THABIT IBN QURRA AND THE PYTHAGOREAN THEOREM

Author(s): Robert Shloming

Source: The Mathematics Teacher , OCTOBER 1970, Vol. 63, No. 6 (OCTOBER 1970), pp.
519-528
Published by: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/27958444

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 HISTORICALLY SPEAKING?

Edited by Howard Eves, University of Maine, Orono, Maine

THABIT IBN QURRA AND THE PYTHAGOREAN THEOREM

By Robert Shloming, Brooklyn College, Brooklyn, New York

DURING the Dark Ages of Western period. This period witnessed the writing
Europe, Islam was very much mathemati of scholarly translations and critical com
cally alive. The Arabs were able to solve mentaries on Greek and Hindu sources.
the most difficult problems of Archimedes In addition, some original works were
and Apollonius at a time when Latin produced by Arab mathematicians during
mathematical knowledge was at a level the ninth through the eleventh centuries.
below that of the ancient Egyptians. In It must be realized, however, that these
deed, the Arabs were translators and works reached the Latin West through a
transmitters of mathematical knowledge meandering linguistic stream, because no
rather than innovators. Yet the student less than four languages might be involved
of mathematics owes them a large debt in the translation of a single treatise.2
for preserving a priceless mathematical Among the Arab scholars of math
legacy. For without the contributions of ematics who devoted their energies to
the Arab translators, much of Greek and translating and refining Greek manu
Hindu mathematics would now be lost. scripts stands Th?bit ibn Qurra. The
By uniting Greek and Hindu mathemati works of Th?bit ibn Qurra, "one of the
cal ideas, the Arabs further developed greatest Islamic scholars that ever lived,"3
arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and trig are either neglected or not appreciated. It
onometry. is the purpose of this article to shed some
Between a.d. 500 and a.d. 600 many of light on Th?bit and his contributions to
the important Greek mathematical works mathematics. Although Th?bit was a
were translated into Syriac. After a.d. 700, prolific writer in many areas of math
these works were translated into Arabic so ematics (writing on amicable numbers,
that by around a.d. 850 the Arabs had in spherical trigonometry, mechanics, geom
their possession valuable translations of etry, cubic equations, geometrical con
Aristotle, Ptolemy, Euclid, Archimedes,
2. Robert E. Bruce, "Sicily and the March of
Menelaus, Apollonius?to name but a few. Ancient Mathematics and Science to the Modern
During the eighth and ninth centuries, World," Scripta Mathematica 5 (1938) : 117-21.
the Arabs engaged in considerable trade 3. Max Meyerhof, "The 'Book of Treasure* an
Early Arabic Treatise on Medicine," Isis 14 (1931) :
with India and in so doing obtained much 55.
knowledge of Hindu mathematics. But N.B. The importance of Th?bit's mathematical
work was fully appreciated by Heinrich Suter, for he
the apogee of Arabic science and math wrote: "EV war ein bedeutender arzt, aber sein haupt
ematics came during the tenth and gebiet waren die philosophischen und mathematischen
Wissenschaften, in denen er einen hohen rang in der
eleventh centuries.1 Particularly in math arabischen litteraturgeschichte einnimmt.11 The inter
ematics was this an active and fruitful ested reader should consult the following source:
Heinrich Suter, "Mathematiker und Astronomen der
1. Martin Levey and Marvin Petruck, K?shy?r ibn Araber," S.B.P.M.S. 48 (1900): 34. Other sections of
Labb?n: Principles of Hindu Reckoning, pp. 3-4. interest in Suter are pp. 65-86, 186-227.

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structions, and the gnomon), we will, in torical evidence is conclusive in verifying
this article, examine only his work dealing that Th?bit was a competent mathe
with the Pythagorean theorem. matician. As a matter of fact, his work on
Ab?' THasan Th?bit ibn Qurra Mar amicable numbers is completely original.10
w?n aP Harrani was born at Harr?n, He wrote a scholarly commentary on the
Mesopotamia, in the year 826 and spent Liber Assumpta of Archimedes.11 His dis
most of his life at Bagdad where he died section proofs of the Pythagorean theorem
in 901.4 Nothing is known of his childhood are elegant. His work on the generaliza
at Harr?n. With regard to his adult life tion of the Pythagorean theorem is indeed
we know that Th?bit was a money sophisticated with respect to the ninth
changer in Harr?n and was later ex century. Moreover, his proof of the law
communicated from this town for his of the lever, contained in the Liber kara
unorthodox religious beliefs.5 On a chance stonis, is extant today in one Arabic and
trip to Bagdad, Th?bit met the famed fifteen Latin copies. The Liber karastonis
Muhammid ibn Musa ibn Sakir.6 It was of Th?bit ibn Qurra is perhaps one of the
this accidental meeting with Musa ibn most important scientific works of the
Sakir that changed Th?bit's life and Middle Ages.12 This work combines the
brought him into contact with a circle of Aristotelian and Archimedean traditions
scholars and translators at Bagdad. At of dynamics and mechanics.13 Recently,
Bagdad, the center of mathematical the Liber karastonis was translated by
activity during Th?bit's life, many Greek Professors Clagett and Moody.14 Return
and Hindu mathematical manuscripts ing to Th?bit's contributions in mathe
were translated. Indeed, the caliphs were matics, mention must be made of his work
generous patrons of learning. With the on the gnomon which was one of the ear
enlightenment of the Abb?sids, the Eastern liest known works on this subject.15 With
Caliphate whose seat was at Bagdad, a regard to spherical trigonometry, Th?bit's
new chapter in the history of mathematics work on the transversal theorem is of vast
ensued.7 Carmody writes that Th?bit "was importance in the history of mathematics.16
discovered" by Musa ibn Sakir who took Furthermore, Th?bit's contributions with
him into the caliphate of Mu'tadid.8 At respect to the paraboloid provide a link
the court of Mu'tadid, Th?bit distin between the infinitesimal geometry of
guished himself as an expert in astronomy Archimedes and the works of Cavalieri,
and mathematics. Kepler, and Wallis. In fact, Suter writes
Th?bit is often regarded as an astonish that Th?bit's work on the paraboloid is
ing polymath who excelled not only in
mathematics but also in medicine, as 10. Suter, "Mathematiker und Astronomen der
tronomy, linguistics, philosophy, physics, Araber," pp. 34-35.
music, geography, botany, natural his 11. . L. Van der Waerden, Science Awakening,
pp. 225-27.
tory, agriculture, and meteorology.9 His 12. George Sarton, "Review on the Work of the
Quarastan by Th?bit ibn Qurra," Isis 5 (1922): 494.
4. George Sarton, Introduction to the History of
Science, vol. 1, p. 600. 13. Ernest A. Moody and Marshall Clagett, The
Medieval Science of Weights (Scientia de Ponderibus),
5. Lynn Thorndike, A History of Magic and Ex pp. 3-6, 145-49. Cf. H. L. Crosby, Jr., Thomas of
perimental Science During the First Thirteen Centuries Bradwardine: His Tractatus de Proportionibus, Its
of our Era, pp. 660-61. Significance for the Development of Mathematical
6. Heinrich Suter, "Mathematiker und Astro Physics.
nomen der Araber," S. .P.M.S., p. 34. 14. Ibid.
7. De Lacy O'Leary, How Greek Science Passed to 15. Suter, "Mathematiker und Astronomen der
the Arabs, pp. 146-49. Araber," p. 34.
8. F. Carmody, The Astronomical Works of Thabit 16. Axel Bj?rnbo, "Th?bit's Werk ?ber den
ibn Qurra, pp. 15-17. Transversalensatz (Liber de Figura Sectore)?mit
9. E. Wiedemann, "?ber Th?bit b. Qurra: Sein bemerkungen von H. Suter," in Abhandlungen zur
Leben und Sein Werken," S.B.P.M.S. 52 (1922) : 210 Geschichte der Naturwissenschaften und der Medizin
17. (Erlangen, 1924).

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among the "choicest fruits" of Arabic
mathematics.17 Th?bit has made remark
able quadratures of parabolas as well as proper attention. One reason for this
paraboloids. Smith credits Th?bit with neglect is our relative ignorance of his life
finding the volume of a paraboloid.18 To and the time in which he lived. On the
appreciate the mathematical contributions
of Th?bit ibn Qurra, let us remind our
selves that we are speaking only of the
ninth century. His aptness in mathematics
is summed up by Clagett in the following
words: "... ability of Th?bit is clearly Nichomachus, and others.22 Th?bit also
attested in his numerous works which have improved some of the translations of
survived."19
Many historians of mathematics con
sider Th?bit one of the most gifted
translators from Greek and Syriac into
Arabic. His love for translating was so
great that he founded a school of transla
tion at Bagdad. The prominent members
of Th?bit's translation school were Qusta
ibn Luqa, Ishaq ibn Hunain, and al-Kindi.
In addition, many of Th?bit's own family
were active in translating Greek manu
scripts into Arabic. Th?bit's sons and
grandsons were first-rate astronomers and
mathematicians who belonged to his
translation school. For instance, Ab?-Su'id
Sinain ibn Th?bit ibn Qurra, the son of
Th?bit ibn Qurra, followed his father's
footsteps as a geometer, astronomer, and
physician. Ab? wrote an improved version
of Th?bit's translation of the Elements.20
Both of Th?bit's grandsons, Th?bit ibn
Sinain ibn Th?bit ibn Qurra and Ibrahim
ibn Sinain ibn Th?bit ibn Qurra, distin
guished themselves as scholars in math
ematics. In fact, Ibrahim's writings on the
quadrature of the parabola were the
"simplest ever made before the invention
of the integral calculus."21
17. Suter, "Mathematiker und Astronomen der
Araber," p. 35. Cf. Idem, "?ber die Ausmessung der
Parabel von Th?bit," S.B.P.M.S. 52 (1921): 141-88.
18. David Eugene Smith, History of Mathematics,
vol. 2, p. 685.
19. Moody and Clagett, p. 80.
20. O'Leary, pp. 174-75.
21. Heinrich Suter, "Abhandlung ?ber die Ausmes
sung der Parabel von Ibrahim ibn Sinain ion Th?bit ibn
Qurra, aus dem Arabischen ?ber sett und commentient,"
Der Viertelijahrschrift der Naturforschen den Gesell
schaft 63 (1918): 214-28.
Of the many works attributed to
Th?bit ibn Qurra, few have as yet received
other hand, we do know that Th?bit
translated mathematical works of Mene
laus, Archimedes, Euclid, Ptolemy, Galen,
Theodosious, Apollonius, Hippocrates
(both of Cos and of Chios), Eutocious,
Ishaq ibn Hunain.23 His revised transla
tion of the El?ments, from a translation by
Ishaq ibn Hunain, is considered to be
among the best in the world.24 All in all,
Th?bit wrote over 150 works in Arabic on
logic, mathematics, astronomy, and
medicine. In addition, he wrote fifteen
books in Syriac.25 A large number of
Th?bit's manuscripts contain more than
one tract; the total number of copies that
appear in Latin translations runs as higli
as245.26
Some of the translations that Th?bit
wrote form an integral part of the "Arabic
Corpus."27 There are many fine mathe
matical works that appear in the Arabic
Corpus. The works listed below were
translated by Th?bit ibn Qurra and are
contained in the Arabic Corpus.28
1. Almagest?Ptolemy (ca. a.d. 150)29
2. Arithm?tica?Nichomachus (ca.
a.d. 100)
22. Sarton, Introduction, p. 601.
23. Son of Hunain ibn Ishaq, famous physician
and translator.
24. Howard Eves, An Introduction to the History of
Mathematics, p. 193.
26. F. Carmody, "Notes on the Astronomical
Works of Th?bit ibn Qurra," Isis 46 (1955) : 235-43.
26. Carmody, "Notes," p. 236.
27. Carmody, Astronomical Works, p. 23.
28. Ibid.
29. The Almagest {Mathematical Syntaxis or
M egali Syntaxis tes Astronom?as) was later translated
from the Arabic of Th?bit into the Latin of Gerard
of Cremona, the greatest translator of the Middle
Ages, at Toledo in 1175. It is significant to note that
Gerard of Cremona is the father of Arabicism in
Europe, for "more of Arabic science came into Western
Europe at the hands of Gerard of Cremona than in
any other way." Cf. Haskins, The Renaissance of the
Twelfth Century, pp. 28&-88.

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 3. Assumpta?Archimedes (287-212
b.c.)
4. Catoptrica?Euclid (ca. 300 b.c.)
5. Conica?Apollonius (ca. 225 b.c.)
6. Data?Euclid
7. De leve?Euclid
8. De mensura circulii?Archimedes30
9. De orto?Autolycus (ca. 330 b.c.)
10. De sphaera et cylindro?Menelaus
(a.d. 100)
11. De sphaera mota?Autolycus
12. Elements?Euclid
13. Hypotheses?Ptolemy
14. Liber datorum?Th?bit ibn Qurra
15. Optica?Euclid
Let us now examine the mathematical
contributions made by Th?bit ibn Qurra
through his dissection proof of the Pythag
orean theorem and his generalization of
the Pythagorean theorem. Tradition is
unanimous in ascribing to Pythagoras the
independent discovery of the theorem for
a right triangle, that the square of the
length of one side added to the square of
the length of the other side equals the
square of the length of the hypotenuse.
This theorem was known to the Baby
lonians during the time of Hammurabi,
more than a thousand years before the
birth of Pythagoras. In any event, the first
general proof of this theorem may have
been given by Pythagoras. The proof
of the Pythagorean theorem is contained
in the Elements of Euclid (Book I, Prop
osition 47). Today there are over 300
demonstrations of the Pythagorean
theorem.31
Th?bit ibn Qurra did considerable
30. De mensura circuiti was translated from the
Arabic of Th?bit into the Latin of Gerard of Cremona
and perhaps also by Plato of Tivoli. Clagett writes
that Archimedes's method of quadrature became
available through Th?bit's translations. This was
certainly a major step over the vague method of
quadrature discussed in Boethius's Commentary on the
Categories of Aristotle. Cf. Marshall Clagett, Archi
medes in the Middle Ages: The Latin-Arabo Tradition,
pp. 15-58.
31. Elisha S. Loomis, The Pythagorean Theorem
(pp. 120-21 in particular).
522 The Mathematics Teacher | October 1970
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work on this theorem and presented proofs
that are completely original. His work on
this theorem is found in an extant Istanbul
manuscript.32 In this manuscript, one finds
a collection of scientific and scholarly
articles. Among them are several by Th?bit
ibn Qurra. One of them deals with the
proof of the Pythogorean theorem by a
method of dissection. It is of historical
interest to remark that the manuscript
containing Th?bit's proof is still in good
condition. It is now located in the library
of Aya Sofya Museum in Turkey, re
gistered under the number 4832. Another
copy of this manuscript is located at Cairo
and has been investigated by H. Suter.33
Th?bit proves the Pythagorean theorem
by a method called reduction and com
position or, as it is sometimes referred to,
the reduction of triangles and rearrange
ment by juxtaposition. Dissection proofs
of the Pythagorean theorem are quite
numerous in the history of mathematics.
The main idea in a dissection proof is the
concept of congruence. Two areas are
said to be congruent by addition if they
both can be dissected into corresponding
pairs of congruent pieces. They are said
to be congruent by subtraction if corre
sponding parts can be summed together so
that the resulting figures, formed by this
addition, are congruent to each other.
From figure 1, H. Perigal in 1873 proved
the Pythagorean theorem by the method
of dissection. But Professor Eves points
out that this was only a "rediscovery,"
for the dissection proof was already known
to Th?bit ibn Qurra.34
Th?bit considers triangle ABC with
right angle at C, and he wishes to prove
that a2 + b2 = c2. The proof now follows:
1. Construct on side AC the square
A'C whose area is b2.
2. Extend BC to F so that^'F = BC
32. A. Sayili, "Th?bit ibn Qurra's Generalization
of the Pythagorean Theorem," Isis 51 (1960) : 35-37.
33. Suter, p. 37.
34. Eves, p. 73.

Belletin, a quarterly journal of the Turkish
historical society.86
Figure 1
and construct on side B'F the
square B'D whose area is a2.
3. A'D' is extended to E so that A'E
= B'D'( = BC). Draw DE and E A.
4. It now follows that in triangles
ABC, BDF, DED', and AEA',
a) the sides AC, FB, D'E, and A'A
are equal to each other.
AC = FB = D'E = A'A.
b) the sides BC, DF, DD', and E A'
are equal to each other.
BC = DF = DD' = E A'.
5. Angle AC = angle DFB = angle
DD'E = angle EA'A = 90?.
6. By S.A.S., AABC ^ ABDF ^ ADD'E
^ AEA'A.
7. As a consequence of the congruence,
AB = BD = DE = E A.
8. Moreover, angle 2?AA' = angle BAC
which implies that angle EAB
= angle A'AC = 90?.
9. Furthermore, angle BDE can be
shown to be a right angle and thus
ABDE is a square; that is, the
square on the hypotenuse A.
10. The area of square AD = c2.
11. Clearly we can obtain the following
with regard to area.
/ + // + ABDD'A' = A'C( = 62)
+ ?'D(=al);
/// + AIV + ABDD'A' = AD{ = c*).
12. Obviously, AI + All + ABDD'A'
= AHI + AIV + ABDD'A' since
M = MI = All? = MV (from step
6).
13. Thus, a2 + 62 = c2.
That Th?bit had given such a proof is
reinforced by yet another written source,
al-Nairizi (fl. ca. a.d. 900) in his commen
tary on Euclid's Elements. The Arabic
text and Turkish translation of Th?bit's
proof have been briefly sketched in
A second proof of the Pythagorean
theorem that is attributed to Th?bit87 is
quite subtle. Let us now consider figure 2.
Figure 2
1. AABC is a right triangle with right
angle at C.
2. On side CB construct square CD
whose area is a2.
3. On side AC construct square HC
whose area is 62.
4. On hypotenuse AB construct square
BG whose area is c2.
5. It can be shown that AFLC = AFMC
= AABC = ABED = A AG H = AFGE.
6. ABDFH?(AABC+AFCM+AFLC)
= square CD + square CH = a2 + b2.
7. ABDFH -(ABED+AFGE+AGHA)
= square BG = c2.
35. Sir Thomas L. Heath, The Thirteen Books of
Euclid*s Elements translated from the text of Heiberg,
I, p. 364.
36. A. Sayili, "S?bit ibn Kurra' nin Pitagor
Teoremini Tamimi," Belletin 22 (1958) : 527-49.
37. Sayili, "Th?bit ibn Qurra's Generalization,"
p. 36.

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 8. From steps 6 and 7 we have square on the same diagram.39 In Yanney's proof
CD + square CH = square BG or we will deal with parallelograms rather
?2 + 02 = c2. than triangles. Let us now consider
It is important to note that, in 1910, figure 4.
A. R. Colburn proved the Pythagorean
L
theorem by using Th?bit's construction.38
The similarity of Colburn's proof to
Th?bit's is indeed amazing. One differ
ence, however, is that Colburn proves the
Pythagorean theorem algebraically by
extending line segments HA and DB to
meet at point P. Let us now consider
figure 3, which Colburn used to demon
strate the Pythagorean theorem.

Figure 4

In figure 4, triangle ABC is

angle with right angle at C. Ya
the Pythagorean theorem
manner as Th?bit ibn Qurra b
following:
1. Construct MC\\LA and construct
FN\\BA.
2. It can be shown that LMOA and
LKCA are parallelograms and that
LMOA = LKCA = b2(ACDE).
Figure 3 3. It can be shown that HMOB,
HKCB are parallelograms and that
HMOB = HKCB = HKDF = a*.
Colburn's proof immediately follows
from figure 3. 4. By the addition axiom we have
LMOA + HMOB = a2 + b2. Bui
(a + ?)2 = PF, and PF - AE + ??\ABC.
LMOA + HMOB is precisely square
a2 -h 2ab + 62 = PF = e* + = c2 + 2ab. AH whose area is c2.
a2 + 62 = c2. 5. Therefore, a2+b2 = c2.
Yet another way of looking at this proof
It is interesting to note that Professor
is to make use of the following:
B. F. Yanney in 1903 offered a proof of
the Pythagorean theorem that is not un ANQB=AEFB=AEDC=b*;
like Th?bit's dissection proof. Indeed, the
LNQH= LEFH= HKDF=a\
diagram that Yanney used is identical By the addition axiom we have ANQB
with Th?bit's, but Yanney presents three + LNQH =a2 + b2 and, of course, ANQB
proofs of the Pythagorean theorem based + LNQH = square AH whose area is c2.

39. . F. Yanney and J. Calderheath, "New and

38. A. R. Colburn, Scientific American Supple Old Proofs of the Pythagorean Theorem," American
ment 70 (1910) : 382. Mathematical Monthly 3 (1903): 65, 110, 169, 299.

524 The Mathematics Teacher | October 1970

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Again we conclude that taking. The following is the generalization
of the Pythagorean theorem as given by
Th?bit ibn Qurra. If from vertex A of a
According to A. Sayili, the more im triangle ABC two lines AB' and AC1 are
portant contributions of Th?bit ibn Qurra drawn forming with the base BC the angles
deal with the generalization of the Pythag
ACB' and AB'C, respectively, both equal
orean theorem.40 In connection with the
to angle BAC, then the sum of the squares
generalization of the Pythagorean theorem, of the sides AB and AC is equal to the
our interest centers around a letter written
rectangle BB'+CC times BC. If angle
by Th?bit to a friend who was somewhat BAC is obtuse, then Bf and C will be
disappointed with the so-called Socratic interchanged. In light of the aforemen
proof of the Pythagorean theorem. Basi tioned, let us consider figure 5.
cally, the disappointment stems from the
fact that the proof deals with a special
case only, namely, that of an isosceles tri
angle. Th?bit's friend expressed interest in
a general proof of the Pythagorean the
orem. Sayili claims that Th?bit's com
munication to his friend constitutes an
"important contribution" to the history of
mathematics.41 It is this communication
that we will be concerned with. After re
lating to his friend the two proofs of the
Pythagorean theorem (given earlier in this Figure 5
article), Th?bit commends his friend for
desiring such mathematical knowledge We now wish to prove, in figure 5, the
and further adds that generalizations following:
achieved by the former proofs may not (AB)2 + (AC)2 = BC(BB' + CC).
be considered sufficient. Although the
Instead of giving a proof of this theorem,
request by Th?bit's friend was fairly
Th?bit only states the theorem.44 The
straightforward, Th?bit offered an elab
proof that now follows, of course, is not
orate and highly comprehensive answer.
due to Th?bit ibn Qurra and, moreover,
For example, one would wish, he says, not uses modern notation.
to impose the restrictions of working solely
with squares and right triangles.42 In the 1. From the law of cosines, for which
first case, one could demonstrate, as the Pythagorean theorem is a special
Euclid had done, that the sum of any case, one can write
similar figures located on the sides of any 52 _|_ C2 = a2 _|_ 26c cos A.

right triangle is equal to a similar figure 2. Upon substituting for a, b, and c,

placed on the hypotenuse.43 In the latter
case, on the other hand, Th?bit wishes to
generalize the theorem to any triangle
whatever. This proposal that Th?bit
wishes to demonstrate is no small under
40. Sayili, "Th?bit ibn Qurra's Generalization,"
p. 35.
41. Ibid.
42. Ibid.
43. Heath, II, pp. 268-69 (Book VI: p: 31).
respectively, in step 1, the result is:
(AB)2 + (AC)2 = (BC)2 + 2(AB)(AC) cos A.
3. Since angle BAC = angle AC'B'
= angle AB'C, then cos A = cos
AB'C = cos AC'B'. Thus,
2 cos A = cos AC'B' + cos AB'C.
44. C. J. Scriba, "John Wallis' Treatise of Angular
Sections and Th?bit ibn Qurra's Generalization of the
Pythagorean theorem," I aia 57: 56-67.Cf. Carl .
Boyer, A Hiatory of Mathematica, p. 259.

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 4. Substituting step 3 in step 2, the One should be cognizant of the historical
result is: fact that this theorem appeared in the
(AB)1 + (AO* - (BC)* + (BA)(AC) 1790 edition of Jacques Ozanam's R?
(cos AC'B' + cos AB'C) cr?ations Math?matiques et Physiques, vol
ume 1, pp. 289-90.46 Recent evidence
5. Altitude A F is drawn on side BC so
shows that the theorem stated by Th?bit
that (i) cos AC'B' = FC9/AC9 and was discovered independently about the
(it) cos = FB'/AB'. year 1665 by John Wallis. In fact, Wallis's
6. Substituting 5 in 4, the result is as Treatise of Angular Sections is based on
follows: two sources, namely, Ptolemy's lemma and
(AB)* + (AC)* ? (BC)* + (BA)(AC) the generalization of Th?bit ibn Qurra.46
/FC FB'\ Th?bit goes on to say that "should one
\AC * AB')' wish to see yet a still more general the
orem, one in which neither the type of the
7. Since triangle AC'B' is isosceles it
then follows that side AC istriangle
equalnor the shape of the figure drawn
on its sides is restricted, then one may say
to side AB'. In light of this, the
that the sum of any similar figures simi
following is then true :
larly placed on the two sides of any tri
(AB)* + (AC)* = (BC)* + (BA)(AC)
angle is equal to the figure whose ratio to
(FC +
/FC + FB'\
FB'\
\ AB' / the similar figure similarly drawn on the
third side is the same as the ratio of
8. Furthermore, triangle ABB' is simi BB'+CC to BC"? But this conclusion
lar to triangle ABC (a.a. = a.a.) by was known to the Greek mathematician
an identity angle at and because Pappus.48
it is given that angle A is equal to It is clear from a study of Th?bit's
angle AB'C. Consequently, theorem that he has heavily relied on the
A BC Ant (BA)(AC)
or AB' =
Elements. In particular, Sayili states that
AB' AC BC the above theorem is "reducible or deriv
able" from the Euclidean propositions
9. Substituting 8 in 7, the result is:
12, II and 13, II.49 It is highly probable
(AB)* + (AO* = (BC)*
that it was+on (BA)(AC)
these propositions that
(FC + FB')(BC)
Th?bit based his generalization. The very
(BA)(AC) *being dealt with in this article
theorem
was long nonextant
10. Upon simplifying step but was
9,rediscovered
we have
(AB)* + (AC)* only as recently as 1953. Th?bit's general
ization contains
= (BC)* + (BC)(FC +FB') references to various spe
cial cases
= (BC)[BC + (FC + FB')] where angle A is a right angle
== ?C(?C + ?'C")(angle B' and angle C" +
= BC(BB' would have to
CC").
coincide) or when angle or angle C is a
It is interesting to
right note that
angle. In addition, Th?bitTh?bit's
also con
generalization of the Pythagorean
siders the fascinating case in which theorem
angle
immediately follows from the following
proportions.
BC:AC:AB = AC:CC':AC = A A '.
45. Carl . Boyer, "Clairaut le cadet and a
The next step would then be the following:
Theorem of Th?bit ibn Qurra," IaU 55 (1964) : 68-70.
(AB)* = (BC)(BB')y and (AC)* = (BC)(CC).46. Scriba, p. 67.
47. Sayili, "Th?bit ibn Qurra's Generalisation,"
p. 38.
By adding, we arrive at the generalization
48. Eves, p. 179.
of the Pythagorean theorem:
49. Sayili, "Th?bit ibn Qurra's Generalization,"
(AB)* + (AC)* = (BC)(BB' + CC). p. 38.

526 The Mathematics Teacher | October 1970

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A is less than 60?, with C or B' situated works.53 Gerard's translation is quite
outside the segment BC, and the case in different from that used by Adelard and
which angle A is larger than a right, angle is, in fact, much closer to the "best Greek
and BB' + CC is less than BC. tradition."54 In accordance with the Ara
In concluding his letter, Th?bit remarks bic style of writing during the ninth
that knowledge is perfect when it combines century, Th?bit made his additions in the
the most general with the particular. For, third person so that there would be a con
he goes on to say, in purely general trast with other editions.55 The original
knowledge there is already the knowledge version of Ishaq has not survived. We only
of the particular cases. Moreover, he also have Th?bit's revision of Ishaq's transla
states that in the course of instruction one tion. Two manuscripts of the Ishaq
has to follow a procedure in which there is Th?bit improved version exist today.56 As
a gradual increase in generalization and strange as it may seem, the famous Arabic
comprehension. commentator and mathematician al-Qifti
In concluding this article, it is important credits Th?bit with an independent trans
to note that the Fihrist mentions that lation of the Elements and not with a mere
Th?bit ibn Qurra translated the Elements improvement of Ishaq's version.57
on the basis of the version by Ishaq ibn The preface of the Ishaq-Th?bit version
Hunain.50 There seems to be little doubt is of great historical interest in mathe
that Ishaq, the son of the famous Arabic matics because it uncovers the methods
physician Hunain ibn Ishaq (807-873), that the Arabic translators and mathe
knew Greek as well as his father did.51 maticians used. To be sure, the Ishaq
Heath claims that there must have been Th?bit version is not free from errors,
an agreement between Ishaq and Th?bit obscurities, and omissions. Nevertheless,
with respect to the translation of Euclid's Nasir ed-Din Ahmed al-Tusi (1201-1274)
Elements. Moreover, Th?bit undoubtedly became familiar with the Ishaq-Th?bit
consulted Greek sources for the purposes translation, and he, himself, translated
of his manuscript revision. There is direct twTo editions of the Elements on the basis
evidence that Gerard of Cremona's trans of this work. In 1594, one of al-Tusi's
lation of the Elements is a word-for-word editions was published in Rome, and re
translation of the work of Th?bit ibn markably enough some copies of this work
Qurra. Gerard's translation of the Ele are still found today with the following
ments contains several notes directly Latin title: Euclidis elementorum geo
quoted from Th?bit concerning alternative merricorum libri tredecim ex traditione
proofs that Th?bit found in other Greek doctissimi nasiridinni nunc primum ara
manuscripts. Heath claims that this is bice impressi.
further testimony to Th?bit's critical
treatment of the text.52 Clagett points out
that Gerard of Cremona based his transla 53. Marshall Clagett, "The Medieval Latin Trans
lations from the Arabic of the Elements of Euclid,
tion on the version of Ishaq ibn Hunain with Special Emphasis on the Versions of Adelard of
that was later revised and improved by Bath," Isis 44 (1956) : 16-42.
Th?bit ibn Qurra. For Clagett has com 54. Ibid.
55. Ibid. N.B. Refer? Thebit qui transtulit hunc
pared the Gerard of Cremona text with librum de greco in Arabicam linguam se invenisse quod
Th?bit's version and concluded that there additur ante figur?m tricesiman primam huius partis
is a great similarity between the two in quibusdam scriptis graecis cuiusdam joanitii
babiloniensis, quod tarnen non est de libro.
56. These MSS are described by Nicoli and Pusey.
The MSS are presently located in the Bodelian
50. Heath, p. 37. Library #279, #280.
51. Max Meyerhof, "New Light on Hunain ibn 57. Heath, p. 94.
Ishaq," Isis 8 (1926) : 685-725. 58. George Sarton, Ancient and Medieval Science
52. Heath, II, p. 93. During the Renaissance, pp. 160-161.

Excellence in Mathematics Education?For All 527

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 In conclusion, the introduction of Isla
mic science and mathematics into the
Latin world altered the mathematical cul
ture of medieval Latin Christendom. For
Western Europe assimilated the main fea
tures of the Greco-Arabic mathematical
heritage that ultimately resulted in the
awakening of critical mathematical
thought throughout Europe. The epoch
of translations that took place in Islam,
mainly in the ninth and tenth centuries,
absorbed the classical mathematics of
Greece. The numerous translations that
were transmitted by the Arabs, Th?bit
ibn Qurra in particular, during the course
of several centuries reached Europe
through Spain, Syria, and Sicily and laid
the foundation of mathematical knowl
edge that was to dominate European
thought. Thus, the introduction of Arabic
mathematics and science into Western
Europe divides the history of math
ematics in the Middle Ages into two
distinct periods. In the early period, man
had to rely on the fragmentary writings of
Capella, Bede, and Isidore. In the later
period, the Latin West had Arabic com
mentaries on the original works of the
Greek mathematicians.69 To ba sure,
Th?bit ibn Qurra is a strong link in the
evolutionary mathematical chain between
Greek and Latin mathematics.
59. Carl . Boyer, A History of Mathematics (op.
cit.. n. 44), p. 269.

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