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1-Measurements and Measurement System
1-Measurements and Measurement System
Measurement Systems
bar. The unit of length is metre. A bar is so many times these instruments worked are even in vogue today.
long because that many units on our standard have The earliest scientific instruments used the same three
the same length as the bar. A human being can make essential elements as our modem instruments do.
direct length comparisons with a preciseness of about These elements are :
0.25 mm. Therefore, on account of human factors it is (/) a detector,
not possible to make very accurate measurements. The (it) an intermediate transfer device, and
direct method for measurement of length can be
(iii) an indicator, recorder or a storage device.
utilized with a good degree of accuracy but when it
comes to measurement of mass, the problem becomes The history of development of instruments
much more intricate. It is just not possible for human encompasses three phases of instruments, viz. :
beings to distinguish between wide margins of mass. (i) mechanical instruments,
(if) electrical instruments, and
1.3.2 Indirect Methods
(zzz) electronic instruments.
Measurement by direct methods are not always
possible, feasible and practicable. These methods in 1.5.1 Mechanical Instruments
most of the cases, are inaccurate because they involve These instruments are very reliable for static and
human factors. They are also less sensitive. Hence stable conditions. But they suffer from a very major
direct methods are not preferred and are rarely used. disadvantage which is because, they are unable to
In engineering applications Measurement Systems respond rapidly to measurements of dynamic and
are used which require need of indirect methods for transient conditions. This is due to the fact that these
measurement purposes. instruments have moving parts that are rigid, heavy
and bulky and consequently have a large mass. Mass
INSTRUMENTS AND MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS presents inertia problems and hence these instruments
Measurements involve the use of instruments as a cannot faithfully follow the rapid changes which are
physical means of determining quantities or variables. involved in dynamic measurements. Thus it would be
The instrument serves as an extension of human virtually impossible to measure a 50 Hz voltage by
faculties and enables the man to determine the value using a mechanical instrument but it is relatively easy
of unknown quantity or variable which his unaided to measure a slowly varying pressure using these
human faculties cannot measure, a measuring instru instruments. Another disadvantage of mechanical
ment exists to provide information about the physical instruments is that most of them are a potential source
value of some variables being measured. In simple of noise and cause noise pollution. - ./
cases, an instrument consists of a single unit which 1.5.2 Electrical Instruments \
gives an output reading or signal according to the Electrical methods of indicating the output of
unknown variable (measurand) applied to it. In more detectors are more rapid than mechanical methods. It
complex measurement situations, however, a mea is unfortunate that an electrical system normally
suring instrument may consist of several separate depends upon a mechanical meter movement as\
elements. These elements may consist of transducing indicating device. This mechanical movement has
elements which convert the measurand to an ana some inertia and therefore these instruments have a \
logous form. The analogous signal is then processed limited time (and hence, frequency) response. For
by some intermediate means and then fed to the end example, some electrical recorders can give full scale
devices to present the results of the measurement for response in 0?2 5/ the majority of industtial FeCpr*rs '
the purposes of display and or control.' The above have responses of 0.5 to 24 s. Some galvanometers can
mentioned components might be contained within follow 50 Hz variations, but even these are too slow
one or more boxes, and the boxes holding individual
for present day requirements of fast measurement-
measurement elements might bp either close together
or physically separate. Because of this modular nature 1.5.3 Electronic Instruments
. X’*-.X . X , \X /.X" ./ ’‘X _X
*Sk ’
of the elements within it,/it is common to refer the These days most of the scientific and . industrial
measuring instrument asza measurement system. measurements - requite very fast responses. The ■'
mechanical and electrical instruments and systems
PH MECHANICAL, ELECTRICAL AND
cannot cope up with these requirements^The necessity
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS to step up response time and also the detection of
The first instruments used by mankind were dynamic changes in certairi-pa'rameters, which Require
mechanical in nature and the principles on which the monitoring time of the order of ms anil many 4
Measurements and Measurement Systems 3
times, gs, have led to the design of today's electronic apparatus. Space communications, especially, makes
instruments and their associated circuitry. These use of air borne transmitters and receivers and job of
instruments require use of semi-conductor devices. interpreting the signals is left entirely to the electronic
Since in electronic devices, the only movement instruments.
involved is that of electrons, the response time is Electronic instruments make it possible to build
extremely small on account of very small inertia of analog and digital computers without which the
electrons. For example, a Cathode ray oscilloscope modern developments in science and technology are
(CRO) is capable of following dynamic and transient virtually impossible. Computers require a very fast
changes of the order of a few ns (IO-9 s). time response and it is only possible with use of
Electronically controlled power supplies are used electronic instruments.
to provide stable voltages for studies in the field of Summarizing, it may be stated that in general
chemical reactions and nuclear instrumentation. electronic instruments have
Electronic instruments are steadily becoming more
(z) a higher sensitivity, (z'z) a faster response,
reliable on account of improvements in design and
(zz7) a greater flexibility, (m) lower weight,
manufacturing processes of semi-conductor devices.
Another advantage of using electronic devices is that (c) lower power consumption and
very weak signals can be detected by using pre (pz) a higher degree of reliability1 than their
amplifiers and amplifiers. The foremost importance of mechanical or purely electrical counterparts.
the electronic instruments is the power amplification
provided by the electronic amplifiers, which results in 1.6 CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS
higher sensitivity. This is particularly important in the There are many wraysin which instruments can be
area of Bio-instrumentation since Bio-electric potentials classified. Broadly, instruments are classified into two
are very weak i.e., lower than 1 mV. Therefore, these categories :
signals are too small to operate electro-mechanical (z) Absolute Instruments, and
devices like recorders and they must be amplified. (z7) Secondary Instruments.
Additional power may be fed into the system to
1. Absolute instruments. These instruments give
provide an increased power output beyond that of the
the magnitude of the quantity under measurement in
input. This has been only possible through the use of
terms of physical constants of the instrument. The
electronic amplifiers, which have no important
mechanical counterpart. This is particularly important examples of this class of instruments are Tangent
where the data presentation devices use stylus type Galvanometer and Rayleigh's Current Balance.
recorders, galvanometers, cathode ray oscilloscopes 2. Secondary instruments. These instruments are
and magnetic tape recorders. It is a fact that hydraulic so constructed that the quantity being measured can
and pneumatic systems may be used for power only be measured by observing the output indicated
amplification of signals. However, their use is limited by the instrument. These instruments are calibrated by
to slow acting control applications like.servo-systems, comparison with an absolute instrument or another
chemical processes and power systems. Another secondary instrument which has already been
advantage of electronic instruments is thd-nbility to calibrated against an absolute instrument.
obtain indication at a remote location which helps in Working with absolute instruments for routine
monitoring inaccessible or dangerous locations.'-The work is time consuming since every time a
most important use of electronic instruments is their measurement is made, it takes a lot of time to compute
usage in measurement of non-electrical quantities, the magnitude of the quantity under measurement.
where the non-electrical quantity is converted into Therefore secondary instruments are most commonly
electrical form through the use of transducers. used. Absolute instruments are seldom useci except in
Electronic instruments find extensive use in detection standards institutions while secondary instruments
of electro-magnetically produced signals such as find usage almost in every' sphere of measurement. A
radio, video, and microwave. Electrical and electronic voltmeter, a glass thermometer and a pressure gauge
instruments are particularly useful in the intermediate are typical examples of secondary' instruments.
signal modifying stage. Electronic instruments are
light compact, have a high degree of reliability and 1.7 DEFLECTION AND NULL TYPE INSTRUMENTS
their power consumption is very low. Instruments can be classified into two major
€omm unications is a field which is entirely depen categories - deflection and null types depending upon
dent upon the electronic instruments and associated the way they present the result of measurements.
4 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and
between the emf E b across portion a b of slide wire ANALOG & DIGITAL MODES OF OPERATION
and the unknown emf E . As soon as the two are Secondary instruments work in two modes :
equal, there is no current through the galvanometer
(?) Analog mode, and (z'z) Digital mode.
and therefore it shows zero deflection thereby
indicating null conditions. Therefore, the unknown Signals that vary in a continuous fashion and take
emf Ex is equal to Enb , which is directly indicated by on an infinite number of values in any given range are
the calibrated scale placed alongside the slide wire. called analog signals. The devices which produce
these signals are called analog devices.
1.7.3 Comparison of Deflection and Null In contrast, the signals which vary in discrete
Type Instruments steps and thus take up only finite different values in a
Comparing the advantages and disadvantages of given range are called digital signals. The devices that
the two types instruments. produce such signals are called digital devices.
(z) The accuracy of null type of instruments is Let us elaborate further on digital and analog
higher than that of deflection type. This is because the instruments and systems. In an analog system the
\ opposing effect is calibrated with the help of function varies continuously. A typical example of
standards which have high degree of accuracy. On the variation is shown in Fig. 1.3. On the other hand, the
other hand, accuracy of deflection type of instruments digital values are discrete and vary in equal steps.
is dependent upon their calibration which depends Each digital number is a fixed sum of equal steps
upon the instrument constants which are normally not which is defined by the number.
known to a high degree of accuracy. 10
(z’z) In th e null type of instruments, the measured
quantity is balanced out. This means the detector has
to cover a small range around the balance (null) point
and therefore can be made highly sensitive. Also the
detector need not be calibrated since it has only to
detect the presence and direction of unbalance and not
the magnitude of unbalance. On the other hand, a
deflection type of instrument must be larger in size,
more rugged, and thus less sensitive if it is to measure
large magnitude of unknown quantity. 123456789 10
Independent variable -»
(z'z’z) Null type of instruments require many
manipulations before null conditions are obtained and Fig. 1.3 Representation of an analog quantity.
hence are apparently not suitable for dynamic
In order to convert an analog quantity into a
measurements wherein the measured quantity
digital number, the vertical displacement must be
changes .with time. On the other hand, deflection type
divided into equal parts. For example, in Fig. 1.3, the
of instruments can follow the variations of the
vertical quantities are divided into 10 equal parts and
measured quantity more rapidly and hence are more
each part has a length of 1 unit. When dealing with
suitable for dynamic measurements on account of
digital numbers, a quantity between 0 to 0.5 is 0 while
their faster response. However, there are commer
cially automatic control instruments (such as self a quantity between 0.5 to 1.5 is 1 and a quantity
balancing potentiometers) that maintain a continuous between 1.5 to 2.5 is 2. For example, a point A on the
null under rapidly changing conditions and thereby analogue curve is 5.5 from the origin but in digital
eliminate the need for manipulative operations. system it would be read as 5. From A to B is 6 and from
B to C is 7. It apparently seems that if we adopt digital
Summarizing the above :
system, the errors involved will be considerable. But if
(?) Null type of instruments are more accurate we divide each of the 10 steps into 10 equal parts, we
than deflection type instruments. get 100 steps instead of 10. And if these 100 steps are
( .) Null type instruments can be highly sensitive further divided into 10 parts each, we will have 1000
as compared with deflection type instruments. steps. This gives much better accuracy in converting
(mi) Deflection type of instruments are more analog quantities into digital numbers. We can go on
suited for measurements under dynamic subdividing further and further till the desired
conditions than null type of instruments accuracy is achieved. But it should be kept in mind
whose intrinsic response is slower. that a digital number is still a sum of equal units.
6 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
In a digital system, magnitude lying within one of against time or against some other variable. Thus the
these steps lose their identity and are all defined by instrument performs a recording function. For
the same number. For example, if we have ten steps, example, a potentiometric type of recorder used for
numbers lying between 2.5 to 3.5 i.c., 2.6, 2.7, 2.8, 2.9, monitoring temperature records the instantaneous
3.0, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, would all be read as 3. values of temperatures on a strip chart recorder.
From the above discussion we conclude that the 3. Controlling function. This is one of the most
difference between analog and digital information is important functions especially in the field of industrial
that the analog output is a continuous function while control processes. In this case, the information is used
the digital output is a discrete number of units. The by the instrument or the system to control the original
last digit of any digital number is rounded to ± 0.5 of measured quantity.
the last digit. It should also be marked that the Thus there are three main groups of instruments.
magnitude of the digital quantity is measured only at The largest group has the indicating function. Next in
the instant the reading is taken. One reading persists line is the group of instruments which have both
till another reading is taken (unlike the analog indicating and or recording functions. The last group
quantity which is a continuous function). falls into a special category and performs all the three ■
The majority of present day instruments are functions, i.e.; indicating, recording and controlling.
analog type. The importance of digital instruments is In this text, main emphasis is laid upon instru
increasing, mainly because of the increasing use of ments whose functions are mainly indicating and
digital computers in both data processing and auto recording, especially those instruments which are
matic control systems. Since digital computer works used for engineering analysis purposes. The control
only with digital signals, any information supplied to function will be analyzed in those cases where con
it must be in digital form. The computer's output is trolling enters as an integral part of the indicating and
also in digital form. Thus working with a digital recording functions of instrumentation. The examples
computer at either the input or the output, we must of controlling instruments aye thermostats for
use digital signals. temperature control and floats for liquid level control.
However, most of our present day measurement
and control apparatus produce signals of analog f -‘-J APPLICATIONS OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS
nature, it is thus necessary to have both Analog to In order to build up background for our later
Digital (A/D) Converters at the input to the computer detailed study of measuring instruments and systems
and Digital to Analog (D/A) Converters at the output and their characteristics, it is useful to discuss, in
of the computer. general, the various ways these instruments are put to
use. The way the instruments and measurement sys
1.9 FUNCTIONS OF INSTRUMENTS AND tems are used for different applications are as under :
MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS A Monitoring of processes and operations,
There is another way in which instruments or
A Control of processes and operations, and
measurement systems may be classified. This classi
A Experimental Engineering analysis.
fication is based upon the functions they perform. The
three main functions are explained below : 1. Monitoring of processes and operations. There
1. Indicating function. Instruments and systems are certain applications of measuring instruments that
use different kinds of methods for supplying infor have essentially a monitoring function. They simply
mation concerning the variable quantity under measure indicate the value or condition of parameter under
ment. Most of the time this information is obtained as study and their readings do not serve any control /
a deflection of a pointer of a measuring instrument. In functions. For example, an ammeter or a voltmeter
indicates the value of current or voltage being
this way, the instrument performs a function which is
monitored (measured) at a particular instant. ,
commonly known as indicating function. For
Similarly, water and electric energy meters installed in
example, the deflection pf pointer of a speedometer
homes keep track of commodity used so that later on
indicates the speed of the automobile at that moment. its cost may be computed to be realized from the user.
A pressure gauge is used for indicating pressure.
2. Control of processes and operations. A very
2. Recording function. In many cases the useful application of instruments is in automatic
instrument makes a written record, usually on paper, control systems. There has been a very strong
of the v^lue of the quantity under measurement association between measurement and control.
Measurements and Measurement Systems
In order that process variables like temperature, (z'n) Determination of system parameters,
pressure, humidity, etc. may be controlled, the variables and performance indices.
prerequisite is that they can be measured at the (zu) For development in important spheres of
desired location in the individual plants. Same is true study where there is ample scope of study.
of servo-systems, i.e., systems connected with (u) Solutions of mathematical relationships with
measurement of position, velocity and acceleration. the help of analogies.
A block diagram of a simple control system is L
shown in Fig. 1.4. Let us assume that the output ; TYPES 0F INSTRUMENTATION systems
variable to be controlled is non-electrical and the The advent of microprocessors has completely
control action is through electrical means. The input is revolutionized the field of instrumentation and control.
reference which corresponds to the desired value of Microprocessor based systems are increasingly being
the output. The input is compared with the output used for dedicated applications in process instru
with the help of a comparator. The output is a non mentation. The introduction of microprocessors
electrical quantity and is converted into a corres results a new classification of instrumentation systems
ponding electrical form by a transducer connected in and these are :
the feedback loop. In case the input and output differ,
A Intelligent Instrumentation systems, and
there is a resultant error signal. This error signal is
amplified and then fed to an actuator, which produces A Dumb Instrumentation systems.
power to drive the controlled circuitry. 1. Intelligent instrumentation. This term has to
come mean the use of an instrumentation system to
evaluate a physical variable employing a digital
computer to perform all or nearly all signal and
information processing. In this system after a
measurement has been made of the variable, further
processing whether in digital or analog form is carried
out to refine the data, for the purpose of presentation
to an observer or to other computers.
Fig. 1.4 Block diagram of a simple control system.
2. Dumb instrumentation. In this system once the
The corrective action goes on till the output is at measurement is made, the data must be processed by
the same level as the input which corresponds to the the observer.
desired output. At this stage, there is no error signal
and hence there is no input to the actuator and the ! 1-12 INFORMATION AND SIGNAL PROCESSING
control action stops. . / The two terms "Information" and "Signals" are
Examples of this type of application are usually considered as synonymous. However, they
numerous. A common one is the typical refrigeration have precisely different definitions.
system which employs a thermostatic control. A \ A Information. It is the data or details relating
temperature measuring device (often a bimetallic to an object or event.
element) senses the room temperature, thus providing
A Signals. They carry the information about
the information necessary for proper functioning of
magnitude or time relating to an object or
the control system.
event i.e., a physical quantity.
3. Experimental engineering analysis. For solution
of engineering problems, theoretical and experimental 1.13 ELEMENTS OF A GENERALIZED
methods are available. Many applications require MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
application of both the methods. The relative affability It is important to have a systematic organization
of the method depends upon the nature of the and analysis of measurement systems. An instrument
problem. Experimental engineering analysis has many may be defined as a device or a system which is
uses and some are listed below : designed to maintain a functional relationship between
(i) Testing the validity of theoretical predictions. prescribed properties of physical variables and must
(ii) Formulations of generalized empirical include ways and means of communication to a
relationships in cases where no proper human observer. The functional relationship remains
theoretical backing exists. valid only as long as the static calibration of system
8 Electrical and Electronic
problem is to prevent this signal being contaminated indicating instruments like ammeters, voltmeters etc.
by unwanted signals like noise due to an extraneous In case the data is to be recorded, recorders like
source which may interfere with the original output magnetic tapes, high speed camera and T.V. equip
signal. Another problem is that a weak signal may be ment, storage type C.R.T., printers, analog and digital
distorted by processing equipment. The signal after computers or microprocessors may be used. For
being sensed cannot be directly transmitted to the next control and analysis purpose microprocessors or
stage without removing the interfering sources, as computers may be used.
otherwise highly distorted results may be obtained
which are far from true. Many a times it becomes
necessary to perform certain operations on the signal
before it is transmitted further. These processes may
be linear like amplification, attenuation, integration,
differentiation, addition and subtraction. Some non
linear processes like modulation, detection, sampling,
filtering, chopping and clipping etc. are also
performed on the signal to bring it to the desired form
to be accepted by the next stage of measurement
system. This process of conversion is called Signal
Conditioning. The term signal conditioning includes Fig. 1,6 Bourdon tube pressure gauge.
many other functions in addition to variable The final stage in a measurement system is known
conversion and variable manipulation. In fact the
as terminating stage. As an example of a
element that follows the primary sensing element in
measurement system, consider the simple bourdon
any instrument or measurement system is called
tube pressure gauge as shown in Fig. 1.6. This gauge
Signal Conditioning Element.
offers a good example of a measurement system. In
When the elements of an instrument are actually this case the bourdon tube acts as the primary sensing
physically separated, it becomes necessary to transmit element and a variable conversion element. It senses
data from one to another. The element that performs the input quantity (pressure in this case). On account
this function is called a Data Transmission Element. of the pressure the closed end of the bourdon tube is
For example, space-crafts are physically separated displaced. Thus the pressure is converted into a small
from the earth where the control stations guiding their displacement. The closed end of the bourdon tube is
movements are located. Therefore control signals are connected through mechanical linkage to a gearing
sent from these stations to space-crafts by a arrangement. The gearing arrangement amplifies the
complicated telemetry systems using radio signals. small displacement and makes the pointer to rotate
The signal conditioning and transmission stage is through a large angle. The mechanical linkage thus
commonly known as Intermediate Stage. acts as a data transmission element while the gearing
1.13.4 Data Presentation Element arrangement acts as a data manipulation element.
The information about the quantity undjer The final data presentation stage consists of the
measurement has to be conveyed to the personnel pointer and dial arrangement, which when calibrated
handling the instrument or the system for monitoring, with known pressure inputs, gives an indication of the
control, or analysis purposes. The information pressure signal applied to the bourdon tube. The
conveyed must be in a form intelligible to the schematic diagram of. this measurement system is
personnel or to the intelligent instrumentation system. given in Fig. 1.7. ' . '
This function is done by data presentation element. In When a control device is used for the final
case data is to be monitored, visual display devices are measurement stage, it is necessary to apply some
needed. These devices may be analog or digital feedback to the input signal to accomplish the control
objectives. The control stage compares the signal desired input, rD produces an output, component
representing the measured variable with a reference cd = GDrD in accordance with an input-output
signal of the same form. This reference signal has a relationship symbolised by a mathematical operator,
value the measured signal should have and is Gd, which is defined as Transfer Function.
presented to a controller. If the measured signal agrees Gd is necessarily a mathematical operation to get
with the reference value, the controller does nothing. an output from a desired input. Thus if an input Y is
However, if there is a difference between the operated upon by a transfer function 'G', the output is
measured value and the reference value, an error c = Gr. The transfer function may simply be a constant,
signal is generated. Thus the controller sends a signal K, which multiplies the static input, r^, to get an
to a device which acts to alter the value of the output cD = KrD to obtain either an amplified or an
measured signal. Suppose the measured variable is attenuated output in linear systems. It should be
flow of a liquid, then the control device is a motorized understood that a constant cannot be used for
valve placed in the flow system. In case the measured describing the input-output relationships for non
flow rate is too low than the preset flow rate, then the linear systems. For non-linear systems, the transfer
controller would cause the valve to open, thereby function is represented by either an algebraic or a
increasing the flow rate. If on the other hand, the flow transcendental function. The input-output relation
rate were too high, the valves are closed. The opera ships for systems subjected to dynamic inputs are
tion of closing or opening of valve will cease when the represented by differential equations.
output flow rate is equal to preset value of flow rate.
In case, a description of the output 'scatter' or
144 INPUT-OUTPUT CONFIGURATIONS OF MEASURING dispersion for repeated equal static inputs is desired, a
INSTRUMENTS AND MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS statistical function is needed to represent the
input-output relationship.
A generalised configuration in instruments and
measurement systems which brings out a significant The transfer function, Gp, is therefore represen
input-output relationship present in them is shown in tative of a wide range of functions from a constant in
Fig. 1.8. Input quantities are classified into three the case of linear systems to a statistical function used
categories : ?V for statistical measurements.
(z) desired inputs, (z'z) interfering inputs, 1.14.2 Interfering Inputs
(zz’z) modifying inputs. Interfering inputs represent quantities to which an
Output component instrument or a measurement system becomes uninten
tionally sensitive. The instruments or measurement
systems are not desired to respond to interfering inputs
but they give an output due to interfering inputs on
account of their principle of working, design and
many other factors like the environments in which
they are placed. The interfering input r, is operated
upon by a transfer function G; to produce an output in
the same manner as a desired input is operated upon
by a transfer function, Gp, to produce an output.
The block diagram shown in Fig. 1.8 depicts the shows a manometer which is placed on a vehicle that
concepts described above, the circle with a cross in it is accelerating. Although the pressures at the two ends
represents the summing point. The two plus signs of the manometer are equal, a differential pressure is
shown indicate that the output of the summing point created on account of acceleration and therefore the
is the sum of the instantaneous values of its two scale indicates a reading, h. Thus, acceleration acts as
inputs. An instrument or a measurement system may an interfering input.
be subjected to desired, interfering and modifying
inputs and therefore the output is the sum of
instantaneous output components resulting from
these inputs. An instrument or a measurement system
may have several inputs of each of these three types
and thus have several outputs. Hence, it may be
necessary to draw more complex block diagrams than
that shown in Fig. 1.8.
Let us consider an case of measurement of
differential pressure of a fluid with the help of a Fig. 1.10 Acceleration as an interfering input.
L/-tube manometer using mercury as manometric Figure 1.11 shows another case of interfering
fluid as shown in Fig. 1.9. The pressures applied at the input. In this case, the manometer is not properly
two ends of the U-tube are P1 and P2. The differential aligned with the gravity vector because of the angle of
pressure is P = Pt - P2 and is given by the following tilt. Therefore, there is an output, h, even though there
expression is no differential pressure. Hence, angle of tilt, 0, acts
~P2 =Sh(Pn,-Pf) ...(1.1) as an interfering input.
where pm, p f = density of mercury, and fluid
respectively ; kg/m3,
g = gravitational constant ms”2,
h = scale regarding, m.
Scale
it at different heights above sea level or putting it in a of the arms, each of rest of the three arms consists of a
space ship leads to modification of the input-output resistance whose value is equal to R, the resistance of
X for the desired inputs. Also, since g can also be the strain gauge when it is not strained.
interfering input due to angle of tilt as explained When no force is applied to the cantilever, the
before, there is modification in the input-output strain is zero and the resistance of the strain gauge is
relationship for the interfering input as well. Thus, it is R. Since, the resistance in each of the other three arms
observed that effects of both the desired and of the bridge is R, the bridge is balanced and there is
interfering inputs may be modified. no output from the bridge i.e., Output voltage eQ =0.
Let us consider the example of measurement of When a force, F, is applied to the cantilever, it
strain produced on application of a force on a canti causes a strain, s, which in turn produces a change, AR,
lever as shown in Fig. 1.12. The strain is measured in the resistance of strain gauge. This unbalances the
with the help of a strain gauge, which consists of grid bridge, producing an output voltage, eQ, which is
of fine wire whose resistance changes when strained proportional to strain, e, and can be measured using a
because of change in its length, and area and, also meter or an oscilloscope. The output voltage is given
because of piezo-resistive effect. The strain gauge is by:
-firmly cemented to the cantilever at the point where Gf
thfcqstrain is to be measured. The strain gauge forms enU = — seI ; (See Eqn. 29.6) ...(1-4)
one arm of a Wheatstone bridge. Let the unstrained
resistance of the strain gauge be Rl = R. The other \ The desired input is obviously strain, e, which
three arms of the bridge consist of resistances R-,, R3 produces a proportional output which is voltage eQ.
and R4. The bridge is balanced if Rj/R3 = R^/Re One of the interfering inputs is temperature.
Suppose there is a change in temperature at the place
where the strain gauge is located. It will cause a
change in resistance of strain gauge thereby
producing an output voltage even if the force applied
to the cantilever is zero and there is no strain.
Temperature has another interfering effect. It
produces a differential expansion of the gauge and the
cantilever since the two are not made of the same
material. This differential expansion produces a strain
and consequently an output voltage even in the
absence of an applied force.
Another interfering input is the 50 Hz field of
nearby power lines. This field induces voltages in the
Fig. 1.12 Measurement of strain using Wheatstone strain gauge circuit producing an output voltage even
bridge.
when the strain is zero.
Let R2 = R3 = R4 = R and therefore when no strain The battery voltage is a modifying input since it\
is applied the bridge is balanced and the output changes the proportionality factor between the desired X
voltage, Cq, is zero. When strained, the resistance of the
input s and the output e0 and also between the inter
strain gauge changes according to the following
fering input (strain gauge temperature) and output eQ.
relationship: -X-
AR = GfsR (See Eqn. 25,68 ) ...(1.3) 1.15 METHODS OF CORRECTION FOR
where, AR = change in resistance of strain gauge ; Q, INTERFERING AND MODIFYING INPUTS
Gf = gauge factor ; and s = strain. It is normal practice to try and nullify or reduce
the effects of interfering and modifying inputs. There .s
From Eqn. 1.3, it is. Clear that the change in
are many methods available that are adopted at the
resistance of strain gauge is proportional to strain.
designer's level and/or user's level. Some of these
Thus if the change in resistance of the strain gauge is
methods are described below.
measured, the value of strain can be computed. The
change in resistance of strain gauge is measured with 1. Method of inherent insensitivity. In this
the help of a Wheatstone bridge as shown in Fig. 1.12. method the instruments dr the measurement systems
This bridge has four arms, the strain gauge forms one are so designed that they are sensitive only to desired
Measurements and Measurement Systems 13
inputs and are insensitive to both interfering and The output corresponding to desired input is z
modifying inputs. This means that it is desirable to
C = ~r
make G, and/or GMD as nearly equal to zero as possible 1+.GDH D
so that even though and/or rM may exist they cannot
In the presence of modifying inputs, the output
affect the output V ' . .
changes to
The approach adopted is not practicable in many .'v, (Gn + AGn) .</ ■
situations, but acts as a motivating factor in many C + AC = —^-2------ D-— rn
■ l + (GD + AGp)H
cases to use ingenuity for elimination of effects of
spurious inputs. For example, temperature is an
interfering input in the case of measurement of strain 1 + GdH + ^GdH 1 + GpH + &GDH
with the help of strain gauges. The method of inherent
insensitivity motivates one for finding and using = -—''''' ~ rD (as A gd <<: Gb)
materials for the strain gauges that have a very low 1 + GDHD 1+GdHd d\>\.
(almost zero) resistance temperature co-efficient. If
Output due to change in transfer function on
such a material could be found, the problem of
interfering temperature inputs is partially solved. account of modifying output is,
instruments and measurement systems. The filter situations the filters have to be designed so as to be
blocks the passage of unwanted signals in such a way selective i.e., they should pass the desired signals and
that the output on account of spurious signals is either reject or considerably attenuate the spurious inputs.
completely eliminated or is considerably reduced. The
filter may be introduced into any of the three major
stages of a measurement system, the choice, however,
depends upon the application. Schemes involving
Input Filtering have filters introduced into the input
stage of measurement system for interfering and
modifying signals. This is schematically shown in
Fig. 1.14.
pressure in a large air tank that'is being supplied by a produce a voltage e. which is amplified to e0 by an
reciprocating compressor. The pulsations in the/air amplifier. Thus if 0s, changes, the temperature of the
pressure may be smoothened out by a pneumatic detector 0t/ changes,, with the result that q changes and
filter. The variations in the ratio of output pressure PQ consequently the output voltage eQ changes.
and in the input pressure P i.e., | Po I P| with frequency The major problem with these devices is that the
are similar to that of an PC filter. Therefore, the static ambient temperature 0ambient as well as the tempe
or slowly varying input pressures are accurately rature of the source 0. affect the temperature of the
measured while the fast variations are attenuated detector, thus affecting the output voltage eQ. The
greatly. The flow restriction is in the form of a needle effect is serious because the radiant energy to be
valve allowing easy adjustments in the filtering measured causes very small changes in 0rf. On the
process. other hand, even small changes in ambient tempe
In some applications, the spurious input is a slow rature, 0ambi t may completely distort the output,
varying signal. For such cases, a high pass filter is thereby completely shrouding the output signal. A
used. Let us consider the case of a chopped radiometer simple solution to this problem is the introduction of a
as shown in Fig. 1.21 in a simplified form. The rotating shutter between the radiant source and the
objective of this device is to sense the temperature, 0 , detector so that the desired input is chopped or
of an object in terms of the infrared radiant energy it modulated, at a known frequency. The modulating
emits. The emitted energy is focussed on a detector, a frequency is chosen to be much higher than the
photo-emissive cell, which responds to this type of frequencies at which the change in ambient tempe
radiation. The radiant > energy changes the rature occurs. The output voltage signal e.. of the
temperature, 0 r of the photocell. Since the detector is detector is a superposed signal with slow changes on
sensitive to the changes in temperature, it will account of ambient temperature variations and a high
frequency signal whose amplitude varies in accor
Source of infrared dance with 0s. As the desired and the interfering
inputs are widely separated in frequency band, they
can be conveniently and selectively filtered. For such
an application, it is desired that the filter used should
reject the slow varying,interfering outputs on account
of temperature variations, but pass fast varying
signals on account of variations in 0^. This requires the
use of a high pass filter. In fact such applications require
the use of an a.c. amplifier. Since a.c. amplification,
even otherwise needed, the use of an a.c. amplifier
with low frequency cut off solves both the problems
i.e., the problem of attenuation of a low frequency
Chopped 9S signal and amplification of a high frequency a.c. signal
Chopped without distortion. A wide frequency band is
0S only
necessary and this is conveniently provided in the
arrangement shown in Fig. 1.21.
5. Method of opposing inputs. This method is
basically akin \to method of calculated output
corrections. The method of calculated output
corrections requires errors caused on account of
spurious input to be calculated and then corrections
applied in order to obtain output corresponding to the
desired inputs. The method of opposing inputs, on the .'
other hand, requires that the measurement system be ’
so designed that the outputs caused by spurious
inputs be opposed by outputs produced by
components physically built into the system that
exactly act the opposite way and cancel out the
Fig. 1.21 A highpass filter for infrared radiant energy. outputs on account of spurius signals. \'
Measurements and Measurement Systems 17
Let us consider the case of measurement of strain The active strain gauge is installed on the test
with the help of strain gauge bridge as shown in specimen (cantilever in this case) while the dummy
Fig. 1.22. As explained earlier temperature is an gauge is installed on a like piece of material and is not
interfering input and there is an output on account of subjected to any strain.
changes in ambient temperature even though there is The bridge is initially balanced and therefore
no input strain. This effect can be eliminated by using Rj/R3 = ^2/^4- Supposing a change in temperature
a dummy gauge in the adjacent arm of the Wheatstone occurs, and the resistances of active and dummy 1
bridge. The arrangement is shown in Fig. 1.22. gauges change by ARj and AR2 respectively. In order
that there should be no output the bridge should be
balanced and this requires \
R] + AR| R, + AR2
AR. AR,
or —- = - \ -\ '< .
^3 ^4
Review Questions
1. Distinguish between the direct and indirect 8. Explain how the effect of Modifying and Inter
methods of measurement. Cite examples to fering inputs is minimized/eliminated in measure
support your answer. ment systems. Cite suitable examples.
2. List the advantages of electronic instruments over 9. Define "Input Filtering" and "Output Filtering".
electrical and mechanical instruments. Explain with suitable examples.
3. Distinguish between "Intelligent Instrumentation 10. Figure 1.23 shows an electromagnetic type of
Systems" and "Dumb Instrumentation Systems". balance which utilizes the modulation of light
energy falling on a phototube for measurement of
Cite examples to support your answer.
\an unknown force. Draw a generalized block'
4. Describe the difference between deflection and diagram of the measurement system and explain
null tvpe of instruments giving suitable examples. the functions of each block.
Discuss about their accuracy, sensitivity and suit
ability for dynamic measurements. /
5. Explain the analog and digital modes of operation
of instruments. Explain how the resolution of
digital instruments can be increased.
6. What are the basic blocks of a Generalized Instru
mentation System ? Draw the various blocks and
explain their functions.
7. What are "Desired", "Modifying" and 'Inter
fering" inputs for an Instrumentation System ?
Give examples for each of these. Draw a block
source
diagram for showing their influence on the
. output. Fig. 1.23 The electromagnetic balance.
18 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
Tick (a/) the most appropriate answer (<?) change the quantity under measurement to an
1. The measurement of a quantity analogous signal
(fl) is an act of comparison of an unknown quantity (b) change the magnitude of the input signal while
with another quantity retaining its identity
(b) is an act of comparison of an unknown quantity (c) to perform linear operations like addition and
with a known quantity whose accuracy may be multiplication
known or may not be known (d) to perform non-linear operations like filtering,
(c) is an act of comparison of an unknown quantity chopping and clipping and clamping
with a predefined acceptable standard which is
(e) none of the above.
accurately known
(d) none of the above. 8. A modifying input to a measurement system can
be defined as an input
2. In present day measurement systems
(a) which changes the input-output relationship
(fl) direct methods are commonly used
for desired inputs only
(b) use of direct methods is limited but indirect
(b) which changes the input-output relationship
methods are commonly used
for desired as well as interfering inputs
(c) both direct and indirect methods are
commonly used (c) which changes the input-output relationship
(d) all the above. for interfering inputs only
3. Purely mechanical instruments cannot be used for (d) none of the above.
A dynamic measurements because they have : 9. In a measurement system, the open loop transfer
(fl) high inertia (b) large time constant function is 10 and changes by 10 percent. If a closed
(c) higher response time (d) all the above. loop system is adopted wherein the feedback
4. The usage of electronic instruments is becoming system has a transfer function of 100. What will be
more extensive because they have the change in output in the case of open loop and in
closed loop systems
(a) a high sensitivity and reliability
(a) 10%, lOxlO’3 % (b) 10 %, lxl0‘3 %
(b) a fast response and compatibility with digital
computers (c) 100 %, 10 x 10~3 % (d) 100 %, 1 x 10’3 %.
(c) the capability to respond to signals from 10. In a permanent magnet moving coil type of
remote places ammeter, the current is, /= °
(d) all the above. NBA
5. A null type of instrument as compared to a deflec where 0 = deflection, K = spring constant, N -
tion type instrument has number of turns of moving coil, A = area of
moving coil and B = flux density of field produced
(a) a higher accuracy (b) a lower sensitivity
permanent magnet. Temperature is an interfering
(c) a faster response (d) all the above.
input to the system. It is known that strength of
6. In an intelligent information system used for the magnets reduces by 0.02 per cent per °C and the
measurement of a physical quantity strength of springs reduces by 0.04 per cent per 6C.
(a) the digital computer must perform all or nearly Which method should be adopted to apply correc
all the signal and information processing tions for the interfering input ?
(b) the observer must perform all or nearly all the (a) Method of inherent insensitivity
signal and information processing
(b) Method of high gain feedback
(c) the digital computer is not required
(d) none the above. (c) Method of calculated output corrections
7. In a generalized measurement system, the function (d) Method of opposing inputs.
of the signal manipulating element is to
1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (d) 5. (fl) 6. («) 7. (b) 8. (b) 9. (fl) 10. (<?)