SOCRATIC QUESTIONS

Form of disciplined questioning. Ask and answer these questions to stimulate critical thinking, draw out
ideas and reveal underlying assumptions.
PURPOSE QUESTIONS PURPOSE QUESTIONS

What exactly does this mean? Exploring Are there any alternatives?
Seeking
Why is that a problem? Alternative What is another way to look at it?
Clarification
What problem are you trying to solve? Perspectives What are the strengths and weaknesses of... ?

What else could you assume? Considering Would that necessarily happen or only
Challenging probably/possibly happen?
Assumptions Is that always the case? Implications &
How can you verify or disprove that? Consequences What does your experience tell you will happen?
What are the consequences of that?

Examining Why is that happening? Questioning Why is this issue important?

Reasons And What evidence are you basing this on? The Question Are there other questions you need to ask?
Evidence How could you collect the data you need? How does ... apply to everyday life?

LOGICAL FALLACIES
Errors in reasoning that render an argument invalid in which a conclusion doesn’t follow logically from
what preceded it. Pay attention to them when examining arguments.
NAME WHAT IT IS
Holding the belief that the
Gambler’s probability of a random event
Fallacy occurring in the future is
influenced by past events.
Assuming that there is a single,
Single Cause simple cause of an outcome
Fallacy when in reality it may have been
caused by a number of only
jointly sufficient causes.
Assuming that something
Bandwagon must be true or good if it’s in
Fallacy accordance with the beliefs of
the majority.
EXAMPLE SOLUTION
Flipping a coin 10 times and getting Treat the event you are facing as a beginning
8 heads and 2 tails doesn’t necessarily and not a continuation. Recognize the
mean that the coin is rigged. The fact causality and independence of the events
is when flipping a coin, every toss is in question.
an independent event.
People died of cancer before Keep in mind that a complex problem will
cigarettes were invented. This doesn’t neither have a simple cause, nor a single
mean that smoking doesn’t cause solution.
cancer.
Just because everyone else goes Take time to pause and reflect whenever you
away to college, doesn’t mean it find yourself on the side of the majority. Think
must be the right thing to do. about the implications of deciding based
on this opinion.

COGNITIVE BIASES
Systematic patterns of deviation from norm or rationality in judgment. Lookout for these thinking errors
when making decisions and judgments.
NAME WHAT IT IS EXAMPLE SOLUTION
Validating only the information Different news channels provide Seek out information from multiple sources
Confirmation Bias that is consistent with our the same information differently. before you make a decision.
existing beliefs. You may tend to read the news that
aligns with your perspectives.

Drawing different conclusions Between a 99% fat-free product and a Exercise your reframing skills - look at the problem
Framing Effect from the same information 1% fat product, you might be tempted you deal with from different angles, rephrase and
depending on how it’s to choose the ‘‘99% fat-free’’ framed reverse your thoughts about it until you get new
presented. product, though both are the same. perspectives.

Tending to fear a loss twice The sensation you experience when Reframe the question of loss by thinking
Loss-aversion Bias as much as we are likely to losing $10 is much more intense than about the overall net impact of the decisions
welcome an equivalent gain. the satisfaction of gaining $10. you make.

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 COGNITIVE DISTORTIONS
Exaggerated or irrational thought patterns that cause individuals to perceive reality inaccurately and reinforce
negative emotions and thoughts. Beware of them if you interpret events negatively biased.

NAME WHAT IT IS EXAMPLE SOLUTION

Thinking in extremes and If you don’t get something 100% Try to avoid words such as always, never, all,
All-or-Nothing looking at life in black and white right, that doesn’t mean that every, should, must and ought. Think beyond
Thinking categories. you’ve failed. words like success, failure, good and bad, and
come up with more accurate descriptors.

Coming to a general conclusion Being turned down after a job Replace that overly broad language with
Overgeneralization based on a single incident or a interview, doesn’t mean that something more realistic and specific, and your
single piece of evidence. you’ll never get a job despite your perception will follow.
qualifications.

Assuming that our feelings Feeling overwhelmed and hopeless Ask yourself how you would see the situation if
Emotional reflect the way things doesn’t mean that your problems you were in a better mood. Look at the evidence
Reasoning actually are. are impossible to solve. to establish if the emotions you’re feeling are
tuned to what’s going on.

HEURISTICS
Mental shortcuts to solve problems and make judgments quickly and efficiently but not necessarily with an optimal
outcome. Do not rely too heavily on them because they can result in incorrect judgments or cognitive biases.
NAME WHAT IT IS EXAMPLE SOLUTION
The tendency to use information After seeing news reports about Rely on frequency data. Most answers to your
Availability that comes to mind quickly and people losing their jobs, you might questions are knowable and accessible.
Heuristic easily when making decisions start to believe that you are in danger
about the future. of being laid-off.

The tendency to favor the You may request a name-brand Use a simple pros and cons list to approach your
Familiarity familiar over the unknown such medication because you have heard of it decision objectively, without letting your gut
Heuristic as novel places, people, before, even though a generic drug may be feeling impact your choice.
or things. essentially the same but less expensive.

Judging the likelihood of things Stereotypes - believing that someone Be aware of how likely the event (such as being
Representativeness or objects in terms of how well slim, with glasses and pale skin, is a computer scientist) is in the absence of the
Heuristic they seem to represent or match more likely to be a computer scientist situational information (such as the look of a
a particular prototype. than a truck driver. person).

MENTAL MODELS
Frameworks for thinking and a representation of how something works. Apply them to simplify complexity,
understand life, make decisions and solve problems.
NAME WHAT IT IS EXAMPLE SOLUTION
Considering not only the Going to the gym and exercising can Look at the most immediate effects when making a
Second-Order immediate consequences of our end up being a little painful - first decision – the first order. Then for each of the effects
Thinking actions, but also the subsequent order. But it will make you feel better ask yourself: “And then what?” to examine the second
effects of those actions. and look better - second order. order of the decision’s consequence.

Allowing time to act upon the Reading 10 pages once won’t make Put small but important habits into place
value of something, resulting in much of an impact on your thinking. and apply them every day. Do not give up if
Compounding increases at an increasing rate. But reading 10 pages daily for a year you don’t see immediate results.
will equip your mind with plenty of new Consistency is key.
insights that improve your thinking.
Giving up the benefit or value If you decide not to go to work, the Think from the perspective of “What do I
of one thing in the pursuit of opportunity cost is the lost wages. sacrifice?” versus “What do I gain?” for all your
Opportunity Costs
another. choices.

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