SEG Reviews

Vol. 13, 2000, p. 279–314

Chapter 8

Gold Deposits Related to Alkaline Magmatism

ERIC P. JENSEN† AND MARK D. BARTON
Center for Mineral Resources, Department of Geosciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721

Abstract

Gold deposits associated with alkaline rocks include high-grade, gold-rich epithermal deposits, porphyry-
type Cu(Au) and Mo(Au) deposits, and several other deposit types more speculatively linked to alkaline
magmatism. These deposits can be large and high grade; several contain >1,000 tonnes Au. Alkaline
rocks associated with gold deposits range from mafic-ultramafic lamprophyres to fractionated alkaline
rhyolites, they have widely variable K/Na ratios, and they are found in a variety of tectonic settings, most
notably in arc environments and in areas of extensional tectonics. Alkaline Cu(Au) deposits tend to form
in volcanic arcs with thin or mafic crust, whereas Mo(Au) deposits are typically found in areas of thick-
ened continental crust. Alkaline rocks are found to be as old as the Archean, but alkaline-related gold
deposits are usually associated with shallow-level Phanerozoic alkaline magmatism, particularly within
Cenozoic orogenic zones. In many cases deposits are found in clusters or in regions with recurring
episodes of alkaline magmatism. Key characteristics of alkaline rocks associated with gold deposits are
their hydrous and oxidized nature, as well as their ability to produce hydrothermal systems with ideal
chemistries for transporting gold. Magmatic endowments may be variable but are not likely to exceed
tens of parts per billion.
In addition to their association with a distinctive group of igneous rocks, gold deposits related to alkaline
magmatism are characterized by telluride-rich mineralization, extensive carbonation, and voluminous K
metasomatism. Hydrothermal quartz is much less prominent in many alkaline systems than in most sub-
alkaline systems and is absent in some high-temperature alkaline deposits. Likewise, hydrolytic (acid)
alteration tends to be poorly developed in many alkaline systems. Where sericitic alteration is observed,
it is commonly accompanied by carbonate minerals and a significant gain of K2O. These features and
other geochemical data (such as isotopes and fluid inclusions) reflect formation from hydrothermal flu-
ids of predominantly magmatic origin. Alkaline porphyry-style systems in which SiO2 < 60 wt percent tend
to develop deposits rich in Cu and platinum-group elements (PGE), whereas more felsic systems were en-
riched in Mo, and ultimately, F, Be, Hg, W, and Sn in the most evolved systems. Alkaline gold deposits
also exhibit distinctive metal ratios and zonations. Both Cu(Au) and Mo(Au) porphyry-type deposits may
grade upward or outward into telluride-rich epithermal deposits. Epithermal parts typically are base
metal poor and have Au > Ag, whereas porphyry-style parts contain significant gold but have Ag > Au in
a base metal-rich core. Both epithermal and porphyry-type deposits typically have low total sulfides.
Exploration for these deposits is encouraged by their large sizes and high grades and because they are
environmentally favorable to mine (low total sulfides and high acid-buffering potential). The most pro-
ductive deposits show evidence for voluminous metasomatism and multiple magmatic and hydrothermal
events, in addition to structurally focused zones of high-grade mineralization. Geophysical and geo-
chemical signatures of these deposits are variable, but their characteristic styles of mineralization and
alteration can be recognized in almost all examples, providing an effective exploration tool.

Introduction linked to alkaline magmatism. These include some lode

A DISTINCTIVE group of gold-rich deposits have fundamen-
tally alkaline magmatic affinities, and many other gold-rich
deposits occur near alkali-rich igneous rocks. Gold deposits
clearly linked to alkaline magmatic systems include gold-tel-
luride epithermal-style deposits, a number of gold-rich por-
phyry-style deposits, and a few magmatic deposits. Some
other types of gold-rich deposits can be spatially associated
with alkali-rich igneous rocks but are more speculatively
†Corresponding author: e-mail, ejensen@geo.arizona.edu
gold-quartz (mesothermal) deposits, many Olympic Dam-
type iron oxide-copper-gold deposits, and some submarine
exhalative deposits. This paper reviews the characteristics
and origins of those systems that are indisputably associated
with alkaline magmas and discusses features that distinguish
these deposits from other types. Deposit types with less cer-
tain links to alkaline magmatism are considered only briefly.
Alkaline-related gold deposits range in grade and size,
and the largest districts contain on the order of 1,000 t of gold
(Fig. 1). World class examples of epithermal gold deposits
related to alkaline rocks include the giant gold deposits at

279
280 JENSEN AND BARTON

100 10 10 10 10
ton 0t 00 00
on ton 0t
sA sA on
u u sA sA
u u
La Plata
Pla a Mts, CO
Cripple Creek I, CO
Crip

10 1t Salt Chuck,
uck, AK Central City Emperor, Fiji Porgera,
Porg a, P
Papua New Guinea
on
Au
Carache Canyon, NM Ladolam,
ad Philippines
Sulphrets
phrets, BC
grade (g/t)

Old Golden Sunlight, MT

Epithermal mine
mineralization Cunningham
ning Placers, NM Cripple Creek II, CO
1 Hill,, NMM
Afton, BC , MT
Porphyry mineralization
ion Goonumbla,
a Aus
A Mt. Milligan, BC Bingham, UT
Ajax, BC
C Galore Cree
Creek, BC
Kerr, BC
Mt. Polley (Cariboo
Car Bell), BC
0.1
Allard Stock, CO

0.01
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
ore (million tonnes)
FIG. 1. Grade tonnage plot for alkaline-related gold deposits. Dashed contours indicate total gold in deposit. Shaded
ellipse defines field for >80 percent of mesothermal lode veins (after Taylor, 1995). The Salt Chuck, Alaska, alkaline
orthomagmatic deposit is shown in italicized letters (Mutschler and Mooney, 1993). Cripple Creek and the La Plata
district have each been plotted as two points. The point labeled “La Plata Mts” represents historic production from
high-grade epithermal veins. The point labeled “Allard Stock” represents the porphyry-style Cu-Au-PGE deposit. Crip-
ple Creek is plotted as “Cripple Creek I” and “Cripple Creek II,” high-grade veins systems and low-grade “dissemi-
nated” deposits, respectively.

Cripple Creek in Colorado, Porgera in Papua New Guinea,
and Emperor in Fiji. Alkaline porphyry deposits typically
contain much lower gold grades but can represent signifi-
cant gold resources owing to their large sizes. They include
both mafic- to intermediate-associated Cu(Au) deposits, and
intermediate- to felsic-associated Mo(Au) types. Alkaline
gold deposits are best known in North America and in the
southwestern Pacific, but they occur globally in association
with Phanerozoic alkaline magmatism (Fig. 2).
Some other large deposits of gold (and copper) primarily
associated with subalkaline igneous rocks have alkaline
magmatic affinities. These include deposits associated with
marginally subalkaline rocks, such as the Grasberg Cu-Au
deposit (McMahon, 1994; Müller and Groves, 1997) and
deposits with coeval but volumetrically subordinate alkaline
magmatism, as seen in the Bingham Cu-Au-Mo deposit
(Keith et al., 1997, 1998).
In other cases, alkaline igneous rocks are spatially associ-
ated with gold deposits, but a genetic link remains contro-
versial. Lode gold deposits in the Superior province of
Canada and the Yilgarn block of Western Australia are spa-
tially associated with shoshonitic lamprophyres and, locally,
syenitic rocks (Kerrich and Watson, 1984; Rock and Groves,
1988a, b; Rock et al., 1989; Wyman and Kerrich, 1988,
1989). Many Olympic Dam-type iron oxide-copper-gold
deposits are spatially associated with alkaline granitoids
(Mutschler and Mooney, 1993, p. 486) and possibly with
carbonatites (as seen at Bayan Obo, China). In other cases,
however, this style of mineralization is clearly associated with
subalkaline igneous rocks and is accompanied by volumi-
nous alkaline metasomatism (Hitzman et al., 1992; Barton
and Johnson, 1996). Some submarine exhalative deposits
are spatially associated with alkaline rocks including alka-
line basalts, trachytes, and possibly carbonatites. These
deposits are typically small (Mutschler and Mooney, 1993;
fig. 5) and encompass a wide range of mineralization styles
and metal contents (Mutschler et al., 1985; Mutschler and
Mooney, 1993).
Types of alkaline rocks associated with gold mineralization
Daly (1933) estimated the volume of alkaline rocks to be
less than 0.5 percent of all igneous rocks, yet alkaline rocks
account for about half of the igneous rock nomenclature
(Sorensen, 1974, p. 559–76). (Although widely cited, the 0.5
percent figure is probably in need of revision. At the other
extreme, Barker (1974, p. 163) suggested that alkaline rocks
may account for 10 percent of all igneous rocks.) The con-
fusing lexicon of alkaline rock names results in part from
their unusual chemistries and mineralogies, and in part
from the lack of agreement among petrologists as to how
these rocks should be named and classified. Thus, there are
many definitions of alkaline igneous rocks; most overlap. In
this paper we emphasize those defined on the basis of total
Na2O + K2O versus SiO2 (Fig. 3a, b; Irvine and Baragar,
1971; Cox et al., 1979; Le Bas et al., 1986). Such rocks may
have normative quartz feldspathoids or olivine, or neither
(that is, silica may be respectively oversaturated, undersatu-
rated, or saturated). They are commonly but not necessarily
peralkaline (molar Na2O + K2O > molar Al2O3), and they
generally belong to the alkalic or alkali-calcic magma types
 GOLD DEPOSITS RELATED TO ALKALINE MAGMATISM
Zortman Landusky
Golden Sunlight
Galore Creek
Boulder County
Superior
Mt. Polley Province
Cripple Creek
Bingham
Allard Stock
Sierra Blanca
FIG. 2. Locations of gold districts and regions of alkaline magmatism. Crosshairs represent locations of alkaline rock
samples in PLUTO database (Baedecker et al., 1998). Shaded regions are known provinces and other localities of alka-
line magmatism. Data from various sources, including Mutschler et al. (1976), Woolley (1987), and Kogarko et al. (1995).
in the sense of Peacock (1931), defined on the relationships
of total alkalis to calcium as a function of SiO2. Further sub-
divisions in terms of potassium versus sodium contents can
be useful and have been widely applied, e.g., ultrapotassic,
high K (“shoshonitic”), and sodic series. In this paper we
emphasize only the distinctions clearly related to gold-bear-
ing hydrothermal systems.
As applied, the term alkaline refers to a remarkably broad
range of igneous rocks including carbonatites (which com-
monly have very low alkali contents), as well as quartz-rich
rocks with high alkali concentrations such as high K rhyo-
lites. Many alkaline igneous complexes contain coeval alka-
line and subalkaline rock types, and strict division between
the two types is not always possible or appropriate.
Alkaline rock types associated with gold mineralization
(Fig. 3) range from ultramafic lamprophyres (<40 wt %
SiO2) to fractionated, high K rhyolites (up to 75 wt %
SiO2). Gold-rich alkaline complexes typically exhibit multi-
ple intrusive phases and show evidence of complex evolu-
tionary histories. Individual gold-producing complexes can
exhibit a wide range of compositions; many evolve in ways
more complex than crystal fractionation. The histories of
alkaline magmatic systems appear to correlate with the
styles and magnitudes of mineralization.
Figure 3 shows compositional trends of alkaline rocks
from several important alkaline Au deposits. Most districts
plot near the boundary between the alkaline and subalka-
line fields and span a considerable range of K/Na ratios. In
281
Porgera Ladolam
Emperor
Grasberg
Goonumbla
Phalaborwa
Yilgarn Block
Olympic Dam
many cases, both silica-saturated and silica-undersaturated
rocks are found in the same system. The ranges of compo-
sitions plotted in Figure 3 do not necessarily reflect evolu-
tionary paths. At Cripple Creek, for example, intrusions
became successively more mafic with time and exhibit little
evidence for consanguinity (E. Jensen, unpub. data).
Subdivisions of alkaline rocks commonly depend on the
proportions of K to Na. In particular, the term “shoshonitic”
has been used to describe potassic varieties of alkaline
basalts, and some authors have suggested that shoshonitic
rocks are particularly favorable for hosting Cu + Au miner-
alization (Müller and Groves, 1997). According to its Inter-
national Union of Geological Sciences definition, the term
shoshonite refers to basaltic trachyandesites in which
Na 2O – 2 < K 2O. Unfortunately, this definition allows
rocks with molar Na/K as high as 3.5 to be classified as
shoshonitic, a category that then includes much of the
range of Na/K for average igneous rocks. This definition is
far from the use intended by Iddings (1895), Joplin (1968),
and Morrison (1980). As shown in Figure 3c and d, most
large alkaline gold deposits are associated with distinctly
sodic rocks, almost all of which have been classified as part
of a “shoshonite” series at some point, implying potassic
chemistries (Rock et al., 1988; Eaton and Setterfield, 1993;
Müller and Groves, 1997). As it has been applied, the
shoshonite classification does not appear to be a useful cri-
terion for distinguishing a group of rocks with high poten-
tial for gold mineralization.
 18 18
a b
16 16
phonolite
phonolite Zortman
14 Galore Allard 14 Landusky
Creek stock
K2O + Na2O wt %

Sierra

K2O + Na2O wt %
Blanca
12 12 tephri-
tephri- phonolite
Cripple phonolite
foidite foidite Central
10 Creek Alkaline 10 City
Subalkaline
phono-
o- phono-
tephri
hrit
hrite tephrite trachy-
d it
8 Emperor
p Goonumbla 8
basaltic hyolite
rhyolite tephrite tryachy-
andesite
6 6
Bingham dacite dacite
minettes
4 andesite
4 andesite
basaltic
basalt basaltic
andesite andesite
2 basalt 2 basalt
picro-
p basalt
basalt
0 0
30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80

SiO2 wt % SiO2 wt %

16
c Allard
stock
Kf
+N
a+
=
Metasomatic
vectors
16
d Kf
+N
a+
Metasomatic
= vectors
+
14 Alb + + 14 +
K + Alb + +

po
po

Ser + = K + +
Na + Ser + H+ =
Na

ta
ta

12 12

ss
ss

3Kf + 2H+ =
ser + 6SiO2 + 2K+ 3Kf + 2H+ =

ic
ic

ser + 6SiO2 + 2K+

10 a 10 a
=N =N
Wt % K2O

Wt % K2O

lK lK
mo mo
8 8

so
so

dic
dic

Rocks
Igneous Rocks

4 4

B ks
2 su 2 Roc Central
City

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Wt % Na2O Wt % Na2O
FIG. 3. Total alkali silica diagrams show compositions of igneous rocks from alkaline-associated gold systems:
(a) mafic-intermediate, (b) intermediate-felsic. Fields are shown for published whole-rock geochemical analyses from
various districts (see Table 1 for references). Alkaline rock fields are defined by Rollinson (1993), and alkaline vs. sub-
alkaline fields by Irvine and Baragar (1971).
Figures 3c, d are K2O vs. Na2O diagrams for mafic-intermediate (3c) and intermediate-felsic (3d) suites. Fields are
shown for published whole-rock geochemical analyses from various districts (see Table 1 for references). Contours rep-
resent molar K = Na and divide sodic and potassic types. The inset in the upper right shows metasomatic vectors for
K vs. Na exchange and sericitic alteration. Sericitic alteration is shown as an array of vectors, ranging from selective re-
placement of albite (darkest) to selective replacement of K feldspar (lightest). Actual paths lie between these end
members. Alb = albite, Kf = K feldspar, Ser = sericite.
The shaded field with horizontal bars represents ranges of average igneous rock compositions, and the stippled
field represents potassic igneous rocks. These data are from the PETROS database (Mutschler et al., 1976). Plotted
are average igneous rocks compositions reported by various authors. These fields are constructed from analyses of
more than 60,000 samples and define typical evolutionary trends for igneous rock series.

It is also important to recognize that not all alkali enrich- Distribution of Au-rich deposits and alkaline igneous rocks
ments in these systems are magmatic. Alkali metasomatism
can be intense in alkaline complexes, and altered rocks Figure 2 shows the global distribution of alkaline igneous
commonly contain > 10 wt percent K2O. As discussed below, rocks and the locations of several important alkaline-
alkali metasomatism can be subtle and not easily recognized related Au deposits. Alkaline rocks are known to be as old
in hand specimen or thin section. Investigators should use as late Archean (Mitchell, 1976; Patchett et al., 1981). They
care when evaluating whole-rock analyses of alkaline rocks. occur in many tectonic settings but are most common in
 GOLD DEPOSITS RELATED TO ALKALINE MAGMATISM 283

rift settings and volcanic arc environments. Some workers,
such as Müller and Groves (1997), distinguish specific set-
tings for alkaline magmatism. It is clear that the range of
alkaline magmatism has few universal features beyond a
connection to mantle processes and generally extensional
tectonics. A simple, general explanation for the genesis of
these magmas is unlikely.
Trace element patterns are commonly used to distin-
guish suites of alkaline rocks from each other (Wilson,
1989; Müller and Groves, 1997). Trace elements such as
light rare earth elements (LREE), large ion lithophile ele-
ments (LILE), and to varying extents, high field-strength
elements (HFSE) can be substantially enriched in alkaline
rocks (Gerasimovsky, 1974; Fitton and Upton, 1987). The
unusual chemistries of alkaline rocks have led to specula-
tion that economically significant elements may also be
enriched, notably Au as suggested by Finch et al. (1983)
and Rock (1991). However, these inferences are based
upon compilations of chemical analyses of varying quality.
The paucity of accurate trace element analyses from indis-
putably fresh rocks often precludes the use of such data.
Trace elements are also used to infer tectonic setting
(Müller and Groves, 1997, p. 28–39) but it is important to
remember that this tectonic setting remains an inference,
even in cases of modern magmatism in which we have the
advantage of collecting real-time data on the structure and
dynamics of the systems. Moreover, in many cases, the
sources and tectonic controls on magmatism remain con-
troversial. In this paper, we summarize inferences about
tectonic settings but only in a broad sense.
Like alkaline magmatic rocks themselves, alkaline-related
gold deposits are in many cases present in clusters (such as
the Boulder County, Colorado, and Montana telluride dis-
tricts). Figure 4 shows major episodes of alkaline activity in
western North America through time and the locations of
alkaline provinces with gold deposits. During the past
250 m.y. of magmatism in western North America, the two
prominent periods of alkaline magmatism were first in the
Jurassic and later (and most dramatically) in late Creta-
ceous through middle Tertiary time (Barton, 1996).

Precambrian
Tertiary
Eocene
E Montana
E Province
M
M
E
O
Paleocene
P Black Hills
M M Province

M
Paleocene
Colorado
Pass Province
M

Olig. Utah
Province?
(eroded) T
Tertiary
OOO Rio Grande
Rift Province
O
O
P = Paleocene
E = Eocene
O = Oligocene
M = Miocene

1 Cripple Creek
2 Central City
Jurassic 3 Allard Stock
4 Golden Sunlight+
Mayflower
5 Zortman Landusky
6 Geis
Cretaceous
FIG. 4. Time-space distribution of alkaline magmatism in the western United States. Data points from various sources, including the PLUTO data-
base (Baedecker et al., 1998) and compilations by Woolley (1987). Data points on the Tertiary map are coded by age. Provinces of alkaline-related
gold deposits are shaded gray, and key districts are numbered and named.
284 JENSEN AND BARTON
Previous work
The relationship between gold deposits and alkaline mag-
matism has been of interest for nearly a century. Lindgren
noted the link between alkaline hydrothermal fluids and the
gold deposits at Cripple Creek during his field seasons in
1903 and 1904: “. . . the remarkable telluride ores were
formed by alkaline solutions emanating from deeper
igneous masses” (Lindgren, 1933a, p. 495). He also recog-
nized the broader association between alkaline magmatism
and fluorine-rich, telluride-bearing epithermal systems
(Lindgren, 1933b, p. 179–180). McLennan (1915) sug-
gested that lamprophyres (alkaline, hydrous mafic and
ultramafic dikes) are indicators of potential gold mineral-
ization in the Superior province of Canada.
With the discovery of world-class alkaline-related gold
deposits such as Porgera and Emperor, and continued devel-
opment of associations between lode gold deposits and lam-
prophyric magmatism (Yilgarn province, Australia, and Supe-
rior province, Canada), the possible link between alkaline
magmatism and other types of gold deposits has gained sig-
nificant attention (Dyer 1936; Moore, 1937; McNeil and Ker-
rich, 1986; Rock and Groves, 1988a, b; Rock et al., 1989;
Wyman and Kerrich, 1988, 1989; Kerrich and Wyman, 1990,
1994). Descriptions of the distinctive styles of mineralization
associated with alkaline precious metal deposits are provided
by Bonham and Giles (1983), Bonham (1984) and Mutschler
et al. (1985). Extended reviews of alkaline-related precious
metal deposits are offered by Mutschler et al. (1985, 1991),
Mutschler and Mooney (1993), and Laznicka (1985, p.
1473–1580). These reviews discuss a variety of deposit types
and offer descriptions of many important districts as well as
deposit models. Richards (1995), in reviewing the character-
istics of alkaline-related epithermal deposits, discussed the
potential link with porphyry-style mineralization and empha-
sized the importance of hydrous, oxidized alkaline composi-
tions for suppressing sulfide saturation in order to generate
large gold deposits. Cox and Singer (1986), Cox and Bagby
(1986), and Bliss et al. (1992) summarize the characteristics
of alkaline-related epithermal gold deposits and provide
grade-tonnage models. Semenov (1974) and Pell (1996) dis-
cuss the broader association between alkaline rocks and min-
eral deposits in general. Many topical deposit- and district-
scale studies provide the basis for this paper and are cited
below.
Magmatic-hydrothermal alkaline gold systems
Magmatic hydrothermal systems related to alkaline magma-
tism form a continuum between relatively low-temperature
(<300°C), shallow (<1–2 km), epithermal-style deposits and
high-temperature (commonly >300°C), variable depth
(>1 km), porphyry-style deposits (Table 1). A number of
districts contain both styles, although in most cases only
one type is known to be economically significant. The
porphyry-style systems range from relatively copper-rich
deposits associated with predominantly mafic- to intermedi-
ate-composition igneous rocks to relatively Mo-rich (or Zn-
and Pb-rich) systems associated with felsic composition
rocks (Fig. 5). All deposits are associated with alkaline
igneous rocks, some of which contain moderate volumes of
subalkaline rock. Associated volcanic rocks range from pre-
dominant to absent, largely as a function of depth of ero-
sion. Several hydrothermal and magmatic events are docu-
mented in most of these systems.
The alkaline-epithermal deposit type differs from other
epithermal deposits by its lesser abundance of hydrothermal
quartz, gold- and telluride-rich mineralization, a paucity of
sericitic and other acid styles of alteration (except near the
surface), mineralization commonly distributed throughout
extended vertical intervals, and the widespread presence of
minerals such as fluorite and roscoelite (V-rich mica). The
porphyry-style parts of these systems range from Cu- to Mo-
rich, have abundant alkali-rich alteration, and vary from
quartz-absent to quartz-rich stockworks. Although some
deposits, such as Galore Creek, British Columbia, differ
markedly from subalkaline porphyry deposits in their
quartz-poor mineralization, others show mineral assem-
blages that are similar to those of subalkaline deposits (Cen-
tral City, Colorado). Thus, a continuum appears to exists
between the two types and clear distinction between alkaline
and subalkaline types is not always possible.
Epithermal-Style Deposits
Epithermal-style systems are those in which evidence
points to low (<300°C) temperatures and shallow levels
(<1–2 km) of formation. They are characterized by Au-rich,
base metal-poor veins with high Au/Ag ratios, and com-
monly tellurides > native gold. Gold may also be present as
disseminated grains of native gold or auriferous pyrite in
alteration halos. The mineralogy of these deposits overlaps
with that of porphyry-style mineralization formed at higher
temperatures and greater depths, as discussed below.
Geologic framework: These deposits are found in a wide
range of geologic settings, but they are most common in
island arc environments (Porgera, Emperor, Ladolam), and
in regions of thickened continental crust (Cripple Creek
and the Au-telluride belts of Montana and Colorado). Tec-
tonic controls are discussed later in this paper and are sum-
marized for eleven districts in Table 1. Deposits are hosted
by a variety of igneous features including calderas (Emperor,
Ladolam), diatremes (Golden Sunlight, Ortiz, Cripple
Creek), and hypabyssal intrusive stocks (Porgera; Boulder
County, Colorado; and the Montana telluride belt). Igneous
complexes are typically on the order of 2 to 5 km in diameter,
show several episodes of intrusive activity, and in many cases
are accompanied by satellite intrusive bodies (Fig. 6). Coeval
volcanic rocks are variably present.
Associated igneous compositions range from alkaline
basalts (Porgera) to alkali rhyolites (Boulder County, Colo-
rado). In most districts, economic mineral deposits were
generated late in the evolution of the igneous complex and
were linked to evolved intrusive phases. At Porgera and
Emperor, for example, the intrusive and volcanic complexes
are dominated by mafic alkaline rocks, but mineralization is
linked to intrusive phases with intermediate compositions,
e.g., the “feldspar porphyries” of Richards et al. (1991) at
 TABLE 1. Characteristics of Selected Gold and Gold-Bearing Deposits Related to Alkaline Magmatism
District, Styles //
type, and Structural controls Fluid compositions and
grades or tonnage Alkalic rocks Tectonic setting Geologic framework of Ore minerals Mineral assemblages sources References

Au(Te) epithermal-style systems Vein minerals // alteration halo or disseminated

mineralization
(phase) = replaced by preceding mineral phase

Porgera, Papua 6 Ma mafic alkaline
New Guinea volcanics;
hawaiite-mugearite. No
Au Nb-Ta or Eu amomalies,
La = 38, Yb = 1.5. K:Na
51 Mt at 7g/t Au = 0.15–0.35
Intrusive complex emplaced in fold thrust
belt shortly after continent-island arc
collision between Australian continent
and Bismark Sea plate. This collision
took place following a period of double
polarity subduction and modification of
the upper mantle
Located near crustal suture
between Australian
|continent and island arc on
Bismark Sea plate.
Intrusions emplaced in
Cretaceous carbonaceous
mudstones and calcareous
siltstones.
Disseminated Au-bearing pyrite
with superimposed high grade,
gold-telluride epithermal veins
(preferentially localized along
normal Roamane fault); deep Cu
“porphyry”-style mineralization?
Au tellurides, Au°, “Stage 1”: py* + gn + sl + qz + CO3 + asp + po + tet + Au° // “Stage 1”: 200°–350°C, up to 32
electrum, auriferous ser + CO3 + py + anat ± qz wt percent NaCl equiv; moderate
pyrite ± auriferous “Stage 2”: qz + py + rocs + CO3 + bar + cpy + tet + elec + CO2
arsenopyrite Au° + tel ± hm // ser + CO3 + rosc + py “Stage 2”: 165°C, 3–10 wt
Deep: porphyry “Cu”? percent NaCl equiv; moderate
Late: anhy + qz + CO3 CO2
Distal/deep?: and + act + hbld + ser(plag) + ep + cal δ18O = 2–6 per mil, δD = –30 to
Distal/regional: - // ep + chl + CO3 ± gt –65 per mil
Disseminated mineralization:
magmatic
High-grade veins: Exchanged
groundwaters with magmatic
contributions
Cameron et al., 1995
Fleming et al., 1986
Handley and Bradshaw,
1986
Handley and Henry, 1990
Richards, 1990a, b
Richards, 1992
Richards and Kerrich, 1993
Richards et al., 1991
Richards et al., 1998
Ronacher et al., 1999

Au/Ag = 1–0.5; zone VII = 1.5

(Handley and Bradshaw, 1986)

Emperor, Fiji 3.8–4.8 Ma mafic alkaline Alkalic trachybasaltic-trachyandesitic
volcanics (absarokite, volcanism followed period of island-arc
Au (± Cu) banakite) intruded by tholeiitic magmatism, and it appears to be
monzonite stocks. Nb-Ta related to arc fragmentation and rifting in
14.7 Mt at 8.1 g/t Au anomalies, La = 20, Yb = late Miocene time. Emplaced in waning
2. K/Na = 0.8 stages of subduction before failure of
subduction zone. A series of mafic
alkaline volcanoes are located along a
northeast-trending crustal-scale normal
fault
Intrusions and
mineralization controlled
by intersection of regional
structure with the Tavua
caldera margin. Intrusions
emplaced into volcanic pile
of interbedded basalts and
volcanic ash at margin of
Tavua caldera.
High grade Au-telluride
epithermal veins (intersections
of steep structures with
“flatmakes”). Deep Cu-
“porphyry” style mineralization
exposed in other regions of
Tavua caldera (Nasivi 3
prospect)
Au°, auriferous pyrite, Central, deep: - // Kf + bio + ser + qz + mt + hm + py + anhy 200°–250°C, 5.5 wt percent NaCl Ahmad and Walshe, 1990
and tellurides + Au° equiv Ahmad et al., 1987a, b
Central, peripheral: - // ser + ill + qz + CO3 + py + Au° Moderate CO2 (?) Anderson and Eaton, 1990
Lode veins: qz + CO3+ ad + ser + rocs + bar + py + asp + gn Anderson et al., 1987
+ sl + tet,tn + Au°, tel // ad + ser + qz + rocs + py + smec δ18O = 5–8 per mil, δD = –10 to Eaton and Setterfield, 1993
Deep peripheral?: alb + anhy + py ± bio, chl, mt, ep, trm, –60‰ Forsythe, 1971
ser-ill Magmatic > seawater ± meteoric Kwak, 1990*
Distal: - // CO3 + chl + smec + py fluids
Shallow: - // alun + qz + kaol + py
Au/Ag = 2

Ladolam, 1.5–0.18 Ma volcanics:
Lihir Island, (trachybasalts) intruded by
Papua New Q-normative monzonite,
Guinea syenite, latite porphyry
dikes. La = 20 (1,500 in
Au (± Cu) ore). 340 Ka
hydrothermal biotite.
29.7 Mt at >1 g/t Au Hydrothermal breccias
Eruptions of trachybasaltic-
trachyandesitic volcanics followed
episode of tholeiitic magmatism.
Shoshonites were erupted in back-arc
environment during incipient rifting
following cessation of subduction along
Kilinailau trench.
The Ladolam deposit is
located within the Luise
trachybasaltic caldera and
is hosted by volcanic flows,
tuffs and breccias.
Deep, stockwork qz, anhy, CO3
veins associated with Kf-bio
alteration, overlain by
subhorizontal zone of brecciation
and high grade Au (boiling
horizon?). Shallow level
advanced argillic alteration caps
deposit
Cu: zones of up to Early, deep: [anhy + cal + bar + cpy + gn + sl+ py ± tel // 200°C, 3.8 wt percent NaCl Davies and Ballantyne, 1987
3.6% Cu seen in deep bio(hbld, px) + Kf(plag) + ser + py + amph] or [ -// bio + equiv, but hypersaline fluids have Davies and Ballantyne, 1992
drilling (Davies and anhy + py+ cpy(py) ± sl+ gn + cin*] or [qz + py + Au° ± tel been identified McInnes et al., 1998
Ballantyne, 1987); // bio + Kf] Moyle et al., 1990
Au: auriferous Late, shallow: [- // alun + py + marc] or [-// alun + kaol + Au/Ag = 1 Rytuba et al., 1993
sulfides >> Au°, rare opal + S°] or [ - // ser + ill + smec]
tellurides (seen in Peripheral: - // chl (amph, px) + alb (plag) + ep + cal + mt
zones of advanced
GOLD DEPOSITS RELATED TO ALKALINE MAGMATISM

(proven); geological argillic alteration)

reserve of 43 Moz

Cripple Creek, 30 Ma (K–Ar) Volcanic Emplaced during incipient phases of Diatreme emplaced at High grade, Au-telluride Au-tellurides, Early shallow: hm // Kf + hm ± CO3 100°–200°C, <5 wt percent NaCl Birmingham, 1987
Colorado breccia, phonolite, crustal extension during Oligocene. junction of four epithermal veins with K- auriferous pyrite and Late shallow felsic rocks: qz + py + CO3 + ad + fl + SO4 + sl equiv in shallow veins Jensen and Barton, 1997
nepheline monzonsyenite, Magmatism bears strong similarities to Precambrian units in alteration halos containing Au° + gn + tet + tel // ad(feldspar) + py*, CO3, ser (bio, px, hbld) Jensen et al., 1998
Au(Te) phonotephrite, phonolites in East African Rift (Mt. Colorado Front range, 40 disseminated native gold and + Au° + tel 300°–400°C, >5 wt percent NaCl Kelley et al., 1998
lamprophyre + bedded Kilamanjoaro, Mt. Kenya) and in the km off axis of Rio Grande tellurides. Deep, high- Late shallow mafic rocks: qz + py + CO3 + ad + rocs + fl + equiv (?) for deep veins Koschmann, 1949
High grade, historic volcanoclastic materials Rhinegraben, Germany. Rift. No supercrustal rocks temperature, base metal-rich SO4 + sl + gn + tet + tel // ser (plag, mafics) + ad(feldspar) + Lindgren and Ransome,
production: (base surge deposits from Contemporaneous with similar alkalic near diatreme. mineralization. // Mine scale py*,CO3,ser (bio, px, hbld) + Au° + tel Moderate-high CO2 1906
41 Mt at 17.1 g/t Au phonolitic diatreme). No magmatism parallel to axis of Rio Grande structural elements controlling Early deep: barren bio + mt +or δ18O = 5–10 per mil Seibel, 1991
Low grade Nb-Ta anomalies, La = rift, from northern Colorado through mineralization unclear. Sub- Late deep: [bio + Kf + py* + SO4 + CO3 + fl + gn + sl // bio magmatic >> meteoric fluids Thompson, 1998
resource: 1,000, Yb = 5. K/Na = 0.4. Coahuila, Mexico radial pattern to vein orientations + py + CO3 + gn + sl] or [CO3 + gn+ sl // ser + CO3] Thompson et al., 1985
170 Mt at ~1 g/t Hydrothermal breccias seen at district scale, merging Peripheral: [CO3, py, hm (mafics)] ± [ser, kaol (feldspar)] or Au/Ag = 9
with NNW-SSE and NE-SW [weak alb (feldspar)]
regional Precambrian(?) trends * = auriferous pyrite
285
 286

TABLE 1. (Cont.)
District, Styles //
type, and Structural controls Fluid compositions and
grades or tonnage Alkalic rocks Tectonic setting Geologic framework of Ore minerals Mineral assemblages sources References

Mafic-intermediate (Cu(Au)) porphyry-style systems

Galore Creek, Jurassic alkaline volcanics, One of several alkalic-related Cu(Au) Alkalic complex located Disseminated Cu(Au) “porphyry” Cu: cpy + bn, tet Central: mt + bn + cpy ± diop + gt + Au° // bio(hbld, px) + 400°–650°C, hypersaline (40–65 Allen 1971
British Columbia syenite (14 phases), deposits in the Triassic-Jurassic arc within Sitkine arch, at style mineralization with kf(plag) ± anhy + ap wt % salts). Highest salinities in Allen et al., 1976
monzonite, + minor late terranes of Quesnellia and Stikinia. western margin of peripheral Fe-skarns. // Au: Au°, tellurides, Grades laterally to: mt + cpy + py // bio(hbld, px) + kf(plag) hydrothermal garnets; low ƒS2 Barr 1966
Cu(Au) ± Fe alkalic basalts and Intrusions were emplaced in intraoceanic Intermontain belt. Subhorizontal fracture cleavage auriferous sulfides + mt + py ± anhy (bn), moderate ƒO2 (mt-hm-py- Barr et al., 1976
lamprophyres (hawaiites island arc terranes prior to or during Intrusions hosted by Upper attributed to expansion resulting Deep: alb + mt + gt(and-mel) ± diop + trm + act + cal + chl SO4); dominantly magmatic Lang et al., 1995
125 Mt of 0.4 g/t Au, and mugearites?) accretion onto North American continent Triassic volcanic and from hydration of anhydrite. Au is closely related + ep McMillan and Panteleyev,
1.06 percent Cu sedimentary rocks Post-ore faults with small to bornite Peripheral: alb+ ep Au/Ag = 0.52 1995
displacement throughout mineralization in core Late: [CO3 + py + anhy + sl + gn ± tet] or [ser + anhy +
of deposit CO3+ py + hm]

La Plata Mts, 65–70 Ma Alkaline Formed during episode of Late Intrusions occupy a 25-km Cu (Au) ± PGE “porphyry”-style Allard stock: bn + cpy Central (deep): qz + Kf + fl + CO3 + py* + bn + cpy ± Au°, Dominantly magmatic(?) Eckel, 1949
Colorado diorite, monzonites Cretaceous/Paleocene alkaline structural dome where the mineralization (Allard Stock) + Au° + tellurides tel // Kf + py* ± bn + cpy ± Au°, tel, PGE Saunders and May, 1986
Allard Stock: syenites, mafic syenites (+ magmatism which began shortly after the southwestern end of with superimposed high grade, Peripheral veins: qz + py + bar + ank + cal + asp + Au° + sl Allard stock: Au/Ag = 0.01 Schwartz et al., 1949
Cu(Au) ± PGE lamprophyres?); 12–23 onset of the Laramide orogeny. This Colorado Mineral Belt epithermal gold telluride veins Bessie G: + cpy + tet + gn + tel + cin Bessie G: Au/Ag = 0.8 Werle et al., 1984
32 Mt of 0.07g/t Au, ppm Nb; high Al2O3 and period was marked by NE-SW regional meets the Colorado Plateau. (Bessie G deposit). // tellurides Peripheral skarns: (Fe-oxide) 150°C, 4–5 wt percent NaCl
0.4 percent Cu low TiO2, P2O5 for compression, at approximately right Intrusions hosted by Mineralization directed by Shallow (Bessie G): qz + rosc + CO3+ bar + fl + py + sl + gn equiv, CO2-rich
Bessie G: alkaline rocks angles to a major crustal suture which Permian-Jurassic concentric/radial faults and + tet + cpy + tel[col] + Au° // qz[Kf?] + ser + py
Au(Te) 0.5 T Au served as a conduit for alkalic magmas. metasedimentary package. structures related to early Late: dickite
since 1887 Contemporaneous with low angle(?) intrusions.
subduction
JENSEN AND BARTON

Goonumbla, 431–435 Ma (K-Ar); Late
New South Wales Ordovician alkaline
volcanics intruded by
Cu(Au) ± Zn diorite, monzonite, quartz
monzonites and post-ore
30 Mt at 0.5 g/t Au, syenite porphyries.
0.91 percent Cu Late mafic dikes
(lamprophyres?)
Emplaced as part of an Ordovician
alkaline belt in Bogan Gate Synclinorial
Zone of the Lachlan Fold Belt in eastern
Australia. Interpreted as late oceanic arc
magmatism by Muller and Groves (1990)
and Schiebner (1976). Jones (1985)
suggests a continental extensional
environment
Monzonitic intrusions
follow ring fracture in
caldera, situated in Bogan
Gate syncline. Intrusions
hosted by early Ordovician
greenschist slates, cherts,
phyllite, and schist.
Disseminated Cu(Au)
mineralization; stockwork
quartz/sulfide veins in core of
deposit. // Late qz-ser-py
alteration controlled by regional
structures (e.g., Endeavour
linear)
Cu: bn + cpy Central (early): qz + kf + fl + anhy + hm + bn ± cpy, cc, Dominantly magmatic; 440°– Heithersay and Walshe, 1995
CO3, Au°, tel // Kf + bio + hm + mt + CO3 + bn ± cc or 720°C; 40–60 wt percent NaCl Heithersay et al., 1990
Au: Au°, tellurides cpy + py equiv; evidence for boiling Jones, 1985
Central (late): qz + SO4 + py + f l ± bn, cc, py // ser + py
Peripheral/regional: - // ep + chl + CO3 + py

Phalaborwa, RSA 2050 Ma (U-Pb) Not described / rift-related(?) Polyphase alkaline centers Cu + Au, Ag, PGE, Ti, Fe, P, Cu: bn + cpy + Central - // orthomagmatic blebs of sulfides (MSS?) in Dominantly magmatic(?) based Eriksson, 1989
Pyroxenite, syenite, ultra- with ring and radial dikes in REE “porphyry” style cubanite carbonatite on carbonatite association Palabora Mining Co. Ltd.,
Cu (Au, Ag, PGE, basic- pegmatoids, granitic gneiss mineralization; some may be Inner core (carbonatite): (cpy> + bn) + po + pent + mill + 1976
Ti, Fe, P, REE, phoscorite, multiphase magmatic, some hydrothermal Cpy > bn in cv + tet + sl + gn + py + marc // - Verwoerd, 1986
vermiculite) carbonatite carbonatite core; bn > Peripheral (banded carbonatite/phoscorite): (bn > cpy) + po +
cpy in peripheral pent + mill + cv + tet + sl + gn + py + marc // -
banded carbonatite Intense K metasomatism (fenitization) surrounds complex
and foscorite mantle (Verwoerd, 1967)
 TABLE 1. (Cont.)
District, Styles //
type, and Structural controls Fluid compositions and
grades or tonnage Alkalic rocks Tectonic setting Geologic framework of Ore minerals Mineral assemblages sources References

Intermediate-felsic (Mo[Au]) porphyry-style systems

Sierra Blanca Middle Tertiary andesite, Situated at margin of Rio Grand Rift Intrusions emplaced at Disseminated Cu, Mo ± Au min- Cu-Mo ± Au Central: qz + fl + hm + or + py + mo + cpy ± Au // Majority of inclusions indicate Giles and Thompson, 1972
(Nogal), trachyte, monzonite, (extensional/rift related?). Intrusions form southern end of Lincoln eralization with Polymetallic veins: silicification + K feldspar + fl + py + ser + CO3 + ap + hm + temperatures of ˜ 250°C with 6 Douglass and Campbell, 1994
New Mexico syenite, latite part of Tertiary Rocky Mountain alkalic County, N.M., porphyry superimposed polymetallic and qz, py, gn, cpy, sl, ba, mo+ bn + sl + tet + asp wt percent NaCl equiv, although Thompson, 1972
province that stretches from Montana to belt; intrusions aligned precious metal epithermal veins tet, CO3 Outer: qz // ser + clays + py high-temperature, hypersaline Thompson, 1974
Au + Cu + Mo Mexico along the eastern front of the along axis of late Au-rich polymetallic Peripheral: qz // chl + ep+ py inclusions are present (˜ 480°C,
Rocky Mountains (Mutschler et al, 1987) Pennsylvanian uplift where veins 45wt % NaCl equiv). Evidence
it intersects a major east- for involvement of both meteoric
west lineament and magmatic waters

Central City, 58–59 Ma (U-Pb, K-Ar) Eocene alkalic intrusions emplaced at Magmatic system focussed Early Mo “porphyry” style Disseminated and Pre-Mo, U-rich: qz + py + pitch Early Mo mineralization: CO2- Rice et al., 1985
Colorado leucocratic monzonite and intersection between Colorado Mineral at intersection of Dory Hill mineralization with vein-controlled Mo; Early Mo-rich: qz + py + bis + ser + mo ± fl // qz + Kf? + rich (up to 50 vol %), 340°– Saunders, 1991
syenite, leucocratic Belt and Colorado Front Range. Fault with Idaho Springs- superimposed gold-telluride Au°, tellurides ser + py 420°C, 12–14wt % NaCl equiv,
Au(Mo, U) monzonite dikes, Contemporaneous with regional Ralston shear zone. epithermal veins. // Molybdenite Middle base metal-rich: qz + py + CO3 + sl + cpy + gn + tn and 200°–300°C, 33–40 wt %
bostonite, quartz upwarping and incipient phases of crustal Intrusions hosted by mineral deposits form ellipse + en + Au° // qz + ser + py NaCl equiv in quartz
Historic production bostonite; extension? Precambrian metavolcanic elongated in orientation of Dory Late: qz + py + mo + CO3 + tn + fl + tel // ? Mo telluride mineralization:
from high-grade: and metasedimentary Hill Fault. Telluride veins 200–300°C, 2–12 wt percent
3.2 Mt at 7.2 g/t package (Idaho Springs associated with Dory Hill Fault NaCl equiv, CO2-rich
formation) δ18O = 3–10 per mil, δD = –50 to
–70 per mil
Mixed magmatic + meteoric

Golden Sunlight, 75–80 Ma quartz Regional alkalic intrusions and Intrusions emplaced in “Porphyry” Mo mineralization Mo: disseminated Mo Central (early): ? // qz + py + hm + bar Deep qz-py-mo veins: 130°– DeWitt et al., 1996
Montana monzonite, latite porphyry mineralization centers controlled by Great horst bounded by Golden with superimposed gold-telluride Au: Au° + tellurides; Central, deep: qz + py + Kf + mt + mo + fl + ru + po // qz + 400°C, 1.2–14.2 wt percent NaCl Porter and Ripley, 1985
and lamprophyres. Rocks Falls Tectonic Zone (GFTZ). Localized Sunlight and St. Paul Gulch epithermal veins. // Veins auriferous pyrite? Kf + mo ± Au° equiv Spry, et al., 1996
Au(Mo) show Nb-Ta depletions, zones of transtension or releasing bends faults. Intrusions are hosted oriented parallel to Golden Central, shallow: qz + py + cpy + bn + tn + Au° + tel // qz + qz-py-Au veins: 145°–345°C, 1– Spry, et al., 1997
and La = 20, Yb = 2 ppm along GFTZ provided escape conduits for by Proterozoic Belt series Sunlight Fault and N70E. Minor ser + py ± Kf 10 wt percent NaCl equiv
70 Mt at 1.6 g/t Au small-degree partial melts of the upper sedimentary package. structural development of Central (late): qz + py + bar + CO3+ dick + ser // ? Moderate CO2
mantle. intrusion-related radial and Peripheral: py + gn + sl + cpy + asp + bn + acan + tet, tn // ? δ18O = 1–8 percent, δD = –5 to
Passive hot spot model advocated by concentric faults –75 per mil
GOLD DEPOSITS RELATED TO ALKALINE MAGMATISM

Distal: MnCO3 + base metals // silicification, bleaching, and

(Mutschler et al., 1991) sulfidation Early magmatic fluid responsible
for qz + Kf + py alteration and
mineralization. Mixed meteoric
and magmatic fluid for higher
level auriferous qz-py veins

Abbreviations: acan = acanthite, acm = acmite, act = actinolite, ad = adularia, aeg = aegerine, alb = albite, alun = alunite, anat = anatase, and = andradite, anhy = anhydrite, ank = ankerite, ap = apatite, asp = arsenopyrite, Au° = native gold, bar = barite, bio = biotite, bis = bismuthinite, bn = bornite, cal = calcite,
cc = chalcocite, chl = chlorite, cin = cinnabar, CO3 = carbonate, col = coloradoite, cpy = chalcopyrite, cv = covelite, dick = dickite, diop = diopside, dol = dolomite, en = enargite, ep = epidote, fl = fluorite, gn = galena, gt = garnet, hbld = hornblende, hm = hematite, ill = illite, kaol = kaolinite, Kf = K-feldspar,
marc = marcasite, mel = melonite, mill = millerite, mo = molybdenite, MSS = monosulfide solid solution, mt = magnetite, or = orthoclase, pent = pentlandite, PGE = platinum group elements, pitch = pitchblende, plag = plagioclase, po = pyrrhotite, px = pyroxene, py = pyrite, qz = quartz, rosc = roscoelite, ru = rutile,
S° = native sulfur, ser = sericite, sl = sphalerite, smec = smectite, SO4 = sulfate, tel = tellurides, tet = tetrahedrite, tn = tenantite, trm = tremolite
* = aurifeous phase
287
288 JENSEN AND BARTON

14
phonolite
Central
Sierra City
foidite Blanca
12 tephri-
phonolite Zortman
Landusky
Galore Goonumbla trachyte
10 Creek trachydacite
phono-
tephrite
Na2O + K2O

trachy- Golden
Emperor andesite rhyolite
8 Sunlight
tephrite Porgera
basanite
6 trachy- dacite
basalt Au,Mo deposit
andesite
e Au,Cu,Mo deposit
4 lin e
l ka alin basaltic
A lk Au,Cu deposit
ba andesite
Su
2 basalt

picro-
basalt
0
40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
SiO2
FIG. 5. Total alkali vs. silica diagram of igneous phases most closely linked to mineralization in various deposits.
Cu(Au) deposits are generally associated with mafic-intermediate phases (<63 wt % SiO2), whereas Mo(Au) deposits
are associated with intermediate-felsic phases (>68 wt % SiO2). Deposits such as Sierra Blanca, which lie between these
two ranges, contain both Cu and Mo + Au mineralization (Giles and Thompson, 1972).

Porgera and the monzonite stocks of Eaton and Setterfield
(1993) at Emperor. In other districts, such as Cripple Creek,
the intrusive phase specifically linked to high-grade vein
mineralization has yet to be identified. This may be true of
many epithermal systems, in which exposed mineral
deposits can be far removed from buried source intrusions.
Host rocks are quite variable and range from oxidized
igneous rocks (as at Cripple Creek and Ladolam) to carbona-
ceous or sulfide-rich sedimentary packages (Golden Sun-
light) or to both (Porgera).
Structural control: Mineralization typically shows strong
structural controls (Table 1). Structural trends may conform
to reactivated, older regional structures (Central City, Colo-
rado), or develop radial or concentric patterns character-
istic of stress fields generated during the emplacement of
the alkaline intrusions (e.g., ring faults surrounding caldera
complexes). Intersections between these two classes of struc-
tures are particularly favorable. For example, the Emperor
Mine in Fiji is located at the intersection of the Tavua
Caldera boundary fault and the Nasivi shear zone (Fig. 6d;
Anderson and Eaton, 1990). Most vein systems occupy verti-
cal or steeply dipping structures (Cripple Creek, Porgera),
but low-angle structures can also be mineralized, e.g., the
“flatmakes” (Anderson and Eaton, 1990). Some mineraliza-
tion is also hosted by hydrothermal breccias, e.g., the Iron-
clad and Globe Hill deposits at Cripple Creek (Seibel, 1991).
Ore is commonly best developed within dilational structural
zones, contacts between rocks of contrasting permeabilities,
and zones of brecciation or shattering.
Mineralization and hydrothermal alteration: In addition to a
close time-space link to alkaline magmatism, these deposits
show characteristic styles of mineralization and alteration
(Table 1 and Fig. 7). Mineralization is chiefly in the form
of telluride-rich gold veins that contain varying propor-
tions of quartz, carbonate, adularia, and sulfates (barite,
celestite), ± fluorite as gangue minerals. Alteration halos
around the veins are variably developed but are character-
ized by neutral pH and K-silicate mineral assemblages
(adularia and sericite) with voluminous carbonation.
Roscoelite is commonly present in veins and alteration
halos, and its abundance is correlated with mafic wall
rocks. Some deposits contain small volumes of acid-altered
rock, commonly at shallow levels or as small populations of
late veins cutting other assemblages. Distal propylitic alter-
ation halos may be present (Ladolam, Porgera) or absent
(Cripple Creek).
Base metals are typically represented by sphalerite and
galena; subordinate tetrahedrite, chalcopyrite, and molyb-
denite minor phases. Most veins have low total sulfides, are
base metal poor, and contain Au > Ag. However, exceptions
exist, such as Zortman Landusky, Montana, where Ag/Au > 4
(Hastings, 1988), and Geis, Montana, where Ag/Au > 10
(Zhang and Spry, 1994). Mineralization can be distributed
over protracted vertical intervals in alkaline systems. High-
grade mineralization extends throughout 1,000 m in some
vein systems at Cripple Creek (Thompson et al., 1985), and
more than 500 m at Emperor (Ahmad et al., 1987b; Poliquin
and Simmons, 1998).
 GOLD DEPOSITS RELATED TO ALKALINE MAGMATISM 289

a Cripple Creek Vindicator mine 31 level

(~1,000 m below surface)
zones containing high Au lamprophyre
K-feldspar + pyrite phonotephrite, tephriphonolite
K-feldspar + hematite syenite
biotite-bearing alt. phonolite (undifferentiated)
clay/sericite + pyrite alt. volcanic breccias 200 m
precambrian granitoids
V
V

V
hydrothermal
breccias

North
V V

V V

V V

E.Jensen,
E.Je unpubl. data
Cresson mine open pit

36,650N Section
E
W
base of
oxidation

North
2 km 200 m
no vertical
various sources exagerration E.Jensen, unpubl. data

b modified from Moyle et al. (1990)

Ladolam
breccia pipes >1 ppm Au
thermal zones
silica cap lavas & pyroclastics
advanced argillic porphyries
argillic monzonites
|
sericitic
|

potassic
|

|
|
|

|
potassic-propylitic
| |

| || |
|
|

Ladolam
Lad
|
|

|
| |
|

A’ A’
| |
| |

||
|

| |
| |

| |
| |
|

| |

| |

|| | |
| |
|

| |
|
| |
|

|
| | | |
|
|

|
|

North
| |
| | |
|
|
|

|
|

| | | | |
|
|

| | | | |
|

||

| | | |
||
| | |
|

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|

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|

| |
|
| |

| ||
A | | |
A
5 km North North
|

| | |

2 km 2 km
Lihir Island | | |
1,000 m
altered areas
|

A A’
|

ore bodies 100

|

0
|
Elev. (m)

| | | |
| |

raised coral reef | | | |

|

|| |
|

|
| ||
|

|
|
|

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|| | | |
-100
|

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|| | | | | | | | | | | | |
||

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| |
|

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||
|

| |
|

| | |
Luise volcano -200
|

| |
| |
|

-300
Kinami & Huniho volcanos -400

older mafic volcanic/clastic rocks >1 ppm Au >3 ppm Au volcanics

FIG. 6. District and deposit geology of selected gold-bearing deposits associated with alkaline magmatism. A
common scale is used to illustrate the relative size of systems: a. Cripple Creek, b. Ladolam, c. Porgera, d. Emperor,
e. Golden Sunlight, f. Galore Creek, g. Mt. Polley, h. Goonumbla, i. Bingham. ab. = albite, bio = biotite, diop = diopside,
ep = epidote, gt = garnet, Kf = K feldspar, Qz = quartz, sec. = secondary, ser = sericite.
290 JENSEN AND BARTON

c Porgera l im i t o f m ag n e t i c anoma
ly
hydrothermal system
mineralization limits ault
ane F
Roam 2 km
altered sediments
breccia
lithologies
andesite
North
feldspar porphyry
hbl diorite porphyry
North
Nor
augite hbl diorite buried
hbl diorite intrusions
black / calcareous 500
00 m
sediments modified from Richards (1990) and Fleming et al. (1986)

d Emperor
Au(Cu) mineralization
2 km
mineralized dikes
silicification
advanced argillic
argillic & sericitic

Nasivi area
North
Emperor Mine area

igneous rocks
fused agglomerate
intrusions (monz?)
Morrisons Pool Fm
Turtle Pool formation
absarokite
modified from Eaton and Setterfield (1993)
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e
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ns

Golden Sunlight
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ei
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tv |
l im i t o f m os
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Veins / mineralized dikes

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Multi-stage Qz veins
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North
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Arm
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Early Qz veins
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mafic intrusive rocks

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breccia (hydro. & intrus.)

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Mineral
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Elkhorn Mountain volcanics Hill

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porphyrytic alk rhyolite

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Qz monzodiorite |
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Paleozoic sedimentary rocks

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North
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Proterozoic sedimentary rocks

modified from Spry et al. (1996) 2 km
 GOLD DEPOSITS RELATED TO ALKALINE MAGMATISM 291

f Galore Creek

li m
Hydrothermal system it
o
mineralized zones

f
K alteration
K-alteration limit
Triassic igneous rocks
breccia
various phases of
porphyritic syenite
syenite
alkaline mafic volcanics

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Alteration / mineralization
e a at o
(610 m level)
evel)
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ore zone
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>1% pyrite
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bornite
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ab. magnetite
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tite
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K-feldspar |
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garnet
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North
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2 km ice
500 m
modified from Allen et al. (1976)

g |
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Mt. Polley
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mineralization / alteration |
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copper >0.3%
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>3% pyrite
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Kf-bio-diop North
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gt-ep
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ep
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intrusive complex
Bo Lake

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otj

pyroxenite
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ac

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intrusion breccia
k

monzonite porphyry
syenodiorite
pseudoleucite syenite
mafic pseudoleucite syen.
upper Triassic volcanic rocks
mafic tuffs 2 km
trachybasalt modified from Hodgson et al. (1976)
292 JENSEN AND BARTON

h Goonumbla | |

Devonian rocks
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mineralization

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limit of Qz-Ser veins

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K-feldspar alteration

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Cu(-Au) mineralization

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breccia

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Qz monzonite porphyry

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intrusive trachyte

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monzonite, diorite, gabbro |

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Womblin trachyte, andesite

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older Goonumbla volcanics

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site of Cu(-Au)
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prospect / deposit |
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North
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5 km
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2 km
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modified from Jones (1986)

(1985) and Heithersay et al. (1991)
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i 5 km
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Au-A

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-Ag
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-Pb
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it of
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Zn
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North f
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it o
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lim

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detail
lim
i t of
Cu

North |

2 km
Bingham
Tertiary igneous rocks

latite, rhyolite mineralization

latite, neph basalt, andesite Au (>1, 0.3 ppm)
rhyolite and rhyolite porphyry Cu (>1, 0.35%)
qz latite porphyry Cu skarn
qz monz porph & porph qz monz base metal repl.
monzonite limit of sec. biotite
Paleozoic sedimentary rocks
 GOLD DEPOSITS RELATED TO ALKALINE MAGMATISM 293

a b

c d e
Dol

Qz

FIG. 7. Textures and styles of mineralization seen in alkaline epithermal systems. a. Vug in lamprophyre breccia filled
by quartz, pyrite, roscoelite, and tellurides from Cripple Creek, Colorado. The lamprophyre has been pervasively
altered to K feldspar, sericite, and carbonate. K feldspar is most abundant adjacent to the vug and grades outward into
a peripheral halo of K feldspar, sericite, carbonate, and pyrite. b. High-grade quartz + carbonate vein cutting trachy-
basalt from the Matanagata Flatmake, Emperor Mine, Fiji; several episodes of mineralization are recorded as closely
spaced anastomosing veinlets. The vein is flanked by an inner halo of roscoelite and carbonate and an outer halo
marked by K metasomatism and bleaching. c. Banded, massive fluorite vein cutting volcanic breccia from Cripple
Creek, Colorado; note sedimentary-like features in vein. d. Photomicrograph of “whispy” dolomite (dark) with center-
line filling by silica in Porgera “A”-vein (figure taken from Richards, 1990a, fig. 7). Note repetitive banding in vein-
filling materials. Vein width is 2 mm. e. Calaverite pseudomorphs after augite in nepheline monzosyenite from Cripple
Creek, Colorado, illustrating selective replacement of mafic minerals by gold (wall-rock control at a fine scale). Dol =
dolomite, py = pyrite.

K metasomatism: Potassium metasomatism has been
described in almost all alkaline epithermal deposits. As
shown in Figures 6 and 7 and described in Table 1, this
metasomatism ranges from broad zones of K feldspathized
wall rocks (Cripple Creek) to narrow zones of sericitic
(+ roscoelite, carbonate, and K feldspar) alteration (Porg-
era). Most deposits show some combination of K feldspar
(adularia) and sericite + carbonate ± roscoelite alteration. In
almost all examples, significant amounts of potassium were
added during the process of alteration whereas sodium and
calcium were leached (Fig. 8).
The result of potassium metasomatism is typically
described as either sericitic or adularia-sericite alteration. In
either case, K-silicate phases replace nepheline, plagioclase,
or Na-rich alkali feldspar, resulting in a net addition of potas-
sium to the altered rock. Mafic mineral sites are typically
replaced by sulfides (pyrite ± arsenopyrite, pyrrhotite, marc-
asite, and base metals), Fe-Mg carbonates, leucoxene, and
clays (illite-montmorillonite), which give the rock a bleached
appearance. Feldspars are typically shifted toward more
potassic chemistries relative to unaltered igneous feldspars,
and plagioclase may be partly replaced by typically minor
amounts of sericite. In thin section, this alteration is mani-
fested as turbid feldspars and alteration products that have
replaced mafic minerals. The turbidity in the feldspar grains
is commonly described as “dustings” of clay or sericite. In
many cases, primary igneous textures are retained and rocks
can otherwise show little evidence of alteration. This style of
alteration is commonly mistaken for weak sericitic or argillic
alteration. Igneous mineral textures such as albite twins and
crosshatched anorthoclase twinning may be preserved even
though the mineral has been altered to K feldspar. Figure 9
illustrates the difficulty in recognizing this alteration.
Where K metasomatism is intense, virtually the entire
rock can be replaced by low-temperature K feldspar (adu-
laria). Small amounts of quartz and sericite are distributed
294 JENSEN AND BARTON

a. b.
250
feldspathic Al2O3 Zortman Landusky
igneous Mu Ka, Py K2O Na2O CaO

% change (normalized to Al2O3)

rocks a 200
Porgera
Kf Allard Stock
b 150
lamprophyres Par Mu
Galore Creek
+ mafic rocks
c Cripple Creek
a = sericite alt. 100
b = K-feldspar alt Tuava caldera

Net Gain
c = carbonate alt
Ab-An Kf 50

Net loss
-50

Carb, Cpx, -100

Act, Ep, Gt Molar proportions
Porgera Emperor Cripple Zortman- Allard
Na2O+CaO K2O Creek Landusky Stock

FIG. 8. a. Molar Al2O3-K2O-(Na2O + CaO) plot showing samples of selected altered and unaltered rocks from vari-
ous districts (data from references in Table 1). The inset diagram shows approximate fields for unaltered alkaline
feldspathic rocks and mafic alkaline rocks such as lamprophyres. Also shown are metasomatic vectors for sericitic
alteration (path a), K feldspar alteration (path b) and carbonate alteration (path c). Note that samples plot along a
general trend toward K feldspar enrichment, and they show no obvious trend toward acid styles of alteration (follow-
ing the sericite vector). Samples that plot in the lower left of the diagram indicate carbonation (endoskarn in extreme
examples?). These two styles of alteration are characteristic of alkaline systems. b. Gains and losses of K, Na, and Ca
during alteration associated with mineralization: comparisons of oxide concentrations in unaltered and altered
samples from several districts, normalized to Al2O3. Data from various sources (see Table 1). Ab = albite, Act = actino-
lite, An = anorthite, Carb = carbonate, Cpx = clinopyroxene, Ep = epidote, Gt = garnet, Ka = kaolinite, Kf = K feldspar,
Mu = muscovite, Py = pyrite.

throughout the rock, but they account for only a few per-
cent of the rock’s volume. The alteration surrounding epi-
thermal veins in Zortman Landusky, Montana, is described
by Wilson and Keyser (1988): “although altered intrusive
rocks appear in hand specimen and thin sections as clay-
rich, with illite filling narrow fractures and dusting almost
all of the feldspars, whole rock XRD [X-ray diffraction]
analyses of most of the altered samples indicate that the
modal abundance is less than 5 percent...the chemical com-
positions are almost independent of the degree of altera-
tion, despite its obvious appearance in hand specimens and
thin sections.” Four of eight geochemical analyses from Wil-
son and Keyser (1988) show K2O > 12 wt percent, in com-
parison with 4.62 wt percent for unmineralized samples
(Hastings, 1988).
Gold is commonly present in the adularia halos as dis-
crete grains of native gold, electrum (usually with a high
Au/Ag ratio), or tellurides, and as auriferous pyrite. Dis-
tributed gold in pyrite is most commonly reported as
micron-sized native gold, but gold concentrations up to 100
ppm in solid solution in pyrite have been determined by
secondary ion mass spectroscopy analyses from Cripple
Creek (F. Mazdab and E. Jensen, unpub. data), in which it
may account for a significant portion of the gold inventory
in disseminated styles of mineralization. Where sizeable,
these metasomatic halos with disseminated gold may con-
stitute economic gold resources, as seen at Zortman
Landusky (Hastings, 1988) and in the near-surface envi-
ronment at Cripple Creek and possibly Porgera (stage I
mineralization; J.P. Richards, pers. commun., 2000)
Similar types of alteration are seen in many alkaline dis-
tricts. Examples of extreme K metasomatism are reported
at Galore Creek, British Columbia (Allen et al., 1976), the
Allard Stock, Colorado (Werle et al., 1984), and Emperor,
Fiji (Kwak, 1990; Poliquin and Simmons, 1998) and appear
to be found in many (if not most) alkaline systems accord-
ing to compilations of whole rock analyses from alteration
zones. When plotted in K vs. Na discrimination diagrams,
altered rocks are commonly distributed along the K/Na
exchange vector (Figs. 3, 8; Fleming et al., 1986, fig. 10; Wil-
son and Kyser, 1988, fig. 4), with compositions falling far
outside the normal K/Na ratios for igneous rocks.
Although K metasomatism can be voluminous, it is not
always spatially associated with gold mineralization. In some
cases, such as at Emperor, zones of intense K metasomatism
may underlie areas of gold mineralization (Kwak, 1990, p.
313). In these cases, K metasomatism may reflect appropri-
ate conditions for transport of gold but not for deposition
of gold, which takes place further along the flow path.
(Gold transport is discussed below.)
Acid alteration: Zones of advanced argillic (intense acid)
alteration have been documented in several alkaline epi-
thermal systems including Ladolam (Moyle et al., 1990),
Emperor (Eaton and Setterfield, 1993), and Mt. Kasi, Fiji
(Taylor, 1987; Corbett and Taylor, 1994; Adsett and Taylor,
1995). These zones are characterized by kaolinite (± pyro-
phyllite or dickite), alunite, and quartz alteration super-
imposed upon earlier potassic alteration. They are typically
located in the upper levels of the deposits, generally near
or conformable to the surface. Cu sulfides such as enargite
 GOLD DEPOSITS RELATED TO ALKALINE MAGMATISM 295

and covellite are common, and gold is chiefly present as
Au°, electrum, and tellurides. It is notable that tellurides
are also found in advanced argillic alteration not associated
with alkaline magmatism (e.g., Pueblo Viejo, Dominican
Republic; Goldfield, Nevada). Restricted zones of acid
alteration (quartz-dickite) are also seen in some deposits
such as Cripple Creek (E. Jensen, unpub. data), Golden
Sunlight (Spry et al., 1996), and the Bessie G Mine in the
La Plata Mountains (Saunders and May, 1986) as narrow,
late-stage veins that cut across all other assemblages.
Wall-rock effects: Wall-rock compositions (mafic or felsic,
quartz-poor or quartz-rich, pelitic or carbonate) strongly
influence the appearance, mineralogy, and size of alteration
halos. At Cripple Creek, K metasomatism is characterized by
pervasive K-feldspar flooding in feldspathic phonolites
(Fig. 9), but it is manifested as much narrower zones of
sericite and carbonate-mineral alteration where veins and
alteration have cut lamprophyres or mafic Precambrian
rocks. Very abrupt changes in the mineralogy of alteration
assemblages are seen at contacts between the two rock types.
The style of alteration seen in the mafic rock types at Cripple
Creek closely resembles the types of alteration described at
Emperor and Porgera (Richards et al., 1991; Eaton and
Setter field, 1993; Richards and Kerrich, 1993).
Wall-rock reaction in felsic rocks is chiefly manifested by
alkali exchange reactions where plagioclase and Na-rich
alkali feldspar are altered to potassium feldspar:
NaAlSi3O8 + K+ = KAlSi3O8 + Na+.
In mafic rocks (and in the mafic mineral sites in felsic
rocks), carbonation of Ca-, Mg-, and Fe-bearing phases in
the presence of alkali feldspar, biotite, or K-rich fluids will
produce sericite and carbonate-rich mineral assemblages:

a b c

Unaltered
Phonolite mt

Sanidine
phenocrysts

Aegerine

5.54 wt% K2O

K-feld + py
altered
Pyrite
Phonolite
Sanidine
phenocrysts
Adularia
Sericite

14.42 wt% K2O

1cm Hand 1000 μ Photomicrographs 200 μ Electron back-

samples (40X magnification) scatter images
FIG. 9. Fresh unaltered (top) and altered (bottom) phonolite from Cripple Creek as seen in hand specimen and
thin section and with a scanning electron microscope. a. In hand specimens, rocks with strong K feldspar + pyrite
alteration are light gray in comparison with dark green unaltered phonolite (aegirine + magnetite stable). b. In thin
section, the fresh phonolite shows sanidine phenocrysts in a groundmass of sanidine, aegirine, and magnetite with a
strong trachytic fabric. In the altered rock, phenocrysts and groundmass minerals become turbid and “dusty,” but the
rock retains it original igneous fabric. Minor amounts of sericite are present with pyrite in former mafic mineral sites,
but no evidence is seen for pervasive recrystallization of feldspars. As it appears through the optical microscope, this
alteration is best described as weak sericitic or argillic. c. In a scanning electron microscope (SEM) photograph of the
fresh rock, sanidine phenocrysts with dark (sodic) rims are seen in a groundmass of sodic feldspar (dark gray), mag-
netite (brightest), and aegirine. In an SEM photograph of the altered rock, it can be seen that virtually the entire rock
has been replaced by low-temperature K feldspar (light gray). Small amounts of quartz and sericite (dark patches) are
distributed throughout the rock but account for only a few percent of the rock’s volume. Pyrite (brightest), leucoxene,
and carbonate minerals occupy former mafic mineral sites. Although not seen in this image, gold is commonly present
within the adularia halos as discrete micron-scale grains of native gold encapsulated within adularia and quartz, and
as inclusions or atomic substitutions in pyrite grains. mt = magnetite.
296 JENSEN AND BARTON
KFeMg2AlSi3O10(OH)2 + CaAl2Si2O8 + 4CO2 =
4(Fe,Mg,Ca)CO3 + KAl2AlSi3O10(OH)2 + 2SiO2
H2O + KAlSi3O8 + CaAl2Si2O8 + CO2 =
CaCO3 + KAl2AlSi3O10(OH)2 + 2SiO2.
In these examples, sericite-carbonate ± K feldspar alter-
ation is accomplished by carbonation reactions, as opposed
to the carbonate-poor sericitic assemblages generated by
sulfide and chloride acids in subalkaline deposits. Key dis-
tinctions are the presence of carbonate, the stability of K
feldspar, and the fact that these assemblages commonly
exhibit substantial addition of K2O.
Vanadium enrichment, expressed especially as roscoelite
(KV2[AlSi3O10](OH)2), also correlates with the propor-
tions of mafic and felsic rocks. Vanadium enrichment is
documented at Emperor and Porgera (systems with mafic-
intermediate igneous rocks), where zones of high-grade
mineralization are flanked by roscoelite-rich alteration
halos up to several centimeters wide (Fig. 7a, b). Roscoelite
is present in felsic alkaline systems, but it is much less abun-
dant and is best described as an accessory mineral (Boulder
County and Cripple Creek, Colorado; Montana telluride
districts). This low abundance is expectable, because mafic
rocks have much higher concentrations of vanadium than
felsic rocks. Other minerals such as millerite (Ni sulfide)
and Cr micas are also more abundant in altered mafic
rocks, but Ni and Cr are not likely to be mobile and these
minerals probably reflect in situ alteration of Ni- or Cr-rich
igneous minerals. Fluorite, on the other hand, is much less
abundant in mafic systems owing to the low solubility of flu-
orine in calcium-rich environments. Fluorite is common in
the systems hosted by felsic rocks in Boulder County and
Cripple Creek, Colorado, but is much less abundant or
absent at Emperor and Porgera.
K metasomatism is also seen where fluids cross or cut
impure carbonate rocks. In the Mayflower Mine, Montana,
zones of silicified dolomitic limestone up to 7 m wide con-
tain pyrite, tellurides, native gold, and base metals near
alkaline intrusions (Cocker, 1993). The zones of silicifica-
tion are surrounded by adularia, quartz, pyrite, and sericite
(± roscoelite) alteration halos that are up to 10 m wide.
Other distinctive styles of wall-rock alteration are seen at
Porgera, where pelitic sedimentary wall rocks have been
variably replaced by chlorite and garnet-rich assemblages
outward from K silicate alteration envelopes (Richards and
Kerrich, 1993). Analcime-rich alteration is seen as a sub-
solidus effect at Mt. Kare, Papua New Guinea (Richards
and Ledlie, 1993).
Fluid compositions and sources of components: Fluid inclusion
evidence suggests that fluids were relatively cool (<300°C)
and of low salinity (<10 wt % NaCl equiv). Moderate to
high CO2 concentrations are reported for many deposits,
e.g., Central City (Rice et al., 1985), Porgera (Ronacher et
al., 1999), Cripple Creek (Thompson et al., 1985), Golden
Sunlight (Spry et al., 1996), Emperor (Ahmad et al., 1987a,
b), and Boulder County, Colorado (Saunders, 1991). Stable
isotopes indicate a high proportion of magmatic fluids in
most systems. Reported values of δ18O for hydrothermal flu-
ids commonly overlap with magmatic fluid compositions,
but they are displaced toward lighter values in later stages
of mineralization (Ahmad et al., 1987b; Richards and Ker-
rich, 1993; Zhang and Spry, 1994). Values of δD tend to
show greater variability, suggesting contributions from exter-
nal fluids such as exchanged groundwaters (Porgera:
Richards and Kerrich, 1993; and seawater (Emperor:
Ahmad et al., 1987b). Some deposits, such as Cripple Creek
(Jensen et al., 1998; Thompson, 1998) and epithermal gold
deposits in the Black Hills of South Dakota (Paterson et al.,
1988, 1989) may have been formed almost exclusively from
magmatic fluids. This origin contrasts with that of subalka-
line adularia-sericite epithermal deposits, which tend to be
dominated by external fluids (although minor magmatic
contributions may be critical).
Metals also appear to be directly inherited from mag-
matic sources, as indicated by radiogenic isotope studies of
ore minerals (Richards et al., 1991; Kelley et al., 1998). Sta-
ble isotope ratios of carbon and sulfur are consistent with
magmatic sources, although there is enough variability to
allow for derivation in part from sedimentary sources
(Shannon et al., 1983; Ahmad et al., 1987b; Richards, 1995;
Spry et al., 1996; Zhang and Spry, 1994).
Indicators for exploration: With the possible exceptions of
Te and V, there do not appear to be any reliable pathfinder
elements for distinguishing alkaline-related mineralization
from other types of epithermal gold deposits in geo-
chemical surveys. Although only a few studies have been
reported, Gott et al. (1969) made an extensive soil survey
of the Cripple Creek district and found a general correla-
tion between Au, Ag, Te, K, and V, and to a lesser degree,
Mo and Hg. Other elements such as Pb, Cu, and Zn were
much more erratic in their distribution and did not serve
as helpful indicators of gold mineralization. Cocker (1993)
studied element dispersion patterns in mineralized carbon-
ate strata at the Mayflower Mine in Montana, and found
anomalous Te, Cu, Pb, Ag, Au, V, K2O, and Zn in the vicin-
ity of gold mineralization, grading outward to a proximal
zone of Hg, As, and Cu, with a distal halo of MnO and
MgO. Distal halos of Mn enrichment were also noted by
Gott et al. (1969) at Cripple Creek. Jenkins and Carter
(1997) analyzed soil and biological samples from the vicin-
ity of the Rex gold-telluride vein system in the Gold Hill
mining district, Boulder County, Colorado. Samples were
analyzed for Ag, Te, Cu, Pb, Zn, Fe, Ca, Na, K, and Mg, and
a correlation between Te, Au, Ag, and Pb was observed.
Interested readers are directed to Jenkins (1996) for further
discussion. In the vicinity of Au-Cu-Te veins in the Exciban
deposit, Camarines Norte, Philippines, James and Fuchs
(1990) found Cu and As to be variably correlated with gold,
whereas Pb and Zn were not appreciably enriched in zones
of mineralization. The abundance of Bi-Te phases in the
Exciban veins may suggest Bi as a potential pathfinder ele-
ment in some systems. Like other types of epithermal
deposits, however, Au is probably the single best indicator
of mineralization, and other elements such as As, Sb, Cu,
Pb, and Zn are only variably enriched. Mn, Ba, Sr, U, F, Hg,
 GOLD DEPOSITS RELATED TO ALKALINE MAGMATISM
and platinum-group elements (PGE) behave much more
erratically and do not appear to be particularly useful.
Likewise, geophysical signatures show significant varia-
bility. Many deposits are characterized by magnetic and
gravity lows (Cripple Creek, Zortman Landusky), but
exceptions include Porgera, which is centered upon a mag-
netic high (Richards, 1990a). Negative magnetic signatures
result from sulfidation of magnetite in wall rocks, and grav-
ity lows result from replacement of wall-rock minerals by
low-density alteration products such as sheet silicates and
carbonates (Irvine and Smith, 1990). Positive magnetic
anomalies may result from deep mafic plutonic masses or
from zones of extensive biotite-magnetite alteration at
depth (a typical manifestation of porphyry-style alteration
in alkaline systems; see below). Induced polarization sur-
veys are in many cases useful in delineating zones of sulfi-
dation that surround vein systems (Irvine and Smith, 1990)
but could potentially be confusing where mineralization
cuts sulfide-rich sediments, as is the case at Porgera.
It seems that the best method of identifying potential
alkaline epithermal deposits is by recognizing their charac-
teristic mineral and alteration assemblages in and around
alkaline intrusive complexes.
Transition between Epithermal and Porphyry Deposits
Alkaline epithermal deposits may grade downward into
porphyry-type Cu(Au) deposits (Bonham and Giles, 1983;
Mutschler et al., 1985; Mutschler and Mooney, 1993; and
Richards, 1995) or porphyry-type Mo(Au) deposits (Rice
et al., 1985; Saunders, 1991; Foster and Childs, 1993; Spry
et al., 1996). Permissive evidence for such a transition is
seen in many alkaline epithermal systems. Some alkaline
epithermal deposits contain zones of high-temperature
mineralization and alteration that have been overprinted
by lower-temperature, epithermal-style mineralization.
Examples include Porgera (Richards and Kerrich, 1993),
Ladolam (Moyle et al., 1990), Cripple Creek (Jensen and
Barton, 1997), Golden Sunlight (Spry et al., 1996) and
Central City (Rice et al., 1985). Higher-temperature styles
of mineralization and alteration are commonly biotite-sta-
ble and contain higher concentrations of base metals (Fig.
10c, d). In other cases, epithermal systems are found in
close spatial and temporal association with porphyry-style
mineralization, as seen in the Allard Stock and Bessie G
deposits in Colorado (Werle et al., 1984) and the Emperor
and Nasivi 3 deposits in the Tavua Caldera, Fiji (Eaton and
Setterfield, 1993). Such juxtapositions of high- and low-
temperature styles of alteration and mineralization are
characteristic of telescoping hydrothermal systems. At
Cripple Creek, evidence is seen for several episodes of high-
temperature alteration that have been variably overprinted
by at least two episodes of low-temperature alteration
(Jensen et al., 1998). The transition between rocks of these
two styles of alteration and mineralization can occupy pro-
tracted vertical intervals (>1,000 m at Cripple Creek), or
the two can directly overlap (Porgera, Ladolam).
Not all alkaline hydrothermal systems show Cu or Mo
affinities, however. Zones of disseminated sphalerite and
297
galena become abundant in the deep levels at Cripple
Creek but lack Cu or Mo sulfides. A similar environment
may be present at Porgera, in which disseminated Zn and
Pb sulfides are more abundant than Cu sulfides (Fleming
et al., 1986; Handley and Bradshaw, 1986; Cameron et al.,
1995). Recent drilling at Porgera, however, appears to indi-
cate the presence of “porphyry-style” Cu mineralization at
depth (Ronacher et al., 1999). Other deposits, such as
Zortman Landusky, show comparatively little base-metal
mineralization of any type at current levels of exposure.
Porphyry-Type Deposits
Deeper portions of gold-rich alkaline systems can be
separated on the basis of Mo or Cu enrichment. As a gen-
eral rule, Cu-rich deposits are associated with intrusive
phases with < 60 wt percent SiO2, whereas Mo-rich systems
tend to be associated with intrusive phases with > 65 wt per-
cent SiO2 (Fig. 5). Transitional Cu-Mo deposits, such as
those associated with the Sierra Blanca complex in New
Mexico (Giles and Thompson, 1972; Thompson, 1972),
have compositions between these end members. Several
important examples of alkaline-related base metal-rich
deposits are described in Table 1.
Cu(Au) deposits
Geologic framework: Whereas alkaline rocks as a group are
found in a wide range of geologic settings, Cu-rich alkaline
deposits are primarily found in arc environments. Many of
these deposits formed during initial stages of back-arc rift-
ing or during tectonic reconfigurations of volcanic arcs (dis-
cussed below). Details about specific tectonic and regional
geologic settings for individual deposits are given in Table 1.
Less-evolved alkaline diorites, mafic syenites, and monzo-
nites tend to be associated with Cu(Au) base metal-rich
hydrothermal systems (e.g., Galore Creek, Allard Stock,
Goonumbla, Emperor, Porgera; Fig. 5). These intrusions
range from silica undersaturated (Galore Creek) to silica
saturated (Goonumbla) and are commonly accompanied
by coeval alkaline volcanic piles (Fig. 6). Volcanic rock types
include pseudoleucite phonolites, augite trachyandesites,
trachybasalts, and trachytes in British Columbia deposits
(Allen et al., 1976; Lang et al., 1995), latites and trachytes at
Goonumbla (Heithersay and Walshe, 1995), and trachy-
basalts and trachyandesites at Emperor (Ahmad et al.,
1987a; Eaton and Setterfield, 1993). The intrusions that are
most intimately associated with mineralization tend to be
monzonitic or evolved equivalents of early mafic phases.
The carbonatite-hosted porphyry Cu (Au, PGE, Ni, Fe, P)
deposit at Phalaborwa, Republic of South Africa, also
belongs to this class of deposit and possibly represents an
ultramafic end member.
Intrusive complexes are typically multiphase and exhibit
a variety of geometries. These include subcircular plugs
and stocks up to several kilometers in diameter (Emperor:
Ahmad et al., 1987a); relatively narrow dikes and sills
(Galore Creek: Allen et al., 1976) and Copper Mountain,
British Columbia (Lang et al., 1995); multiple-phase laccol-
iths (Mt. Polley, British Columbia: Hodgson et al., 1976);
298 JENSEN AND BARTON

plutonic or batholithic intrusive complexes (Allard Stock,
Colorado: Werle et al., 1984); and Iron Mask batholith,
British Columbia: Snyder, 1994; Lang et al., 1995); and
annular intrusive bodies emplaced along ring faults in
caldera complexes (Goonumbla: Jones, 1985; Heithersay
and Walshe, 1995).
These deposits typically show evidence of multiple stages
of alteration and mineralization, beginning with early intru-
sive events and continuing throughout the evolution of the
complexes (Werle et al., 1984; Heithersay and Walshe,
1995; Lang et al., 1995). Cu(Au) stockwork mineralization
at Goonumbla associated with an early quartz monzonite
intrusion (QMP1) are visibly cut by a later intrusion
(QMP2) and its associated stages of mineralization (Hei-
thersay and Walshe, 1995). Peripheral, base metal-rich min-
eral assemblages are typically absent or only weakly devel-
oped (Lang et al., 1995).
Mineralization and alteration: Grades and tonnages of sev-
eral deposits are shown in Figure 1, and styles of mineral-
ization of individual deposits are described in Table 1. Geo-
logic, alteration, and mineralization maps of Galore Creek,
Mt Polley, Ladolam, Goonumbla, and Emperor are shown
in Figure 6. Examples of the textures and styles of altera-
tion and mineralization are shown in Figure 10.
Cu mineralization is typically characterized by a zone con-
taining central bornite + magnetite that grades outward to
bornite + chalcopyrite and chalcopyrite + pyrite. As a group,
these deposits tend to be sulfide poor, and pyrite is found
peripherally or in association with late-stage sericitic alter-
ation. Gold mineralization occurs as native gold, tellurides,
cuprian gold, or auriferous sulfides, and it tends to be asso-
ciated with zones rich in bornite (Fig. 10c). Tellurides are
variably present but are much less abundant than in the
shallow, low-temperature alkaline epithermal systems; a pos-
sible exception is Goonumbla (Heithersay and Walshe,
1995). Alkaline porphyry Cu(Au) deposits also show much
lower Au/Ag ratios than epithermal systems (Fig. 11).
Alteration types include potassic, sodic (with or without
sodic-calcic), propylitic, and magnetite replacement. Acid
(i.e., sericitic) types of alteration are subordinate or absent,
with the possible exception of Goonumbla, where sericitic
alteration locally becomes pervasive along major structures

Kf + hm

qz + bn

2cm

FIG. 10. Textures and styles of mineralization in alkalic porphyry deposits and in deep high-temperature portions of
alkaline epithermal deposits. a. Hand specimen of stockwork biotite + magnetite + bornite veins with pervasive K
feldspar + hematite alteration in surrounding porphyritic quartz monzonite from Endeavor 26 deposit at Goonumbla,
Australia. b. Hand specimen of stockwork veins of quartz + bornite with K feldspar + hematite alteration in porphyritic
quartz monzonite, also from the Endeavor 26 deposit. c. Scanning electron microscope image of gold-silver telluride
inclusion (bright) in bornite-chalcopyrite grain from altered biotite porphyry (minette) at Bingham, Utah. Image pro-
vided by Patrick Redmond of the Ore Deposits and Exploration Research Group, Stanford University. d. Hand speci-
men of early (preore) biotite + magnetite vein with orthoclase (white) and biotite alteration halo cutting nepheline
monzosyenite from the 1,000 m level, Vindicator Mine, Cripple Creek, Colorado. e. Hand specimen of ore-stage poly-
metallic anhydrite + fluorite + K feldspar + pyrite vein with phlogopite (dark) + K feldspar (white) halo cutting vol-
canic breccia, 1,000 m level of the Ajax Mine, Cripple Creek, Colorado. bio = biotite, bn = bornite, cpy = chalcopyrite,
hm = hematite, Kf = K feldspar, mt = magnetite, qz = quartz, tel = telluride.
 GOLD DEPOSITS RELATED TO ALKALINE MAGMATISM
but shows little relationship with Cu(Au) mineralization
(Heithersay et al., 1990). Skarns are variably developed
where carbonate units have undergone metasomatism, and
they can account for appreciable portions of mineralization
in some deposits, e.g., Galore Creek and Mt. Polley, British
Columbia (Dawson and Kirkham, 1995).
The cores of these deposits typically exhibit fracture-
controlled and pervasive types of K feldspar + biotite +
magnetite alteration, often accompanied by anhydrite (Fig.
10a, b). Hydrothermal K feldspar typically replaces primary
feldspar, and biotite (± magnetite or hematite) replaces
mafic minerals such as pyroxene and amphibole. Hydro-
thermal biotite from Goonumbla is characterized by high
Mg/Fe, low TiO2, and high fluorine concentrations relative
to magmatic biotite (Heithersay and Walshe, 1995, table 3).
Quartz is variably present. It is virtually absent in strongly silica-
undersaturated deposits (Galore Creek) but can be abun-
dant in silica-saturated systems (Goonumbla). Fluorite is
present in many deposits as an accessory mineral, e.g.,
Galore Creek (Allen et al., 1976) and Goonumbla (Heithersay
and Walshe, 1995). Cu(Au) mineral deposits correlate with
the zones of potassic alteration in time and space.
As seen at Galore Creek and Mt. Polley, where mineralized
zones cuts calcareous pyroclastic and volcaniclastic strata, K
feldspar-biotite alteration is flanked by andradite + diopside
+ epidote + vesuvianite with bornite, chalcopyrite, pyrite,
magnetite, sphalerite, and galena (Dawson and Kirkham,
1995).
The degree of K enrichment in potassically altered zones
can be variable, and is extreme in many deposits. Galore
Creek, Goonumbla, and the Allard Stock all show meta-
somatized rocks with > 10 wt percent K2O. The intensity of
K metasomatism in alkaline complexes appears to be much
greater than the potassic alteration observed in subalkaline
systems. K2O values do not typically exceed 7 to 8 wt per-
cent in the cores of calc alkaline porphyry copper deposits,
in which zones of potassic alteration are typically character-
ized by modest additions of potassium (1–3 wt percent K2O;
D. Johnson, unpub. data).
Sodic or sodic-calcic alteration is also commonly observed
in alkaline Cu(Au) deposits (Fig. 6). Albite veins and albiti-
zation of wall rocks are abundant in the deep portions of
the alkaline porphyry Cu deposits of British Columbia.
Ca-rich phases such as epidote, diopside, and actinolite
(± andradite, calcite, chlorite, and sulfides) are commonly
seen in and around zones of albitic alteration. In most
cases, the sodic ± calcic alteration is deep or peripheral to
the central core of potassic alteration, and it commonly
overprints early alteration assemblages (Galore Creek). In
the Ajax deposit in British Columbia, high-grade gold and
copper mineralization associated with sodic (albitic) alter-
ation (Ross, 1993), which is cut by potassic and scapolitic
styles of alteration. Albitic and scapolite-bearing skarn
assemblages are present in some districts where fluids
encountered carbonate strata, e.g., Ingerbelle, British
Columbia (Barr et al., 1976; Lang et al., 1995).
Hydrothermal magnetite is variably abundant and is
commonly accompanied by or replaced by hematite, e.g.,
299
Goonumbla (Jones, 1985; Heithersay and Walshe, 1995).
Magnetite (± hematite) is associated with both potassic and
sodic assemblages and can form large replacement zones in
intrusive rocks (Cann, 1979; Lang et al., 1995), or in the
surrounding country rocks, e.g., Allard Stock, Colorado
(Eckel, 1949, p.60). In many deposits, these replacement
bodies have been described as Fe skarns.
In addition to the styles of alkali metasomatism, propylitic-
style assemblages are typically developed in alkaline Au(Cu)
deposits peripheral to zones of potassic alteration. Zones of
propylitic alteration contain epidote, chlorite, carbonate,
pyrite, and chalcopyrite as well as weak albite, actinolite, or
K feldspar alteration. Garnet, magnetite, hematite, and sul-
fides are variably abundant in these assemblages.
Noticeably lacking or subordinate in alkaline Cu(Au)
deposits are zones of intense hydrolytic (acid) alteration
(Jones, 1985; Lang et al., 1995; McMillan and Panteleyev,
1995). When sericitic assemblages are present, they tend to
be structurally controlled and overprint earlier K feldspar +
biotite + magnetite assemblages. With few exceptions, e.g.,
the Endeavour 48 deposit at Goonumbla (Hooper et al.,
1996), they are rarely pervasive throughout large volumes
of rock. Locally, advanced argillic (alunite-pyrophyllite-
kaolinite) assemblages may be developed, but they are typi-
cally restricted to the upper levels of the deposits, e.g.,
Ladolam and Goonumbla (Wolfe et al., 1996).
Many alkaline Cu(Au) deposits show anomalous PGE
enrichment (Mutschler et al., 1991). Although rarely eco-
nomic, PGE can be concentrated to hundreds of parts per
billion and even parts per million in some cases. Examples
of this style of mineralization are seen at the Allard Stock
Au-Cu-PGE deposit (Werle et al., 1984), the porphyry Cu-
Ag-Au-PGE deposit at Silmikameen, British Columbia
(Mutschler and Mooney, 1993), Phalaborwa (Palabora Min-
ing Company Ltd., 1976; Verwoerd, 1986; Eriksson, 1989),
possibly in the Ortiz Au deposit in New Mexico (Bliss et al.,
1992), and at Bingham (F. Mazdab, unpub. PGE analyses of
sulfides from the Bingham district). Molybdenite is typically
sparse but becomes progressively more abundant in associ-
ation with felsic rock types.
Fluid compositions and sources: Fluid-inclusion evidence
suggests that fluids were relatively hot (400°–700°C), and
typically saline to hypersaline (up to 65 wt % NaCl equiv)
during ore formation (Heithersay et al., 1990; Lang et al.,
1995). Late stages of alteration and mineralization record
lower temperatures, much lower salinities, and CO2 in
some cases (Lang et al., 1995). Fluids were relatively oxi-
dized, as suggested by the abundance of magnetite and
hematite, e.g., Goonumbla (Heithersay and Walshe, 1995).
Stable-isotope studies are lacking, but the saline-rich nature
and high temperatures of the fluids and the abundances of
S and Cu are consistent with a magmatically derived fluid.
Contribution from external fluid sources and, in particular,
external saline brines cannot be discounted, however.
The abundance of sodic, sodic-calcic, and magnetite-rich
mineralization in the Jurassic deposits of British Columbia
may reflect circulation of external saline fluids (discussed
below).
300 JENSEN AND BARTON
Exploration indicators: The abundance of magnetite in
mafic alkaline rocks and as hydrothermal alteration products
in the cores of these deposits can strongly influence the char-
acter of the magnetic geophysical signatures. Peripheral bod-
ies of magnetite replacement or mafic intrusions invading
ring faults can produce characteristic ring-shaped magnetic
highs, e.g., Goonumbla (Jones, 1985; Heithersay and Walshe,
1995). Stockwork biotite-magnetite-orthoclase veins can also
produce magnetic highs in the cores of these deposits. In
other cases, however, replacement of magnetite by hematite
(Goonumbla) or by pyrite will result in magnetic lows over
orebodies.
Gravity surveys are generally not reported, except for
Goonumbla, where pronounced gravity lows are positioned
over the orebodies and intrusions (Heithersay and Walshe,
1995; Hooper et al., 1996). As is true for any magmatic-
hydrothermal system, geophysical signatures are influenced
by the characteristics of the causative intrusion, hydrother-
mal alteration, and the properties of the country rock. Thus,
the geophysical expressions of these deposits are variable,
and a simple model is not likely to be universally applicable.
Mo(Au) deposits
Geologic framework: Mo(Au) deposits are found in regions
of thickened continental crust (central Colorado and
Montana) in which alkaline intrusions have been emplaced
as inboard expressions of arc-related magmatism (O’Brien
et al., 1991, 1995; Saunders and Bookstrom, 1998). These
deposits are associated with highly evolved rocks of the alka-
line series, such as fractionated monzonites, alkali rhyolites,
and some trachyte-phonolites. In many deposits Cu-bearing
mineralization is variably present, but as a group they are
characterized by Mo ≈ Cu or Mo > Cu. Relative to porphyry
Mo deposits associated with calc-alkaline rocks, the alkaline
Mo deposits tend to be enriched in gold. Examples include
the Boulder County, Colorado, deposits (Rice et al., 1985;
Saunders, 1991), the Mo(Au) deposits in the Great Falls
Tectonic Zone, Montana (Theiben and Spry, 1995), and
the Sierra Blanca, New Mexico, Cu-Mo(Au) deposit, (Giles
and Thompson, 1972; Thompson 1972, 1974). The geology
and alteration at Golden Sunlight, Montana, is shown in
Figure 6e.
Mineralization and hydrothermal alteration: Mo(Au) miner-
alization is typically manifested as stockwork veins of quartz
± K feldspar with molybdenite and gold. Gold is commonly
present as discrete grains of Au° (and auriferous sulfides?),
but tellurides are also common (Rice et al., 1985; Spry et al.,
1996). In some systems, telluride minerals may not be
obvious, but anomalous concentrations of Te have been
reported in zones of stockwork Mo(Au) veins at Porphyry
Mountain in Boulder County, Colorado (Saunders, 1991).
Alteration types in alkaline Mo(Au) deposits are domi-
nated by K silicate assemblages. Central cores of K feldspar
+ quartz ± sericite + carbonate alteration grade outward to,
and are commonly overprinted by, more pervasive styles of
sericite + pyrite alteration (Rice et al., 1985; Saunders,
1991; Spry et al., 1996). Like the alkaline Cu(Au) deposits,
zones of Mo(Au) mineralization appear to be correlated
with potassic styles of alteration (Rice et al., 1985; Spry et
al., 1996). In contrast with Cu-rich deposits, however,
biotite alteration is poorly developed or absent in Mo(Au)
systems, which probably reflects the lower Fe and Mg abun-
dances in the felsic rocks.
Rice et al. (1985), Saunders (1991), and Spry et al. (1996)
suggest that central cores of porphyry-style Mo(Au) miner-
alization grade upward to or are overprinted by telluride-
rich epithermal systems. Evidence for such a transition is
seen in the common juxtaposition of these two types of min-
eralization in the gold-telluride belts of Montana and Colo-
rado (Golden Sunlight and Central City, respectively).
Fluid compositions and sources: Few fluid inclusion data are
available for Mo(Au) deposits, but those reported suggest
that fluids were moderately saline (10–15 wt % NaCl equiv),
and had temperatures in the 200° to 400°C range (Rice et
al., 1985; Spry et al., 1996). Moderate to high concentra-
tions of CO2 are also reported (Rice et al., 1985; Spry et al.,
1996). Although more saline than typical epithermal fluids,
these fluids contrast with the hypersaline fluids commonly
observed in alkaline Cu(Au) deposits. Stable-isotope evi-
dence suggests that the fluids are dominantly of magmatic
origin, but that the proportion of external fluids increases
with decreasing temperature and distance from the source
intrusion (Rice et al., 1985; Spry et al., 1996).
Exploration indicators: Regional aeromagnetic surveys of
the central Montana alkaline province show distinctive
positive anomalies centered on alkaline intrusive com-
plexes located at intersections of linear positive magnetic
anomalies (Kleinkopf, 1991). The linear anomalies are
thought to represent mafic intrusions occupying regional
structural trends. At the scale of individual intrusive com-
plexes, zones of mineralization may be represented by mag-
netic lows (Olmore, 1991) where igneous magnetite has
been destroyed by hydrothermal alteration.
Other porphyry deposits with links to alkaline magmatism
In a number of subalkaline systems, there is evidence for
late injection of mafic alkaline magmas, typically manifested
as lamprophyre dikes, alkaline basalts, or phonotephrites.
These intrusions are volumetrically subordinate to early,
felsic, subalkaline intrusions and are typically highly altered.
The relationship between these late mafic intrusions and
mineralization is not clear in many cases, but some authors
(Rock et al., 1989; Keith et al., 1998) suggest that these
mafic melts play a critical role in generating large mineral
deposits. Keith et al. (1998) show strong evidence in the
Bingham system of mixing between late-stage mafic alkaline
magmas (minettes) and subalkaline granitic melts (Fig. 3a).
They suggest that the minette magmas could have supplied
a substantial portion of sulfur, copper, and gold to the Bing-
ham system. Recent work has documented the presence of
biotite alteration with bornite and gold-silver tellurides in
the minette phase at Bingham (Fig. 10c), in contrast to adja-
cent subalkaline phases where tellurides are rare (P. Red-
mond, pers. commun., 2000).
In addition to supplying chalcophile elements, late-stage
mafic alkaline melts injected into a partially solidified felsic
 GOLD DEPOSITS RELATED TO ALKALINE MAGMATISM 301

100
magma chamber may trigger a catastrophic release of
volatiles. This effect has been documented in a number of Bessie G

volcanic systems, e.g., Mount Pinatubo (Pallister et al., Low-sulfide

Au quartz veins
1992, 1996). It is clear that mafic intrusions exist in many
Comstock Homestake Au
deposits, and in some cases they are temporally or spatially 10 epithermal Cripple
vein Porgera Creek
related to gold ± copper mineralization. Mafic alkaline Epithermal
quartz-alunite Au Barney's
magmas certainly are not required for gold deposits to Creede Sediment-hosted Au Ladolam
Canyon
Hot-spring

Au (ppm)
form, yet it is probable that such magmas are more favor- epithermal
vein
Au-Ag
Golden
able in terms of gold and PGE contents (Romberger, 1991, 1
Sunlight
table A2; compilations of geochemical analyses by Mason Distal
disseminated
Mt. Polley
Galore
and Moore, 1982). Ag-Au
Creek Zortman-Landusky Bingham
Porphyry
Among other deposits, Müller and Groves (1997) Polymetallic Cu-Au
Goonumbla
Allard
include Grasberg (Irian Jaya, Indonesia), along with Bing- veins
Polymetallic stock (Endeavor 26)
0.1 replacement
ham as another large gold-rich porphyry copper deposit Alkaline Au
associated with potassic alkaline magmatism. Although the Low-temperature
(epithermal)
Grasberg intrusions are high K rocks, all are distinctly sub- High-temperature
(porphyry)
alkaline (McMahon, 1994). Rather than broadening the Porphyry
Cu-Mo USGS deposit types
group of “alkaline-related” deposits to include deposits 0.01
associated with oversaturated igneous rocks that have mod- 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10

erate alkali concentrations, it seems more appropriate to Au:Ag (wt)

recognize that a continuum exists between alkaline- and
subalkaline-related porphyry-style mineralization.
Summary of Characteristics
Alkaline-related hydrothermal systems show fundamen-
tal characteristics that distinguish them as a group. These
include quartz-poor (or quartz-absent) styles of alteration
and mineralization, Te-rich mineral assemblages, volumi-
nous K metasomatism, subordinate or absent hydrolytic
(acid) alteration relative to their subalkaline counterparts,
and a suite of associated minerals including fluorite, tetra-
hedrite, barite-celestite, and roscoelite.
Styles of mineralization range from disseminated or
stockwork-veined ore in porphyry-type deposits to strongly
vein-controlled or structurally controlled mineralizaion in
high-level epithermal systems. Gold can be present as dis-
crete grains of native gold, tellurides, or auriferous sulfides.
Tellurides are most common in epithermal deposits but are
seen in some porphyry-type systems as well (Goonumbla).
Many porphyry-type deposits show elevated Te concentra-
tions in mineralized rocks (Werle et al., 1984; Saunders,
1991). In Cu-rich porphyry deposits, gold is commonly
associated with bornite and is generally correlated with
copper mineralization. In Mo-rich deposits, gold is found
in stockwork veins of quartz, sulfides, molybdenite, native
gold, and tellurides. In both cases, porphyry-type systems
are thought to grade upward into telluride-rich epithermal
mineralization. Gold/silver ratios range from high (Au >
Ag) in epithermal systems to low (Au < Ag) in porphyry-
type systems (Fig. 11). Both epithermal and porphyry
deposits show high Au/base-metal ratios relative to subal-
kaline counterparts.
Styles of wall-rock alteration show significant and sys-
tematic variation according to temperature, pressure, and
character of the wall rocks. Alteration in porphyry-type sys-
tems is chiefly manifested as biotite-magnetite-orthoclase
assemblages, and the abundance of biotite and magnetite
is controlled by the Fe and Mg contents of the wall rocks.
FIG. 11. Gold contents and gold/silver ratios (by weight) of alkaline-
related gold deposits and selected other types. The latter data (Cox and
Singer, 1986) are Au/Ag from the 10th and 50th percentile grades. Tie
lines are shown for districts that contain both high- and low-temperature
styles of mineralization. Also plotted are data from U.S. Geological Sur-
vey deposit models.
Calc-silicate assemblages are developed in the deepest parts
of some systems (andraditic garnets at Mt. Polley and
Galore Creek) and are commonly accompanied by sodic
(albite-rich) alteration. Sodic alteration is also found
peripheral to zones of potassic alteration, as seen in many
of the Cu(Au) deposits in British Columbia. Low-tempera-
ture alteration in epithermal systems is characterized by
biotite-free K-silicate assemblages, extensive carbonation,
and variably developed peripheral “propylitic” assemblages.
Where felsic wall rocks are altered, extensive zones of K
feldspathization are seen (Cripple Creek, Zortman Lan-
dusky), and where mafic rocks are altered, sericite + car-
bonate + K feldspar ± roscoelite assemblages predominate
(Porgera, Emperor).
Skarns are variably developed, but they can be economi-
cally significant (Galore Creek and Mt. Polley). Potassic
styles of alteration in igneous rocks correlate with calc-
silicate assemblages in altered carbonate rocks dominated
by andraditic garnets, diopside, epidote, and sometimes
biotite. Low-temperature epithermal mineralization in car-
bonate units is characterized by zones of silicification with
outer halos of adularia, sericite, and sulfides within the
altered carbonate units.
Breccias in alkaline systems commonly are related to
both hydrothermal and igneous (phreatomagmatic)
processes. Examples of phreatomagmatic or diatremal
breccias are seen at Cripple Creek, Ortiz, and Golden Sun-
light. Examples of mineralized hydrothermal breccias are
seen at Cripple Creek, Ladolam, Galore Creek, Goonumbla,
Emperor, Porgera, and throughout the central Montana
alkaline belt (Lindsey and Fisher, 1985).
302 JENSEN AND BARTON
Constraints on Genesis
P-T conditions: Alkaline-related gold deposits appear to be
formed at high levels in the crust, based upon evidence
from geomorphic constraints, stratigraphic reconstruc-
tions, fluid inclusions, and textural and mineralogical con-
siderations. Many porphyry-style deposits are found in close
spatial association with coeval alkaline volcanic piles (e.g.,
Galore Creek, Mt. Polley, Goonumbla; Fig. 6f–h and refer-
ences in Table 1). The few formation pressures that have
been reported are between 400 and 800 bars (Rice et al.,
1985; Heithersay and Walshe, 1995), which correlate to
depths of 1 to 3 km. Porphyry-style mineralization is likely
to have been produced under moderate confining pres-
sures and lithostatic conditions, as demonstrated by the
common presence of liquid-rich fluid inclusions (indicat-
ing that confining pressures inhibited phase separation). If
hydrostatic conditions are assumed, trapping pressures
would correlate with unrealistic depths of emplacement.
Locally, fluids may have undergone depressurization (and
phase separation) related to brecciation, as seen in the
garnet-biotite-anhydrite-pyrite-chalcopyrite breccias at
Galore Creek (Allen et al., 1976) and hydrothermal breccias
at Goonumbla (Heithersay and Walshe, 1995).
Alkaline epithermal deposits show evidence for transi-
tions to lower pressures and hydrostatic conditions, based
upon the common presence of coexisting vapor and liquid-
rich fluid inclusions (indicators of phase separation;
Ahmad et al., 1987b; Richards and Kerrich, 1993; Poliquin
and Simmons, 1998), and the common presence of brec-
ciated textures in many hydrothermal vein systems (Seibel,
1991; Richards and Kerrich, 1993). In several deposits such
as Ladolam and Emperor, opaline silica or sinters are seen
along with coeval volcanic piles and volcaniclastic sedi-
ments, which restricts their depths of formation to fairly
shallow levels (Moyle et al., 1990; Eaton and Setterfield,
1993). However, other evidence suggests that some alkaline
epithermal systems formed at greater pressures than are
typical for epithermal environments. CO2 liquid-bearing
fluid inclusions have been observed at Cripple Creek
(Thompson et al., 1985), Emperor (Kwak, 1990), Porgera
(Ronacher et al., 1999), the Black Hills of South Dakota
(Paterson et al., 1989), and Central City, Colorado (Rice
et al., 1985), and fluid trapping pressures have been esti-
mated as high as 450 bars at Porgera (Richards and
Kerrich, 1993) and Cripple Creek (Thompson et al., 1985).
These conditions are significantly different from those of
typical epithermal systems, which commonly form at pres-
sures <100 bar (Hayba et al., 1985, Heald et al., 1987).
In some cases, low-temperature, low-pressure assem-
blages directly overprint much higher temperature and
pressure styles of alteration and mineralization. At Ladolam,
opaline hot spring deposits and advanced argillic alter-
ation are superimposed on high-temperature porphyry-
style mineralization. This juxtaposition implies that signif-
icant erosion or unloading took place during the evolution
of the hydrothermal system or systems. Such features have
been interpreted by Moyle et al. (1990) to reflect cone fail-
ure or catastrophic mass wastage of a stratovolcano. Similar
features can be observed at Cripple Creek, where low-tem-
perature alteration and mineralization overprints zones of
biotite-magnetite-orthoclase alteration in the near-surface
environment (Jensen et al., 1998). Superpositioning of
these types of alteration and mineralization implies that
low-temperature assemblages successively overprinted
high-temperature assemblages as isotherms receded dur-
ing cooling, or that separate hydrothermal systems were
active at different points in time. This distinction requires
better geochronological constraints than are available for
many deposits.
Fluid compositions: Fluid inclusion data are scarce for alka-
line porphyry-style deposits, largely owing to the low abun-
dances of hydrothermal quartz (Lang et al., 1995). More
data are available for alkaline epithermal systems but not
necessarily for the fluids directly responsible for ore depo-
sition (Richards, 1995). As reported, however, fluids range
from saline or hypersaline in alkaline porphyry-style
deposits, e.g., 10 to 60 wt percent NaCl equiv (Jones, 1985;
Rice et al., 1985; Heithersay and Walshe, 1995; Lang et al.,
1995; Spry et al., 1996) to low-salinity fluids in alkaline epi-
thermal deposits, e.g., < 10 wt percent NaCl equiv (Richards,
1995). CO2 concentrations are variable but are typically
described as moderate to high (Table 1). These observa-
tions are also supported by the common presence of volu-
minous carbonate alteration.
Evidence for phase separation (boiling or effervescence),
in the form of fluid inclusions with widely varying
liquid/vapor ratios, is observed in many alkaline epither-
mal systems (Thompson et al., 1985; Ahmad et al., 1987b;
Spry et al., 1996; Ronacher et al., 1999) but is absent in oth-
ers (Rice et al., 1985; Saunders and May, 1986; Saunders,
1991). Some districts may lack conclusive evidence for boil-
ing in fluid inclusions but contain textural evidence such as
fine-grained silica as vein filling material, which is com-
patible with boiling conditions (Richards and Kerrich, 1993).
The abundance of low-temperature carbonate alteration
may be taken as additional evidence for boiling, although
lattice textures have been reported only at Emperor
(S. Simmons, pers. commun., 1999). Hydrothermal breccias
are recognized in some districts (Thompson et al., 1985;
Moyle et al., 1990; Richards and Kerrich, 1993), which may
also indicate phase separation.
Oxidation and sulfidation states: Mineralogical and geo-
chemical evidence points to relatively oxidized magmas
and associated hydrothermal systems. The common pres-
ence of Fe3+-bearing phases such as magnetite and aegirine
in alkaline rocks is suggestive of high oxidation states, a
notion supported by high Fe3+/Fe2+ reported in alkaline
rocks and glasses (Carmichael, 1991; Carmichael et al.,
1996). Likewise, porphyry-style deposits are characterized
by abundant magnetite, hematite, and anhydrite, and some
deposits contain andraditic garnets in skarns or as veins
within igneous rocks (Galore Creek; Allen et al., 1976;
Dawson and Kirkham, 1995). Unfortunately, hydrothermal
biotite compositions are not reported for most deposits,
although samples taken from deep, biotite-rich, base metal-
 GOLD DEPOSITS RELATED TO ALKALINE MAGMATISM
bearing zones at Cripple Creek have dominantly phlogo-
pitic compositions, e.g., mol Mg/mol Fe ≈ 15 (E. Jensen,
unpub. data; Fig. 10d, e). Hydrothermal biotites analyzed
by Heithersay and Walshe (1995), and those reported from
Galore Creek (Beane, 1974, fig. 2) are also phlogopitic,
which is taken to be an indication of high oxidation states
(Wones and Eugster, 1965; Beane, 1974; Guidotti, 1984).
The fluids in alkaline epithermal systems also appear to
be relatively oxidized, based upon the common presence of
sulfates, e.g., barite, celestite, and anhydrite or gypsum
(Thompson et al., 1985; Saunders and May, 1986; Moyle
et al., 1990; Richards and Kerrich, 1993). Many epithermal
systems also contain hematite or magnetite (Thompson et
al., 1985; Ahmad et al., 1987b; Spry et al., 1996; Zhang and
Spry, 1994). A lack of hematite or magnetite in other sys-
tems, however, should not be viewed as evidence for low
oxidation states, as pyrite can also be stable at relatively
high oxidation states.
As a group, alkaline deposits are characterized by mod-
erate to low sulfidation states. Central zones of bornite-mag-
netite-biotite mineralization are seen in almost all porphyry
Cu(Au) deposits, which grade outward into chalcopyrite +
pyrite halos (Heithersay and Walshe, 1995; Lang et al.,
1995). Epithermal systems can contain appreciable
amounts of pyrite but do not typically exhibit assemblages
characteristic of high sulfidation states such as enargite or
bornite + pyrite. Rather, epithermal systems typically con-
tain magnetite ± hematite, moderately iron-rich sphalerite,
and tetrahedrite-tennantite that constrain these systems to
moderate or low sulfidation states. Exceptions occur where
advanced argillic alteration assemblages developed in the
upper portions of these systems, e.g., enargite and covellite
at Ladolam (Moyle et al., 1990).
Sulfur budgets are to some degree influenced by the oxi-
dation states of these systems. Even though many porphyry
Cu(Au) deposits are characterized by bornite-magnetite-
biotite assemblages, significant volumes of anhydrite are
commonly present, e.g., Galore Creek (Allen et al., 1976)
and Goonumbla (Heithersay and Walshe, 1995). The effect
of degassing significant volumes of oxidized sulfur from alka-
line magmas may lead to proximal zones of sulfide-poor
mineralization with high-level zones of advanced argillic
alteration, where sulfur-rich vapors condensed in the near-
surface environment. In some cases, however, the abun-
dance of sulfate may be attributable to the influx of large
volumes of seawater, particularly in island arc envi-
ronments, e.g., Ladolam (Moyle et al., 1990).
Acid-base relationships: The dominance of low- and high-
temperature feldspar-stable alteration assemblages in most
systems points to near-neutral conditions, as does the wide
distribution of carbonate (Figs. 12, 13). This inference is
supported by the relative paucity of sericite and other acid
assemblages in alkaline hydrothermal systems in compari-
son with subalkaline types, except in the shallow and late
parts of some districts. The presence of vanadium-rich
micas (roscoelite and V-bearing muscovite) further demon-
strates near-neutral conditions because the substitution of
vanadium for aluminum stabilizes the white mica at the
303
expense of K feldspar (Fig. 13). The development of sodic
feldspars with or without calcic minerals such as garnet in
the marginal portions of systems points to higher Na(± Ca)
activities. It is uncertain what these reflect: possibilities
include the effect of original bulk compositions (Dawson
and Kirkham, 1995), influx of nonmagmatic brines (Battles
and Barton, 1995; Dilles and Proffett, 1995), or a funda-
mental characteristic of some alkaline magmatic fluids,
such as those in carbonatite systems (Wooley, 1982).
Hydrothermal quartz is sparse in many deposits, notably
those associated with silica-undersaturated igneous centers
(e.g., Cripple Creek and Galore Creek; Table 1). High-
temperature (>300°C) veins contain quartz only in those
igneous centers with quartz monzonitic or granitic compo-
sitions (e.g., Goonumbla, Central City, Golden Sunlight).
Because hydrothermal quartz forms either during fluid
cooling or decompression, or from silica released by
hydrolysis reactions, the distribution of quartz is consistent
with near-neutral fluids equilibrated with the commonly sil-
ica-undersaturated and near-neutral igneous rocks. These
systems generate relatively little acid alteration (and alter-
ation quartz) except in late and shallow parts and, in
undersaturated systems, they would be expected to precipi-
tate quartz only after substantial cooling (Fig. 14).
Gold transport and precipitation: Mechanisms for gold trans-
port are likely to differ in porphyry and epithermal environ-
ments (Richards 1995, p. 388–390). In the relatively oxidizing
and saline conditions of the high-temperature porphyry envi-
ronment, base metals and gold are likely to be transported as
chloride species (Hayashi and Ohmoto, 1991). Considering
the relatively neutral pHs in alkaline hydrothermal systems,
however, some transport of gold as thio-complexes at high
temperatures is possible (Seward, 1973a, b).
In the epithermal environment, alkaline hydrothermal
systems have ideal chemistries for transporting gold as a
bisulfide species (Au(HS)2–; Fig. 13; Seward, 1973a, b;
Romberger, 1991). Base metals, however, are likely to have
low solubilities in low-salinity, sulfur-bearing, neutral-pH epi-
thermal fluids. This may explain the high Au/base-metal
ratios commonly observed in alkaline epithermal systems.
Some authors (Thompson et al., 1985; Saunders and
May, 1986; Richards, 1995) have suggested that telluro-com-
plexing of gold may play an important role in epithermal
systems, although no thermodynamic data are available for
such species. However, considering the overwhelming
abundance of sulfur species relative to tellurium species in
solution (0.01–0.001 molal and <<100 ppb, respectively;
Ahmad et al., 1987b; Zhang and Spry, 1994), gold-tellurium
complexes would need to be several orders of magnitude
more stable than gold-sulfide complexes in order to com-
pete for transport of gold.
Mechanisms inferred for gold precipitation in alkaline
epithermal systems span the range observed in other epi-
thermal systems. Boiling (loss of H2S to vapor phase), fluid
mixing (reduction, oxidation, or dilution), and wall-rock
reaction (desulfidation of fluid) are all excellent ways to
precipitate gold from the bisulfide complex. There is nothing
distinctive about the chemistry of these systems that neces-
304 JENSEN AND BARTON

peralkaline metaluminous peraluminous

0.00
granitoids Ab granitoids granitoids
Ac 90 Hm

Sil
m

l
50
-0.20 An50
En An20 Tit Rut log(aNa+/aH+) = 5
Wo gabbroids
Fo
-0.40 Gr50
Kf An20
syenites
Di50 Phl50
-0.60 Ab90 log(aNa+/aH+) = 6
2
log a SiO

Ne

-0.80

Kf Mu
-1.00
0
m5
Ac Hm
-1.20 Ne
log(aNa+/aH+) = 7
Kf
Lc
Tit
-1.40 Prv
carbonatites
-3.00 -2.50 -2.00 -1.50 -1.00 -0.50 0.00

log a Al O 2 3

FIG. 12. Activity-activity diagram for SiO2 vs. Al2O3 showing typical ranges of various igneous rocks. Also shown are
mineral buffers that are important in alkaline systems (e.g., acmite = nepheline (albite) + hematite). The
log(aNa+/aH+) contours illustrate that magmatic fluids become much less acidic moving away from quartz-saturated
peraluminous rocks. Fluids associated with alkaline rocks will be buffered to near neutral or alkaline pH except in the
near- surface environment of boiling systems and where SO2 is introduced. These relationships help reconcile the vol-
umes and acid alteration (e.g., griesen) commonly observed in peraluminous systems and the lack of acid types of al-
teration in alkaline systems (Barton, 1996). Acm = acmite, Ab = albite, An = anorthite, Di = diopside, En = enstatite,
Fo = forsterite, Hm = hematite, Gr = grossular, Kf = K feldspar, Lc = leucite, Mu = muscovite, Ne = nepheline, Phl =
phlogopite, Prv = perovskite, Rut = rutile, Sill = sillimanite, Tit = titanite, Wo = wollastonite.

sarily favors one mechanism over others, and indeed there
is evidence that several mechanisms operated in single
deposits. Boiling (Ahmad et al., 1987b; Richards and Ker-
rich, 1993; Poliquin and Simmons, 1998), fluid mixing
(Kwak, 1990; Cameron et al., 1995; Spry et al., 1996; Zhang
and Spry, 1996), and cooling (Thompson et al., 1985) have
all been suggested as possible mechanisms for precipitating
gold in alkaline epithermal systems. Additionally, mafic-
ultramafic and other Fe-rich rocks provide ideal sulfidation
traps for fluids. Sulfidation of wall rocks causes a reduction
of H2S in solution that destabilizes the gold bisulfide com-
plex. Evidence for such reactions is seen at Cripple Creek,
where gold-bearing mineralization occurs disproportion-
ately around lamprophyres and other mafic rock types (Fig.
7). Where reduced sediments are present, they may also
serve as traps for gold mineralization (Cameron et al.,
1995). It should be noted that none of these mechanisms is
restricted to or unique to alkaline systems.
Isotopic signatures: As discussed above and summarized in
Table 1, stable-isotope studies indicate a dominantly mag-
matic source for fluids in alkaline-porphyry environments
and a mixture of magmatic and external fluids in most
alkaline epithermal systems. Fluid compositions calculated
for epithermal deposits are characterized by restricted
ranges of δ 18O (2–10‰), and variable δD (–10 to
–120‰), consistent with either a largely magmatic origin
or exchanged groundwaters (Richards, 1995). This origin
contrasts with that of subalkaline epithermal systems,
which are characterized by meteoric fluids with much
lighter δ18O values. It appears that significant contribu-
tions by magmatic fluids are likely in many alkaline
epithermal systems (Ahmad et al., 1987b; Spry et al.,
1996). Some alkaline epithermal deposits, such as Cripple
Creek, may have been formed almost exclusively from
magmatic fluids (E. Jensen, unpub. data).
Alkaline epithermal deposits are generally characterized
by light sulfur isotopes (Ahmad et al., 1987a; Richards and
Kerrich, 1993; Thompson, 1998), which are possibly an
indicator of the oxidized state of sulfur in alkaline mag-
matic systems or the progressive oxidation of hydrothermal
fluids (e.g., boiling; Richards and Kerrich, 1993). These
data should be viewed with caution, however, as analyses of
 GOLD DEPOSITS RELATED TO ALKALINE MAGMATISM
-25 Mu Kf
Alb
Aeg
V-mica
HSO4-
SO42-
-30
Hm
log f O2
-35
Py
100
H2S
-40
10
Po HS-
-45 1 ab
Solubility of
Au(HS)2- in ppb
2 4 6 8
pH
FIG. 13. Gold solubility as a function of pH and f o2 (dark solid con-
tours) calculated at 250°C, and Σ S = 0.01 molal using data from Shen-
berger and Barnes (1989). Stability fields for sulfide and oxide mineral
species are shown as thick, dashed, gray lines. Stability fields of volatile
sulfide and sulfate species are shown as dark, dot-dash lines. Vertical dot-
ted lines show the positions of the reactions 3K feldspar + 2H+ = sericite
+ 6SiO2 + 2K+ (with aK+ = 0.05 molal) and albite + Fe-phase = aegirine.
As indicated by the shaded field, substitution of V for aluminum in
sericite shifts the feldspar-sericite reaction to more alkaline pHs. Note
that the field of high gold solubility is found at moderate fo2 and neutral
pHs, plotting to the alkaline side of the reaction Kf = Mu. Likewise, the
compositions of hydrothermal fluids in equilibrium with an aegirine-
bearing melt or buffered by reaction with aegirine-bearing wall rocks are
shown by the position of the albite-aegirine reaction. Fluids exsolved
from alkaline magmas will have an initial composition near the aegeine-
albite buffer (see Fig. 12) but will shift toward lower pHs as acidifying re-
actions (such as carbonation) take place during fluid evolution. This
path is shown schematically by the large white arrow. Compositions of
hydrothermal fluids in alkaline systems are likely to lie between the two
reaction fields, along the SO42–-H2S buffer, near the position of highest
gold solubility. Aeg = aegerine, Alb = albite, Kf = K feldspar, Mu = musco-
vite, Mt = magnetite, Po = pyrrhotite, Py = pyrite.
coexisting sulfates, such as barite and anhydrite, are sel-
dom reported. Sulfates that have been analyzed are signif-
icantly heavier than sulfides (Heithersay and Walshe,
1995). In the St. Paul deposit, near Golden Sunlight, Mon-
tana, contributions from sedimentary sources are implied
by anomalously heavy sulfur isotopes (δ34S up to 9‰; Spry
et al., 1996). Carbon isotopes (δ 13C) from epithermal
deposits range from –8 to 0 per mil (Richards, 1995), val-
ues that overlap magmatic values but allow for limited con-
tributions from sedimentary rocks. As a group, isotopes of
carbon and sulfur are largely consistent with derivation
from magmatic sources, although contributions from sedi-
mentary sources cannot be ruled out in many cases (Shan-
non et al., 1983; Richards and Kerrich, 1993; Richards,
1995; Spry and Thieben, 1998).
The presence of mantle peridotite xenoliths, as at
Ladolam (McInnes et al., 1998), and their common loca-
tion in regions underlain by thin crust (Emperor) suggest
that alkaline Cu(Au) deposits are associated with mantle-
derived magmas. This conclusion is supported by radio-
genic isotope studies on Cu(Au) systems (McInnes et al.,
305
Temperature
800 600 400 200 00
qz
SiO2,aq
2kb C -2
A
saturation
Quartz
SiO ab -4
log m SiO2
2,aq +
800 400 ne -6
Mt
1 kb
qz
1 kb 0.5 kb
SiO -8
2 4 B
0.5 kb ne -10
+S
iO
2 8
-12
12
10
-14
FIG. 14. Representative quartz solubility relationships in alkaline
systems. Point A represents a hypothetical magmatic fluid in equilibrium
with a nepheline-bearing magma at 700°C. If this fluid continuously
reacts with nepheline bearing rock as it cools, it will move along path B
and never achieve silica saturation. If the fluid becomes channeled along
conduits lined by hydrothermal minerals (adularia, for example), it will
be prevented from reacting with nepheline-bearing wall rocks. Such a
fluid may follow path C. This fluid will cool until it intersects the curve of
silica saturation, at which time it will begin precipitating quartz. Quartz
precipitation does not begin until relatively low temperatures (<200°C at
pressures <2 kbar). This model predicts that deep, high-temperature,
“porphyry-style” alkaline mineralization may lack hydrothermal quartz,
but quartz veins may be prominent in higher-level epithermal systems
(Cripple Creek, Emperor, Porgera). The inset diagram shows calcula-
tions at lower pressures. Note that the topology of the diagram does not
change significantly throughout the pressure ranges observed in most
alkaline deposits. qz = quartz, ab = albite, ne = nepheline, qz = quartz.
1998). Mantle sources are also indicated at Porgera for
both magmas and metals (Richards et al., 1991).
In contrast to the more primitive Cu(Au) systems, intru-
sive phases related to Mo(Au) mineralization show greater
evidence (from isotopic studies) for crustal sources. Analyses
of alkaline rocks associated with Mo(Au) mineral deposits
in Boulder County, Colorado, show low Sr isotope ratios,
e.g., <0.706 (Simmons and Hedge, 1978; Stein and Crock,
1990), but δ18O averages ≈ 8.5 per mil (Stein et al., 1987),
and εNd ranges from –1.9 to –9.8 (Stein and Crock, 1987).
The Sr isotopes would be consistent with a mantle source
(with limited crustal contamination), but δ18O and εNd
require significant contributions from the lower crust. Sim-
ilar variations in the isotopic signatures of ore-forming
magmas are seen in other deposits (Richards et al., 1991;
Kelley et al., 1998), which may reflect contributions from
mantle, lower crustal, and possibly upper crustal sedimen-
tary source rocks. It should be remembered, however, that
regions of metasomatized mantle are often cited as sources
for alkaline magmas, and they may exhibit isotopic
characteristics that are virtually identical to those of crustal
materials, such as mantle nodules with εNd < –20 and 87/86Sr
> 0.830 (Menzies, 1987, fig. 6). This similarity leads to ambi-
guities in the interpretation of isotopic data.
Other indicators of petrogenesis: Although LREE are typically
enriched in most alkaline igneous systems, this characteris-
306 JENSEN AND BARTON
tic is variably developed in alkaline igneous systems related
to Cu(Au) deposits (Muller and Groves, 1993, 1997). Some
trachyandesite-trachybasalt volcanic systems show relatively
low concentrations of LREE (Porgera, Ladolam, Emperor,
Goonumbla) in comparison with deposits in the gold-tel-
luride belts of Colorado and Montana. Generally, deposits
with low concentrations of LREE tend to be enriched in
Cu, whereas deposits with high LREE tend to show higher
concentrations of Mo, reflecting different histories of frac-
tionation or crustal assimilation. The abundances of Nb,
Ta, and Eu are variable in alkaline systems related to gold
deposits, and they do not appear to have a systematic rela-
tionship with respect to styles and magnitudes of Au, Cu, or
Mo mineralization.
Telluride association: Tellurium is the most abundant ele-
ment in the solar system that has an atomic number >40
(Anders and Ebihara, 1982), but it is exceedingly rare in
terrestrial rocks (Beaty and Manuel, 1973; Loss et al., 1983).
As most of the earth’s endowment of tellurium was
sequestered during the formation of the core (owing to its
chalcophile behavior), tellurium abundances in mantle and
crustal rocks are similar to those of gold (typically <10 ppb).
Thus, alkaline hydrothermal systems represent very
unusual concentrations of Te.
The association of tellurides and alkaline magmatism
(Lindgren, 1933b; Bonham and Giles, 1983; Bonham,
1984, 1988) may reflect enrichment of Te in the litho-
spheric mantle sources, perhaps by sediment recycling. Tel-
lurium is strongly concentrated in organic materials
(Cohen, 1984), and as a result the most significant known
repositories of tellurium are limestones, shales, and pelagic
sediments (see analyses in Beaty and Manuel, 1973; Loss
et al., 1983; Cohen, 1984). Ocean floor sediments, there-
fore, constitute a large resource of tellurium. Subduction of
Te-rich sediments could produce anomalous Te enrich-
ments in the mantle, and some metasomatized mantle
rocks show evidence for anomalous enrichments of tel-
lurium (Ohnenstetter, 1992). In turn, melting of such
enriched mantle would lead to Te-enriched magmas.
Tectonics and Petrogenesis
Alkaline magmas show a general relationship with exten-
sional tectonics, but their tectonic settings are as complex as
the magmas themselves. Alkaline rocks erupt in three princi-
pal environments: continental rift valleys, convergent mar-
gins, and intraplate alkaline complexes (Fitton and Upton,
1987). Examples of alkaline complexes that contain gold
mineralization are most commonly associated with several
variants of arc-related magmatism, although some appear to
form in rift-related settings as well. Few (if any) are clearly
associated with intraplate hot-spot magmatism.
Arc settings: Alkaline rocks are generally found as inboard
expressions of arc-related magmatism (Lindgren, 1933b, p.
178–179; Kuno, 1959; Dickinson, 1975; Wilson, 1989). In
detail, however, the settings of arc-related alkaline magma-
tism are much more complex. Alkaline magmas are some-
times erupted in the initial stages of arc formation (Müller
and Groves, 1997) but are more commonly erupted late in
the evolution of the arc (Wilson, 1989). Magmas range
from mafic to felsic, show variable K/Na ratios, and can be
enriched in K relative to rocks in other tectonic settings
(Wilson, 1989). Although generally erupted farthest from
the trench (Morrison, 1980; Wilson, 1989), they can erupt
anywhere, including the forearc, e.g., the Lesser Antilles
(Barsdell et al., 1982).
Trachyandesites and trachybasalts (including “sho-
shonites”) represent an economically significant class of
arc-related alkaline magmatism (Fig. 3). They are com-
monly erupted in arcs with complex subduction geome-
tries, or where arcs have undergone tectonic reconfigura-
tion. Such environments include arcs with oblique or
transgressive convergence (Morrison, 1980; Rock et al.,
1989; Wyman and Kerrich, 1989; Ashley et al., 1994), arcs
where convergence ceased with collision (Richards, 1990a),
and arc environments disrupted by extension or back-arc
rifting (Gill and Whelan, 1989; Richards, 1995). In almost
all cases, a transition from convergent tectonics to trans-
pressive or extensional tectonics is observed.
Examples of alkaline-related Au(Cu) mineralization with
a clear relationship to arc magmatism include the young
volcanic belts in Papua New Guinea and Fiji, as well as the
Jurassic arc terranes of British Columbia (Quesnellia and
Stikinia terranes). The Ordovician shoshonite belt in
Bogan Gate Synclinorial Zone in the Lachlan Fold Belt of
eastern Australia shares many geochemical characteristics
with the aforementioned examples. It may represent a
paleoarc environment (Müller et al., 1994), although a rift-
related origin is favored by Jones (1985). This belt of
shoshonitic volcanic rocks hosts the Goonumbla Cu(Au)
deposits (Table 1 and Fig. 6).
Examples of possible arc-related Au(Mo) deposits
include the gold-telluride belts of Colorado and Montana.
These deposits are thought to represent the farthest
inboard expressions of Late Cretaceous to early Tertiary
arc-related magmatism in the western United States, where
alkaline magmas traversed large thicknesses of continental
crust (Eggler and Furlong, 1991; Baker, 1992; Zhang and
Spry, 1994; Saunders and Bookstrom, 1998; Spry and
Theiben, 1998).
Rift settings: In addition to arc-related settings, rift settings
also host alkaline Au deposits. Small alkaline-related gold
deposits are seen throughout the “Rocky Mountain alkaline
province” (Douglass and Campbell, 1994; Mutschler et al.,
1998), which stretches from central Colorado into north-
ern Mexico along the Rio Grande rift (Fig. 2; Wilson,
1989). Examples include the Ortiz (Old Placers) district
near Santa Fe, New Mexico (Schutz and Nelsen, 1990,
1991), the White Oaks district, New Mexico (Willard and
Jahns, 1974; Ronkos, 1991), and the Sierra Blanca-Nogal
district, New Mexico, (Giles and Thompson, 1972; Thomp-
son, 1972, 1974; Douglass and Campbell, 1994). The
phonolitic diatreme at Cripple Creek, Colorado, is located
in an off-axis position relative to the Rio Grande Rift, but it
resembles the sodic phonolite magmatic rocks in similar
positions relative to the East African Rift, e.g., Mt. Kilaman-
jaro and Mt. Kenya (Baker, 1987).
 GOLD DEPOSITS RELATED TO ALKALINE MAGMATISM
Mutschler and Mooney (1993, p. 486) describe sinter
deposits enriched in Au, As, and Sb found in terrestrial rift
settings that appear to be associated with alkalic magma-
tism, e.g., trachyandesite lavas associated with the Rhynie
chert, Scotland. These sinters are associated with carbon-
ate + barite + K feldspar + pyrite veins and hydrothermal
breccias.
Other considerations: Although most alkaline magmas
appear to be derived from the mantle, these magmas are
enriched in elements that are scarce in typical mantle
peridotite (e.g., Te, K, F). Several lines of evidence suggest
that the source regions of alkaline magmas experienced
some degree of enrichment (addition of volatiles and other
components) before generating a melt. How this process of
enrichment influenced metal budgets is unclear (for discus-
sions of source models see Mitchell and Keays, 1981; Hami-
lyn et al., 1985; Richards, 1995). It is now generally accepted
that most alkaline rocks associated with gold deposits lack
gold enrichments greater than a few tens of parts per billion
(Finch et al., 1983; Mutschler et al., 1985; Rock et al., 1988).
Thus, the enrichment of metals in alkaline-deposits cannot
simply be related to anomalous magmatic endowments or
enriched source regions; instead it appears to be a product
of efficient hydrothermal systems.
Key characteristics of alkaline magmas that may ulti-
mately contribute to the generation of hydrothermal gold
deposits are their oxidized and volatile-rich nature
(Richards, 1995, p. 384–385). The high oxidation state of
alkaline magmas should suppress sulfide melt immiscibility
(Richards, 1995; Keith et al., 1998), thus retaining chalco-
phile elements and PGE in the silicate melt (Naldrett, 1981;
Candela, 1992).
Alkaline complexes associated with gold mineralization
are typically manifested as a series of intrusive events, in
some cases bearing systematic relationships with episodes
of hydrothermal alteration and mineralization. The ore typ-
ically formed late, perhaps after an extended period of
magmatic evolution. However, this is not always the case. In
several areas, late mafic magmas (lamprophyres) may have
introduced materials or triggered volatile release (in the
sense of Pallister et al., 1996, and Keith et al., 1998).
Regardless of evolutionary paths, these relatively small, shal-
low intrusions are likely derived from larger magmatic
reservoirs at depth, a necessary requirement to account for
the mass of gold and volumes of alteration.
Other Types of Gold Deposits
Linked to Alkaline Magmatism
Orthomagmatic deposits
There are a few examples of orthomagmatic deposits
associated with alkaline mafic rocks (some of which are
classified as “alkaline” according to the TAS (total alkalis vs.
sillica) scheme but are actually low in alkalies). Examples
include the deposits at Salt Chuck, Alaksa (Loney et al.,
1987; Loney and Himmelberg, 1992) and the Bokan Moun-
tain district, Alaska (MacKevett, 1963; Philpotts et al., 1996).
As a group they are of minor economic significance, and
307
interested readers are directed to Mutschler and Mooney
(1993) for further information. More compelling is the rela-
tionship between gold enrichment and carbonatites. The
carbonatite-hosted Phalaborwa Cu deposit is enriched in
both PGE and Au. Au is produced as a byproduct of copper
mining at Phalaborwa and has accounted for a substantial
percentage of the mine’s revenue (Verwoerd, 1986; Eriksson,
1989). Both orthomagmatic and hydrothermal styles of min-
eralization are reported at Phalaborwa (Table 1).
Links between other carbonatites and gold mineralization
are less certain. The Mountain Pass carbonatite-shonkinite
complex in southeastern California, noted for its REE pro-
duction, was originally mined for gold (Wright et al., 1953;
Olson et al., 1954). In Colorado, gold mineralization is asso-
ciated with radial mafic phases of the Powderhorn carbon-
atite complex. Gold concentrations are seldom reported for
carbonatites, although Bell (1991) suggests that carbonatites
are anomalously enriched in gold. Overall, the association
between carbonatites and gold deserves further attention.
Lode gold systems and associated alkaline rock
A spatial association between lamprophyres and lode gold
deposits has been long recognized (McLennan, 1915; Dyer
1936; Moore, 1937; McNeil and Kerrich, 1986; Rock and
Groves, 1988a, b; Rock et al., 1989; Wyman and Kerrich,
1988, 1989; Kerrich and Wyman, 1990, 1994). Gold miner-
alization accompanies lamprophyres in the Superior
province of Canada (Wyman and Kerrich, 1989), the Yilgarn
block of Australia (Rock et al., 1988a, b) and the Maopai dis-
trict of China (Fig. 2; Shaocong, 1992. Rock and Groves
(1988) suggested that lamprophyres are genetically related
to the gold mineralization and supplied both volatile com-
ponents and gold. However, considering that most lampro-
phyres do not show Au enrichments greater than tens of
parts per billion, a significant body of lamprophyric magma
is needed to supply the volumes of gold observed in most
lode gold systems (along with fluids and silica). Such bodies
are not seen at current levels of exposure. An alternative
explanation is that both lamprophyres and lode gold-style
mineralization may occupy the same crustal-scale dilational
structures, and their spatial association may thus be one of
coincidence—a model proposed by Wyman and Kerrich
(1989) and by Ashley et al. (1994).
Iron oxide(-copper-gold) system
Many iron oxide(-copper-gold) deposits are associated
with igneous rocks that have alkali-rich compositions. Mag-
netite or hematite dominates these deposits with subordi-
nate, late iron-copper sulfides. REE, uranium, cobalt, and
silver are also commonly enriched. Unlike porphyry-style
deposits associated with silica-saturated rocks, hydrothermal
quartz tends to be subordinate and paragenetically late
(Hitzman et al., 1992). A genetic link to alkaline or sho-
shonitic magmatism is proposed for some of these, notably
the Olympic Dam type (Hauck, 1990; Reeve et al., 1990;
Mutschler and Mooney, 1993; Pollard et al., 1998). The evi-
dence for this connection is equivocal. In some areas alka-
line magmatism (“shoshonitic” or “anorogenic”) is clearly
308 JENSEN AND BARTON
present (Cloncurry region, Stuart Shelf, Australia) but in
many areas the igneous rocks are clearly subalkaline and
range from tholeiitic basalts to weakly peraluminous rhyo-
lites (Barton and Johnson, 1996). In some regions a recog-
nized link to magmatic activity is absent, for example in the
detachment Fe(Cu,Au) systems of southwest North Amer-
ica (Spencer and Welty, 1986, 1989a, b). The volumes of
intense sodic and potassic alteration can dwarf the volumes
in alkaline igneous centers. The extensive alteration, lack
of correlation with igneous compositions, and other evi-
dence for saline nonmagmatic fluids differ markedly from
features of most magmatic-hydrothermal systems including
alkaline gold systems (Barton and Johnson, 1996).
Alkaline Rock Types not Associated
with Gold Mineralization
Some alkaline rock types, such ultrapotassic rocks, have
no apparent association with gold deposits. Ultrapotassic
rocks are generally assumed to represent small-degree par-
tial melts of phlogopite-rich mantle (Bergman, 1987; Edgar,
1987). These magmatic systems are typically very small (kim-
berlites, lamproites) and do not show evidence for complex
histories (i.e., they lack multiple intrusive phases). Their
small size and lack of magmatic evolution may prevent these
systems from concentrating metals beyond the concentra-
tions inherited from their source regions.
Many felsic alkaline complexes lack gold but may have
other types of associated mineral deposits. Examples
include the peralkaline granitic complexes in rift zones
(Nigeria, Oslo), and syenitic complexes associated with hot
spot and extensional magmatism (White Mountains-
Monteregian Hills, Greenland alkaline province). It is diffi-
cult to be certain the gold is missing from these complexes,
but little or no gold mineralization has been reported, even
as placers.
Exploration Considerations
Why look for this kind of deposit?
These systems are attractive exploration targets because
they can be large and of high grade (Fig. 1), and they are
environmentally favorable to mine. They may have been
overlooked because of the often local, inconspicuous
nature of the mineralization. Cripple Creek, Ladolam, and
Porgera each exceed 300 t (107 oz) of Au in production
and reserves (Fig. 1). Overall, these systems are of moder-
ate scale (Fig. 6) but may contain very high-grade portions
(e.g., Zone VII at Porgera, and the Cresson Pipe, Cripple
Creek). Alkaline base metal-rich porphyry deposits are also
typically smaller than their subalkaline counterparts, yet
they are commonly enriched in gold, which can make them
attractive as exploration targets.
Alkaline gold deposits may pass unrecognized owing to
the unusual nature of the mineralization. Because gold
commonly occurs in tellurides or pyrite, it forms flour gold
on oxidation and placers can be poorly developed or
absent (Lindgren and Ransome, 1906, p. 152). Likewise,
the thin, quartz-poor, but very high grade veins common in
many districts are inconspicuous. Gold mineralization was
known at Porgera as early as 1938, but not until the 1980s
was high-grade mineralization discovered along the Roa-
mane fault (Richards, 1995). The diatreme at Cripple
Creek was prospected for nearly 40 years before Bob Wom-
ack identified high-grade gold veins in 1891. It is likely that
traditional methods of exploration may have overlooked
many alkaline gold deposits.
These deposits can also be attractive targets for environ-
mental and metallurgical reasons. The dominance in many
systems of feldspar- and carbonate-rich alteration, as well as
low total sulfide concentrations, provides rocks with excel-
lent acid buffering potential that can markedly reduce or
eliminate the risk of acid mine drainage. At Cripple Creek,
for example, waters issued from the Carlton drainage tun-
nel have a pH that hovers about 7–8, indicative of carbon-
ate-buffered solutions.
Region selection
Consideration of the tectonic settings and time-space dis-
tribution of alkaline gold deposits (Figs. 2, 4) can focus
exploration, notably toward preserved shallow Phanerozoic
alkaline magmatic rocks. Large alkaline epithermal deposits
are almost exclusively Cretaceous to Neogene, undoubtedly
because their preservation potential is poor. Conversely, the
somewhat more deeply formed alkaline porphyry-style sys-
tems are better preserved in the geologic record, as demon-
strated by their greater range of ages.
Alkaline deposits are commonly present as clusters (Fig. 4).
Discovery of one deposit may lead to nearby discoveries, e.g.,
Mt. Kare, Papua, New Guinea (Richards and Ledlie, 1993).
Regions of alkaline magmatism also commonly exhibit sev-
eral ages of alkaline activity. Thus, when one explores for
young deposits, provinces of ancient alkaline magmatism
should not be discounted. Much younger alkaline intrusions
are commonly juxtaposed with Precambrian alkaline rocks
(e.g., Kola Peninsula, Russia; Front Range, Colorado).
Although the tectonic settings of alkaline gold deposits are
quite diverse, arcs that have undergone recent tectonic
reconfigurations appear to be particularly favorable for
Cu(Au) deposits and associated epithermal systems. Several
of the premier examples (Ladolam, Porgera, Emperor)
formed in settings in which subduction ceased and was fol-
lowed by extensional or transtensional tectonics. In particu-
lar, Richards (1997) suggests that regions of extension or
transtension behind an arc or collisional suture zone provide
favorable settings for alkaline gold deposits. Conversely, alka-
line magmatism in regions of thickened continental crust
(especially back arcs) is a target for Mo(Au) exploration.
Target evaluation
At the district scale, large alkaline gold systems are char-
acterized by voluminous metasomatism, multiple mag-
matic and hydrothermal events, and structurally focused
zones of high-grade mineralization (Table 1). The pres-
ence of reactivated regional structures or other significant,
through-going structures cutting the intrusive complex
may serve to focus ore-bearing fluids and make the differ-
 GOLD DEPOSITS RELATED TO ALKALINE MAGMATISM 309

ence between an economic and subeconomic deposit (e.g.,
Richards, 1997). Attention to magmatic complexity, struc-
tural patterns (controlling magmatic and hydrothermal
plumbing), surface geochemical anomalies (especially
and Te), and the distribution and intensity of hydrothermal
alteration seem key.
Styles of mineralization and alteration can help distin-
guish appropriate levels of exposures. High-temperature,
biotite-stable alteration may imply proximity to a base
metal-rich porphyry environment as opposed to a shallow
epithermal environment. Both styles can be juxtaposed,
however, so the presence of one type does not preclude the
presence of the other.
Summary
1. Alkaline-related gold deposits include high-grade, low-
temperature epithermal deposits and low-grade, high-
temperature base metal-rich deposits. Epithermal deposits
are among the largest volcanic-hosted gold deposits and
contain up to 1,000 t Au. The porphyry-style deposits tend
to be smaller than subalkaline types, but they contain sub-
stantial Au and Ag ± PGE in addition to base metals.
2. These systems occur with a wide variety of igneous
rocks all having high primary Na2O + K2O contents for
their given SiO2 content. Deposit types vary systematically
according to rock types: Cu(Au) deposits with mafic-
intermediate rock types (SiO2 < 60 wt %); Mo(Au) deposits
with intermediate-felsic alkaline rocks (SiO2 > 65 wt %). Both
can have distal telluride-rich epithermal deposits (Fig. 15).
Mineralized zones in epithermal systems can extend for
large vertical intervals (>1,000 m) or be telescoped.
3. As a group, these deposits are characterized by telluride-
rich mineralization, abundant K metasomatism, and min-
erals such as fluorite and roscoelite. In detail, styles of alter-
ation and mineralization vary with magma type, host rock
type, and physicochemical conditions (Fig. 15). K feldspar
alteration predominates in felsic rocks, whereas sericite +
carbonate + K feldspar assemblages predominate in mafic-
intermediate rocks. Hydrothermal quartz and acid styles of
alteration are poorly developed or absent.

G C
≈3-4 km
A E: Emperor, Fiji
Styles of alteration and mineralization
Regional / distal :
outer boundary of:
CO3 ± py, chl, ser, alb, Kf
+ variable argillic alteration
Rock types:
alkaline intrusions
carbonate country rocks
coeval alkaline
volcanics
country rock; typically mixed
sediments and volcaniclastics or
crystallize basement:
variable redox conditions
F
D
E
B Deposit models:
A: Galore Creek, BC
B: Allard Stock, CO
C: Bessie G, CO
D: Porgera, PNG
F: Cripple Creek, CO
G: Mayflower, MT
Epithermal environment
veins: qz + CO3 + py + tel ± Kf, fl, rosc, SO 4, tet, sl, gn
mafic host: ser + Kf + py* +CO 3 +rosc + tel
felsic host: Kf + py* + CO 3 ± ser, rosc, fl, tel
carbonate host:
silicification w/ peripheral Kf + qz + py + ser (rosc)
shallow acid alteration (kln, al, qz, ser, py) ± sinter(?)
Porphyry-environment; Porphyry-environment;
mafic - intermediate intermediate - felsic
alkaline intrusions alkaline intrusions
ser(±Kf) + CO3 + py*(?) ser + qz + py ± Kf
± fl, gn, sl
Kf + qz + ser + CO3 + py*(?) + mo
Interior:
Kf + bio + mt + bn* ± anhy, hm ± cpy, tel
Peripheral: deep, peripheral Na(Ca)
Kf + bio + mt + cpy alteration
± py, anhy, fl, hm

fault deep, peripheral Na(Ca)

alteration
FIG. 15. Schematic illustration of the relationships between magmatic intrusive rocks, host rocks, hydrothermal altera-
tion, and metal distribution in alkaline-related gold deposits. al = alunite, anhy = anhydrite, bio = biotite, CO3 = carbonate,
chl = chlorite, cpy = chalcopyrite, fl = fluorite, gn = galena, hm = hematite, Kf = K feldspar, kln = kaolinite, mo = molyb-
denite, mt = magnetite, py = pyrite, qz = quartz, rosc = roscoelite, ser = sericite, sl = sphalerite, tel = telluride.
310 JENSEN AND BARTON
4. Field, geochemical, and petrological evidence indi-
cates that these deposits form primarily from magmatic
fluids with variable contributions from external sources
inferred for epithermal systems. Fluids were CO2-rich, rela-
tively oxidized, near neutral pH, and had low sulfidation
states as constrained by mineral assemblages and fluid
inclusion evidence. Evidence points to precipitation of gold
by several mechanisms including phase separation, fluid
mixing, cooling, and wall-rock reaction. No one mecha-
nism is universal.
5. These deposits occur in a variety of tectonic settings
and share a general association with extensional tectonics;
they commonly accompany tectonic reconfigurations.
Mafic to intermediate systems occur in volcanic arc envi-
ronments commonly with thin or mafic crust. Intermediate
to felsic systems occur in regions of relatively thick conti-
nental crust, as an inboard expression of arc magmatism.
Some deposits may be related to rifts.
6. Future work needs to concentrate on issues of source
enrichments and petrogenesis. Key questions include how
magmatic, structural, and hydrothermal histories govern for-
mation of deposits greater than 100 t Au and how these
deposits relate to specific tectonic environments. Further
descriptions of hydrothermal assemblages and their distrib-
utions would greatly aid our understanding of how these
deposits form, evolve, and compare with other types of
deposit.
Acknowledgments
This paper represents part of a Ph.D. dissertation by Eric
Jensen at the University of Arizona. We thank Cripple
Creek and Victor Gold Mining Company and Anglogold
North America for support of Jensen’s work at Cripple
Creek. Mark Barton’s work on these systems has been sup-
ported by the National Science Foundation (EAR 95-27009,
EAR 98-15032). Work on alkaline systems in Mexico has
been supported by companies in the University of Arizona
Mexico Consortium. We appreciate helpful reviews by
Jeremy Richards and Phil Brown.
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