to
• perform appropriate regulatory role to impart or acquire TVET information or
streamline the private operators of ICTs knowledge is seemingly endless. They
business with respect to pricing, include; the motion picture or film, film
quality of services and strip, slide projection, the overhead
interconnectivity: transparency, the teletext and video text, the
• giving computer system at a subsidized reprographic media (example,
price to academic staff in our higher photography, photocopying, scanning and
institutions: faxing), microchips, microfilm and
• building of ICTs centers and providing microfiche, voice mail, voice processing,
basic ICTs infrastructures in our higher the computer, the internet, multi-media
institutions: and systems, example, computer – based
• massive education and enlightenment training (CBT). Compact Disc-Read Only
of Nigerians on the importance of ICTs Memory (CD-ROM), Compact Disc
for National development e.t.c Interactive (CD-I).Digital Video Interactive
(DVI), Interactive Processing, Information
Furthermore, ICTs have computing services. For our purpose here, only a few
and communication facilities with features of these technologies will be discussed in a
that variously support teaching, learning nutshell with regard to their ability to
and range of activities in education. ICT, as provide information or impart TVET
an interdisciplinary domain focuses on knowledge.
providing students with the tools to 1. The Use of Auto Card: This involves
transform their learning and enrich their the use of computer plus peripherals to
learning environment. The knowledge, perform various operations according
skills and behaviours identified for this to design specification, especially
237
when a graphic representation is to the learning process even if this

designed instead of pen and paper. means only pressing buttons to make
The computer aided drafting designer choices. Five types off multi-media
uses a graphic display cathode ray tube systems have already been cited: CBT,
(CRT), a computer keyboard, digital IVD, DVI, CD-I and CD-ROM.
tablet, light pen and mouse to create an 4. Data Base Information,
electronic description of the drawing Communication and Management
which is stored on the computer disk System: There are four areas where
and ultimately plotted. The computer computer is an efficient data
aided design (CAD) software is processing machine in technical
suitable for wide variety of application education system namely: data
and is being used worldwide to processing, decision making, planning
produce all kinds of drawings. and control. Computer has memory for
mechanical, printed circuit, art work, storing and processing data. This
aviation e.t.c. (Tahir 2005) memory is divided into two namely;
2. The Electronic Media Imparting the hard disk and floppy disk
Knowledge: Although the broadcast (diskette). These attributes of
media (like the television and the computer bring about the definition
radio) and the projected media put forward by Adewumi (2006) that
(example, film or motion picture) are Computer is an integrated system of
based on the power and knowledge of man, machine and procedures
the principles of electricity it is in such developed or evolved for the purpose
electronic media as the computer and of collecting and processing data to
the internet that those principles and supply information. Computer will
their application reach their logical make available all the information
conclusion. It is the view of Emejulu needed for all types of technical
(2004) that computer and the internet decisions at all levels in education
have elevated TVET information system. It makes information
processing and storage capabilities to accessible, accurate, comprehensive,
unprecedented levels such that today appropriate, timely, clear, flexible,
people talk of the electronic age, verifiable and not bias. Effective
computer age or information age. management of technical education
3. Multimedia Computer Technology: needs to be computerized and all
Agba (2005) observes that information about it processed in the
“advancement in technology has made computer.
it possible to use multiple media that 5. Microfilm, Microfiche and
combine the qualities of various single Microchip: Microfilm and Microfiche
media to teach TVET courses more are miniaturizing photographic
effectively than any single medium “. devices for storing large volumes of
These operate with a micro-computer- text on films. Large volumes of TVET
driven system that engages the learner books could be conveniently
very much with life-like experiences. transferred to a microfilm or fiche.
Multiple media combine text, still This makes for efficient and alternative
pictures, sound, graphics animation storage of information without a
and some video. Such multiple-media recourse to bookshelves and clumsy
system make learning very interactive book movement. According to Agba
as they respond to learners’ questions, (2001), the ultra-microfiche (UMF) is
make corrections and actually allow a microform printing process that
the learner to participate or contribute permits thousands of the pages of
238
TVET books to be put on a 4 by 6 card, finding a job after schooling. It also equips
usually transparent. students with knowledge and skill they
need to create their own employment. It is
Accessing information which is on this precept that the national policy on
stored by microfilm or microfiche is done education (NPE, 1998) with its 6-3-3-4
through a projector. The film or fiche system of education was predicted upon life
(cards) is inserted in a reader which projects education in which educational activities
the page on a screen. Microfilm and would be centered on the learner for
microfiche are a very effective way of maximum self-development and
miniaturizing information or an entire fulfillment.
library. By their nature, microfilm and In this policy document, the goals of
microfiche are housed in rooms in libraries vocational education were well articulated
and instructional media centres and access as to; (i) provide trained manpower in
to them is supervised by trained staff. Such applied sciences, technology and business
supervision ensures prompt services and particularly at craft, advanced craft and
safe handling of the sensitive materials. technical levels, (ii) provide technical
Other benefits of ICT in VTE are – knowledge and vocational skills necessary
It is used for communication between for commercial, economical development
individuals. For example, through video and agricultural development; and (iii) give
conferencing, audio conferencing, voice training and impart the necessary skills to
mail etc, technicians can dialogue over individual who shall be self-reliant
various technical issues or articles online economically. However, the extent to
and provide useful insight into various which the youth or students are prepared or
issues without being in the same location. equipped for attainment of these goals
According to Ohunakwe (2001) in leaves a lot to be desired as it relates to
Tahir (2005) records can be merged and individual societal and national
accounting functions performed using development.
electronic documents. Information is now The type of education to be given to
being processed, stored, retrieved and the youngsters should be the type that
outputted at a far greater feed than manual would solidly prepare them for the
method. The secretariat students too are challenges that lie ahead of them. To
able to carry out their duties with ease and achieve greater height in skill development,
at a faster rate than it is in the traditional there is need to develop our own
office. technology. Vocational technical skills
It creates opportunity for learners to enable an individual to engage in
have access to libraries and data base of productive work for himself or for his
other universities, research institutions or employers. Therefore, promotion of
government agencies to consult stored files vocational technical education improves
of technical and vocational papers, studies, the ability of individuals to qualify for, and
reports etc. For example user could hold productive employment as a citizen of
subscribe to any of several electronics the Nation. Olaitan (2000) believes that
technical and vocational journals, vocational technical education “is reputed
newsletter and periodicals published on for being the best form of education that
internet. prepares an individual for a specified work
and not for world of work assumption”.
Roles of TVET in Job Creation Uwadiae (2002) noted that
Vocational education has a definite “vocational technical education apart from
role in preparing and equipping students enabling the individual to hold productive
with skills that increase their chances of employment, vocational technical skills
239
developed in the course of training The neglect of TVET may have

increases the productivity and earning contributed to the high unemployment and
capacity of the recipient or students”. A rising poverty among the youth because
well trained worker is more productive than many of them lack the basic job skill. For
a poorly trained one. The development of that Nigeria is today categorize under the
vocational technical skills enables a person list of poor nation. It is no longer news that
to earn more remuneration or income or self the nation’s youth unemployment rate has
employed reliance. been shooting up the sky (Dutch, 2021).
Olaitan (2000) sees increase in The federal government recently
employability and higher job mobility as acknowledges that about 80percent of
one of the benefits of vocational technical Nigeria’s youths are unemployed and
education to individuals. Individuals who 10percent underemployed (Nigeria
have been trained for specified jobs in the Tribune, 2021). And the poor quality of
world of work are highly employable and graduates is worrisome (Dike, 2020). In
less likely to suffer severe unemployment spite of its abundant natural and human
than those who are benefit of specific resource Nigeria still faces an enormous
occupational skills. He further, maintains challenge in its effort to reduce poverty.
that as a result of the versatile uses, to This one way of reducing poverty is to
which vocationally trained workers can put ensure sustainable economic development
their skills, such persons can change jobs and growth by investment heavily on
easily in search of better environments or education, especially TVET aspect. Many,
greener pastures. Vocational technical both in the developed and developing
education refines an individual attitude to worlds, are increasing the emphasis they
work. It enables one to make intelligent use place on improving the capacity of
of the products of technology, acquaint technical vocational education and training
oneself with the technological changes, (TVET) Systems, in recognition of the
develop better entrepreneurial skills and important role TVET plays in equipping
become more innovative worker (Okon, individuals with relevant skills and
2010) knowledge for the job market. TVET can
also better enable individuals to participate
The Neglect of TVET and its in social economic and technological
Implications on Nigeria’s Economy innovation processes (Rupet 2019). In the
The seventh international interest of sustainable job creation,
conference on Technical & Vocational achievement, and the competitive ability of
Education training (TVET), held on August young people the whole TVET system has
2022 in Asia, agree that, to be oriented toward the labour market and
“Since education is considered the employment system (Rupet, 2019).
the key to effective TVET is necessary in order to provide skills
development strategies, and opportunities for young people for
technical and vocational better employment (African Commission
education and training (TVET) 2019). From the foregoing, it can be
must be the master key that can concluded that technical Vocational
alleviate poverty promote Education and Training (TVET) is such an
peace, conserve the aspect that its neglect poses a great threat to
environment, improve the the economic well being of a nation.
quality of life for all and help
achieves sustainable Impediments of ICT Utilization in
development” TVET
240
Nigeria, as part of the once wide researchers and for creating an enabling
world which has now been contracted by environment for them in our
ICT into a small globalized community, educational institution (Okon 2010).
cannot be left out in the scheme of things. 4. Inadequate Policy Formulation and
According to Amuchie (2001), “in a world Implementation: In Nigeria, ICT
that has become a global village, where appears to be more workable in such
information travels faster than the speed of fields as engineering, medicine and
light, any country that stands aloof, whether agriculture than in education. For
out of ignorance or out of poor appreciation instance, in the rural areas, because of
of this basic necessity will certainly be lack of a well-articulated educational
content with backwardness”. Nigeria policy besides the problem of absence
cannot afford to be backward. Yet in of electricity, the use of projected media
joining the rest of the world in adopting like over head projectors to teach
ICT, it is beset by several problems among nursery, primary and post-primary
which are the following. school pupils, is impossible. Other
1. Power Supply Situation: Electric problems of ICT in Nigeria include the
power supply is much below lack of serious democratic norms, high
meaningful level despite the huge cost of business operations and services
investment the present government (Onwubalili, 2004) as well as social and
claims to have made to redress the political insecurity. The advantages are
problem of incessant power outage. Yet inherent in the functions of each
ICT depends on electric power to work. technology and they are not to be over
The huge investments made by ICT flogged here. Instant processing and
operators on private generation of printing of information leave little line
electricity could have been channeled to to double or triple-check facts and
increase the efficiency and productivity provide context (Teel and Taylor, 1998
of ICT. cited in Agba, 2001). Computers, like
2. Poverty: Although Nigeria is a wealthy humans, can collapse from sensory over
country, a majority of its citizens load.
languish in poverty. In the 5. Management of ICT Facilities: Ivow
circumstance, the population of those (2004) assented that the major problem
who can engage in or operate the ICT in our national life is lack of
business with their own finances is maintenance culture. That is facilities
abysmally low in comparison with the that are available will soon give way for
nation’s population of about lack of maintenance.
120million. That is why educational 6. Low Teledensity: The teledensity of
researchers or inquiries cannot afford Nigeria is one of the lowest in the
pieces of equipment that are needed to world. It was because of the advent of
operate multimedia devices like CD- the GSM and the Fixed Wireless Loop
ROM which comes with some foreign (FWL) telephones that the country
books. managed by the year 2001 to increases
3. Lack of Proper Funding: It could be its access to telephone lines to 2.5
seen that funding poses great challenges million from 480,000 lines. The
to national development in all areas, teledensity has been soaring since then
TVET inclusive. Government alone (2001).
cannot bear the cost of funding TVET 7. Sustainable Development: Since
because it requires adequate provision teachers are the main agent of national
of materials resources and employment development in education sector there
of suitable professional teachers & is need for continuous retraining of
241
trainers through workshops, seminars in policies, issue licenses and regulate the
ICT in order to acquaint them with the operation of telecommunications and other
modern concept and method of teaching information technology activities in the
TVET courses in our schools so that country, should be more alert to its
they can keep pace with the rapid responsibilities. While we accept that there
changing trend in technology. has been a revolution in the
telecommunication sector Sin 2001, there is
Defluer and Dennis (1998) argue the need to improve on the performance of
that although surge protections have the sector. The NCC has to (i) sensitize
helped, lightening can knock out a government on the need to encourage and
computer system and erase good material. motivate indigenous electrical engineers to
It is the argument of some that in an explore the possibility of making the
automated system, there is the danger of country have a regular supply of power, not
machines taking over the role of humans only at Aso Rock but in all parts of the
and causing unemployment. With the country. This presupposes that there should
internet, an individual’s or corporate be sincere and sustained government
organizations privacy is not assured. funding of power generation, (ii) attract
Hackers can access information on the local and foreign investment in ICT
internet and use it for criminal purposes, as business (iii) encourage more innovations
it is currently the case worldwide. The and introduce advanced services in the ICT
internet encourages intellectual indolence sector and (iv) campaign for government
among students who can lift their home commitment to its avowed policy of rural
assignments from the web with no personal development.
input to the work (Nwajinka, 2004). Users of ICT should not concentrate
their attention on only the media which
Conclusion and Recommendations transmit fleeting information at the expense
This article has argued that neglect of reading for it is reading which enhances
of Technical Vocational Education and the processing and internalizing of
Training (TVET) has afflicted much on the information from acquire knowledge.
African continent and Nigeria to be Government, promoted by the people, must
specific, which is also the root course of articulate well co-ordinate for reaching
unemployment. Therefore, a starting point policies on ICT which will cover all the
ought to be strategy that aims at providing sectors of the economy and set up
TVET education to the whole population in machinery for implementing them.
order to ensure that skills are deeply rooted The much touted campaign for
in the mind of youths. A reform of the value re-orientation of Nigeria’s should
education systems to ensure that TVET cause us to cease from the poor
have been imparted with the use of ICT maintenance culture which, together with
tools for self reliance. ICT remains indiscipline in our national life “manifests
indispensable in educational research. A in the way we build our houses, disregard
drastic restructuring of existing public public utilities and show disrespect for law
utilities and facilities to acceptable and order and constituted authority”
international standard is a national (Olaitan, 2000) and adversely affect our
challenge. Such restructuring will increase public power supply systems in the name of
the reliability of information system in the vandalization.
country.
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ICT-BASED INSTRUCTION AND BUSINESS EDUCATION LECTURERS’

Article · July 2023

Ayodeji Muideen Badmus

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

ISSN 1119 – 4723

Editor –in-Chief - Prof. S. A. Jegede

Dean of the Faculty of Education - Prof. S. A. Jegede

CALL FOR PAPERS

Copies of the paper are to be submitted to:

Discourse Markers for Writing Research Papers 6

ICT-Based Instruction and Business Education Lecturers’ Perception in South-

An Appraisal of Teachers’ Opinions on the Effectiveness of Accounting

Effect of Osteoarthritis among the Elderly

Enhancing the Teaching and Learning of English Vocabulary in Nigeria: An

Knowledge and Perception of Menopause among Women of Different

Moral Disposition of Students Towards Examination Malpractice among 58

Impact of Agricultural Extension Program on Sustainability of Non-Timber

Deep and Surface Pedagogical Lesson Study as Instructional Strategies on

Assessment of Teachers’ Practices on Students’ Learning Process in Senior

A Speech Act Analysis of Selected Nupe Idioms

Effects of Indigenous Language on Students’ Academic Performance in the

Pragmatics of Hegemonic Ideologies in Nigerian English Usage of Subtitles in

Effects of Listening Method on Senior Secondary Students’ Achievement in

Ethno-Religious Misrepresentations in Nigerian Media Reports on Banditry: A

Flipped Classroom Instructional Strategy: An Innovative Pedagogy for

Teachers’ Factors and Assessment Knowledge of Test Items Formats among

The Role of Technology in Enhancing Biliteracy in International Languages

Reading Habits and Students’ Academic Performance in the Era of Information

Aspects of Unethical Practices Perpetuated by Universities during NUC

Exploring the Relationship between Technical Education Teachers’ Goal 216

Investigating Teachers’ Perceived Satisfaction and Effectiveness of ICT 225

Influence of Social Media on Students’ Academic Performance: Implication for 234

Flipped Classroom Approachfor Bridging Skills Acquisition Gaps 223

Information and Communication Technology (Ict) Potentials in Technical 233

THE PLACE OF NON-FORMAL EDUCATION IN THE TEACHING

Sam. Akin. JEGEDE

Key words: Non-formal, education, culture, innovative, alternative, functionality, value.

Introduction culture. This is cultural upgrading and

good. The presently experienced is any organized educational activity

centered, activity-based, customized to Romania primary schools. International

DISCOURSE MARKERS FOR WRITING RESEARCH PAPERS

Keywords: Discourse, Discourse markers, Research Paper, Writing, Inferential, Organizational

Introduction The report is examined verbally or non-

illustrations that speak to In Ado-Ekiti, it has been

Descendants asserts that ‘without sound instance, federal funding alone

Jordanian High School EFL Learners. analysis . Pragmatics 33.1.49-

ICT-BASED INSTRUCTION AND BUSINESS EDUCATION

1SHITTU, Risikat Mojisola;2BADMUS, Ayodeji Muideen and 3OHADIUGHA,

Keywords: Perception, College of Education, Business Education Lecturers, Usefulness, Ease

Introduction experiences and abilities both in knowledge

traditional pedagogical methods to more and effective delivery of the instructional

understood, or interpreted. It is the process perception of Business Education Lecturers

What is the attitude of Business items on the perception of lecturers on ease

The data collected for the study Gender Frequency Percent

Table 1 shows that 232(51%) of the

Table 2: Mean Analysis of Respondents’ Perception of the Usefulness of ICT-Based

What is the perception of COE

Table 3 showed that the grand mean Research question 3

Table 4: Mean Analysis of Respondents’ Attitude toward ICT-Based Instruction

2 The use of ICT-Based instruction 99 154 102 95 2.57 1.05 Positive

Table 5 revealed a non-significant is not significant. Therefore, the null

Table 6 showed a non-significant null hypothesis of no significance is