Production Engineering Fundamental

Drilling Essentials

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 Objectives
• Clear association of well performance concepts with the completion design and accessories selection.
• Describe the integrated process of connecting the reservoir rock to wellbore and the wellbore to the
surface equipment
• Able to apply Darcys Inflow Equation
• Able to apply Vogels Inflow Equation
• Able to define Bubble Point pressure
• Good understanding of “Skin Effect” and its implication to well productivity
• Good understanding of Nodal Analysis

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Overview of the Production System Process
Gas Management
Facility Production Facilities Clients

Tanks
Gas Water
Crude Oil

Gas Lift Manifolds

Gas injection Generic Well Water Management and

Manifolds Injection plant
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Typical Production Asset

Rig Integrity
Management Management Volumes

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Metering & Management
Equipment Processing
and Facility

Gas & Liquids

Production
Management Planning &
Management
Optimization

Reservoir
Management

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Field Development Plan (FDP)
• Detailed Subsurface Studies (Geological and Reservoir Modeling)

• STOIIP, Reserves or Ultimate recovery estimates

• Well construction and drilling engineering

• Completion strategies and basis of design

• Production strategies

• Surface facilities design

• The FDP can be revised any time during the development phase

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Integrated Production System
3rd Tier (Reservoir – Decision Center)

2nd Tier (Reservoir – Surface)

1st Tier (Reservoir – Wellbore)

Decision Surface
Well Reservoir
Center Facilities

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Petroleum Production System

Sales

Facilities / Processing

Surface Networks

Wells

Reservoir

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The Reservoir
Reservoir Fundamentals:

Fluid Properties
• PVT Rock Properties
o Porosity: Void space
o Permeability: Ability for fluid to flow through rock Most Common Reservoir Rocks
• Sandstone's ~ 60%
• Carbonates ~ 39%

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What is PVT?
• PVT: Pressure, Volume, Temperature.
• Branch of Petroleum Engineering that deals with properties and phase behavior of reservoir fluids.
o Properties:
▪ Specific Gravity, Viscosity, Density….
▪ Formation Volume Factor, Bubble point, Gas-Oil-Ratio…etc
o Phase Behavior:
▪ Liquid
▪ Gas
▪ Solid

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PVT Properties – Specific Gravity

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API Gravity
• API gravity is measurement of density at 60˚/ 60˚ - means
liquid and water is measured at 60˚ F at atmospheric pressure
• The API gravity of oil is defined:

141.5
API gravity = o
− 131.5
SG @ 60 F
• API gravity is gradated in degrees on a hydrometer
instrument and was designed so that most values would
fall between 10° and 70° API gravity.

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Is API Gravity the same as Viscosity?

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PVT Properties – Formation Volume Factor
𝑂𝑖𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 (𝐵𝐵𝐿)
𝐵𝑜 =
𝑂𝑖𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 (𝑆𝑇𝐵)

Bo

Shrinkage due to
gas evolving Expansion due to
decompression

Bubble Point P
Pressure

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PVT Properties – Gas-Oil Ratio

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 (𝑆𝐶𝐹)

𝐺𝑂𝑅 =
𝑂𝑖𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 (𝑆𝑇𝐵)

• Produced GOR does not take into account where the gas comes from: solution in oil, solution in
water or gas cap in the reservoir

• Produced GOR varies significantly during the life of the well

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Rock Properties - Porosity

Inter Connected Isolated Porosity

Porosity

Connected Porosity

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Permeability
• There must be some continuity between pores to have permeability.

• Unit of Permeability is the Darcy.

• It is defined as that permeability which will allow a fluid of one centipoise viscosity to flow at a velocity of one
centimeter per second for a pressure drop of one atmosphere per centimeter.

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Darcy’s Law (1856)

𝐾𝐴 (𝑃𝑏 − 𝑃𝑎 )
𝑄=−
𝜇 𝐿

Q = Flowrate (cm3/sec)
K = Permeability (darcy)
A = Cross sectional area (cm2)
Pa = Pressure before porous media (psi)
Pb = Pressure after porous media (psi)
µ = Fluid viscosity (cp)

b a

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Radial form of Darcy’s Law
What influences Flowrate?

7.08  10 −3 k h (Pr − Pwf )

Q=
  re  3 
 o Bo  ln   − + s 

  rw  4 

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Darcy’s Law Units and Assumptions
• Qo = flow rate (BFPD)
Darcy’s Assumptions – Ideal Flow
• ko = effective permeability (md)
• h = effective feet of pay (ft) • Reservoir is homogenous, clean and without skin
•  o = average viscosity (cp) • Purely radial flow
• Above bubble point pressure
• Pr = reservoir pressure (psi) • Producing well is completed across the entire
• Pwf = wellbore pressure (psi) formation thickness
• Fluid compressibility is small and constant
• re = drainage radius (ft)
• rw = wellbore radius (ft)
• Bo = formation volume factor (res bbl/surface bbl)

• Known as: Field Unit

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Exercise 1
Calculate flow rate of an oil well with the following reservoir conditions:

• Permeability • 10 md
• Thickness • 500 ft
• o • 1.23 res bbl/stb
• o • 0.6 cp
• Reservoir pressure • 2,000 psi
• Well flowing pressure • 500 psi
• Tubing ID • 2 7/8”
• Radius of investigation • 1,320 ft

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Pressure Drawdown in the Wellbore

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Darcy’s Equation & Radial Flow Model
Darcy’s equation only applicable for single phases fluid in laminar regime through a permeable medium on its
radial flow above bubblepoint pressure

7.08 x 10 -3
k o h ( Pr P wf )
qo = Pe
re
 o Bo ln 0.75 Pwf
rw
rw re
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝑃𝑟 − 𝑃𝑤𝑓) dr

𝑄
𝑃𝑖 =
(𝑃𝑟 −𝑃𝑤𝑓 )
h
𝑆𝑇𝐵 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 ( )
𝑃𝑠𝑖

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System components Gas
Sales line
Pwh Psep Liquid
Pressure Losses in Well Stock tank
System

P1 = Pr - Pwfs = Loss in reservoir

P3 = Pwf - Pwh P2 = Pwfs - Pwf = Loss across completion
P3 = Pwf - Pwh = Loss in tubing
P4 = Pwh - Psep = Loss in flowline
PT = Pr - Psep = Total pressure loss

Pwf Pwfs Pr Pe

P1 = (Pr - Pwfs)

P2 = (Pwfs - Pwf)

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Productivity Index
• The relationship between well inflow rate and reassure drawdown can be expressed in the form of a
Productivity Index, denoted “PI” or “J”
• How many barrels can be produced per day per psi of pressure

q
PI =
(P − Pr wf
)

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 “Real World” IPR (Inflow Performance Relationship )
Vogel’s Equation
Pr
2
𝑄 𝑃𝑤𝑓 𝑃𝑤𝑓
= 1 − 0.2 − 0.8
𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑃𝑟 𝑃𝑟

• Empirical relationship for saturated and

𝑃𝑖 dissolved gas drive reservoir
• Below bubblepoint pressure

𝑉𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑙

AOF

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Inflow Performance Curve
3500
Inflow (Reservoir) Curve
3000
Flowing bottomhole pressure, psi

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
Production rate, STB/D

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Pressure drawdown in the Wellbore – Skin Effect
Skin factor is a “correction” to Darcy's
equation to reflect actual versus calculated
flow from the reservoir

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Radial form of Darcy’s Law

Completion Skin
7.08  10 −3 k h (Pr − Pwf )
Q=
  re  3 
 o Bo  ln   − + s 

  rw  4 

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What Influences Skin?
St = S d + S p + S pp + Sturb + So + S s + ......,
St = total skin effect, (+ damaged; - stimulated)
Sd = skin effect due to formation damage (+)
Spp = skin due to partial penetration (+)
Sp = skin effect due to perforation (+)
Sturb = Dq, skin effect due to turbulence (+)
So = skin effect due to slanting of well (-)
Ss = skin effect due to stimulation (generally -)

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Pressure Drawdown – Skin Factor
• It reflects the change in the near wellbore region permeability resulting from the well construction process

• Value can be positive (+) (near wellbore damage) or negative (-) (near wellbore enhancement due to
stimulation)

• Well construction and completion practices can have a large effect on this value

• Clearly, this will affect the ability of the well to produce and therefore well economics

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What Influences Skin factor?
Skin factor is influenced by the following:

• Partial Penetration
• Deviation
• Perforating Geometry
• Near Wellbore damage (typically drilling fluid filtrate damage) or improvement

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Perforating Geometry Skin

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Near Wellbore Damage Skin – Mud solids invasion
• Primary cause of damage in open hole
• Occurs during mud spurt (depth of invasion ~ mm)
• Increased by
o Large overbalance pressure
o Clay content or solids content
o Poor mud stability
 Reduced by
o Low fluid loss (especially spurt loss)
o Use of solids-free brines
o Compatible mud and completion fluids

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Formation Damage near Wellbore
Completions Fluids Damage Mechanism

• Solids interaction
• Paraffin and asphaltene build up
• Emulsion blocking
• Clays swelling
• Migration particles
• Scaling

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Tubing Performance
Outflow Curve

Ability of tubing to deliver / flow fluids vs pressure drop in the tubing

• Tubing Size
• ID restrictions
• Friction Factor
• Fluid properties (density, viscosity)
• GLR
• Multiphase flow

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Outflow Performance Curve
Pressure, temperature and flow regime distribution in a well as it flows from the
wellbore to surface (typically up tubing)

Vertical Flow Parameters

Temperature Pressure

slug
flow

churn
flow

Depth
bubble Approximate
flow linear
temperature
profile
Single-
phase
oil
p > pBP
oil

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Phase Behavior
Pressure-Temperature Diagram (a.k.a phase diagram)

Critical Point
P Beyond which we cannot distinguish between
Liquid vapor and liquid

Liquid + Vapor Vapor

T
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Fluid Phase Envelopes

For a mixture
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Pressure Gradient Equation: 2-Phase Flow
The Pressure Gradient Equation comes from the application of the
Energy Balance Equation and Thermodynamic principles

 
dp  g   f v 2
  vdv 
  =   s sin   +   +  
 dL   gc   2 gc d   g c dL 

Elevation Friction Acceleration

Potential Energy Losses Kinetic Energy

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Pressure Gradient Equation: 2-Phase G-L Flow
General Solution
Typically in Oil Wells

 dp   dp   dp   dp 
  =   +  + 
 dL TOTAL  dL Elevation  dL Friction  dL  Acc.

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Outflow curves from Pressure Traverses Gradient
Curves
• These curves are calculated using correlations
and trial-and-error procedures

• The flow conduit is divided into a number of

pressure or length increments, and the fluid
properties and pressure gradient are
evaluated at average conditions of pressure,
temperature and pipe inclination in the
increment

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Tubing Intake Curve (For constant WHP)
3500

Tubing Curve
3000

Flowing bottomhole pressure, psi 2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
Production rate, STB/D

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What is NODAL™ Analysis ?
Definition
• Tool to analyze pressure losses through different parts of the well
• Segments the reservoir & well system into areas where pressure losses occur
Input
• Fluid & Reservoir properties
• Wellbore configuration
Results
• Inflow performance curve (Reservoir & Sandface Completion)
• Outflow performance curve (Tubing and surface flow lines)
• Solution node
• System graph

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NODAL™: Pressure Losses in Well System
P4 = (Pwh - Psep)
Gas
Loss in flowline Sales line
Pwh Psep Liquid
Stock tank

P1 = Pr - Pwfs = Loss in reservoir

Loss in wellbore
P3 = Pwf - Pwh P2 = Pwfs - Pwf = Loss at sandface completion

P3 = Pwf - Pwh = Loss in wellbore

P4 = Pwh - Psep = Loss in flowline

PT = Pr - Psep = Total pressure loss

Loss in reservoir
Pwf Pwfs Pr Pe

P1 = (Pr - Pwfs)

Loss at sandface completion
P2 = (Pwfs - Pwf)

SCHLUMBERGER LEARNING Adapted from Mach et al, SPE 8025, 1979.

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System Analysis
3500
Inflow (Reservoir) Curve
3000
Tubing Curve

Flowing bottomhole pressure, psi

2500
1957.1 psi
2000

1500

1000

500
2111 STB/D

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
Production rate, STB/D

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Optimization Using NODAL™ Analysis
From the system graph, we can determine whether well performance can be improved by
• Production Enhancement
• Fracturing
• Stimulation
• etc

• Production Optimization
• Changing tubing size
• Changing the completion design

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Increasing PI (Production Enhancement)
2000

1800
Flowing Bottomhole Pressure, psia
Enhanced IPR
1600

1400 Initial IPR

1200

1000

800

Outflow Curve
600

400

200

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Rate, STB/D

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Tubing Sensitivity (Production Optimization)
2000

1800 Smallest Tubing A

Flowing Bottomhole Pressure, psia
1600 Smaller Tubing B

1400

1200
Current Tubing C

1000

800
Bigger Tubing D
600
Biggest Tubing E
400

200

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Rate, STB/D

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