Radial (radio)

In RF engineering, radial has three distinct meanings, both referring to lines which radiate from (or
intersect at) a radio antenna, but neither meaning is related to the other.

Ground system radial wires

When used in the context of antenna construction, radial wires are physical objects: Wires running away
from the base of the antenna, used to augment or replace the conductivity of the ground near the base of the
antenna. The radial wires either may run above the surface of the earth (elevated radials), on the surface
(on ground radials), or buried a centimeter or so under the earth (buried radials). The ends of the wires
nearest the antenna base are connected to the antenna system electrical ground, and the far ends are either
unconnected, or connected to metal stakes driven into the earth.

Top loading radial wires

Symmetrically arranged radial wires may also be attached to the top of an antenna, running horizontally
away from its apex. For practical length radials, their effect is to improve feedpoint impedance of a short
antenna almost the same as extending the height of the antenna by an amount equal to the combined length
of all the radials, up to a point of diminishing returns around about a dozen radials. The radials do not
themselves radiate, but may indirectly cause a small improvement in antenna radiation of short antennas by
raising their point of maximum current upward along the main part of the mast.

Map radial lines

When used in the context of planning for a transmission system, radial lines are a concept used when
describing a radio station's broadcast range: The radials in this case are several lines drawn on a map,
radiating from the transmitter, with evenly spaced horizontal bearings. The radial extends as far as the
transmitted signal can reach either by calculation or by measurement.

Ground system radial wires

Stations transmitting at low frequencies like the mediumwave and longwave AM broadcast bands, and
some lower shortwave frequencies, have frequencies so low that any feasible antenna is necessarily short
compared to the wavelength, the most common being a quarter wave vertical antenna. These wires are
called radials, ground radials, grounding radials, ground system radials, or earthing radials.

The radials at the antenna base provide a proper ground plane for the types of radio antennas used for long
wavelengths. These "half dipole" antennas require grounding or earthing wires in order to function well,
since the virtual image of the antenna electrically reflected by the mirror-like ground system is an essential
part of the operation of the actual antenna standing above the ground system. The radials are typically
buried in the soil or laid on the soil in a flat, radial pattern.

Practical issues for ground system radials

The ground system radials do not have to be absolutely straight nor absolutely horizontal. Although they
provide an electrical "ground", they do not require any actual contact with the surrounding earth, even
though advisable.
When the radials are mechanically incorporated into the structure of a small
antenna it is called a ground plane antenna. For these antennas the radials
slope off at an angle and are also called a skirt.

Radials lying upon the ground or within it are not resonant, and there is a great
deal of practical latitude in the length and number of radials, although licensing
requirements may demand excessive numbers and lengths.[a] Elevated radials
are far more efficient at intercepting electrical fields before they reach the earth,
so that only three or four may suffice, but since their electrical properties are
not dampended by adjacent soil they must be cut to a resonant length.

Electrical hazards
A ground plane antenna.
When well designed, the far ends of the wires in the ground system carry The white, downward
extremely high voltages. If elevated above the soil, the ends are often sloping arms are
connected to ground rods as a safety measure, rather than to improve the radials.
function of the antenna. Because of the same hazard, elevated radials are
placed at least eight feet above the ground surface, to be out of reach of passers
by, or over a fenced area.

Any metal object within the near field of the radiator must also be directly tied to the ground system, or the
metal will become charged with radio-frequency voltage, and become an electric shock hazard. If large
enough to act as a parasitic radiator it may also affect or distort the antenna radiation pattern.[b]

Top loading radial wires

Similar radial wires can be placed on the top of antennas (instead of at the base) that also promote more
efficient distribution of current in the antenna, but the structure of radial wires added to the top end of the
antenna is called a capacitance hat or top loading. Like ground radials, top radials are symmetrically
arranged wires placed to radiate away from the apex of the antenna, ideally running horizontally away from
the top. Electrically, this is equivalent to attaching a capacitor at the top of the antenna, whose other contact
is wired to the ground system, which constitutes the opposite plate of the capacitor.

Top loading antennas is a way to effectively increase the height of an antenna (for some purposes, but not
all) either to reduce the reactance at the feedpoint, or to indirectly increase radiation resistance by increasing
the amount of current in the vertical part of the mast. Although coils can be used to similarly load an
antenna, using coils introduces resistance losses from the substantial amount of wire needed; using radials
for capacitive loading effectively adds no loss.

Practical considerations for loading radials

1
For radials 9 electrical degrees or less ( 40  wavelength, each, or shorter) the effect on feedpoint impedance
and the current in the mast is the same as extending the height of the antenna by a length of wire equal to
99% of the total length of all the radials, up to about a dozen radials.[c] The radials may cause a small to
moderate improvement in antenna radiation by raising the point of maximum current upward along the
main part of the antenna, although symmetrical radials themselves do not radiate.
Horizontal radial wires are ideal, but sometimes difficult to support. As a substitute same-lengths of
conductive top segments of down-sloping guy wires can be electrically connected to the antenna apex. This
is less than ideal, but often more feasible for long top radials on towers. When guy wires are used for top
loading instead of horizontal radial wires, they must not extend very far down the mast, since the guy wires
will block some radiation from the mast, which causes a conflict between loss caused by the radiating mast
being "shadowed" by the guy wires, and the indirect gains realized by the increased current in the radiating
part of the mast.

Map radial lines

The use of radial lines on a map for measurement, planning, and regulation of radio transmissions is called
the radial method. It has no relation to grounding radials described above.

Radials for transmission planning

In the field of transmission planning, radials are evenly spaced points (vectors) along evenly spaced lines
(bearings) from a common point on a map, which are used to determine the average elevation above mean
sea level (AMSL) within a radio station's broadcast range (including broadcast stations and cellphone base
stations, among others).

This in turn determines the station's height above average terrain (HAAT), which greatly affects its
coverage area (more so than effective radiated power), and therefore the potential for RF interference with
other adjacent stations or cells. This information must be submitted with an application for a construction
permit. The points used for calculation may differ if a directional antenna is used.

Background of the radial method

The use of the radial method is more common in North America, where the FCC and CRTC use it in
mediumwave transmission planning and regulation. In Europe and Asia, the use of radials has fallen out of
favor since the 1970s, and in many nations the radial antenna proof is only acceptable as an ancillary
antenna proof. Canada and Mexico, due to lower population densities, never implemented the fully
complete radial models that the US FCC did.

The radial method has been falling out of favor for methods based on Cartesian coordinates. Cartesian
methods require more CPU time (and memory) to compute, but are understood to more realistically
represent antenna systems. The main importance of the radial methods is that a quick antenna system proof
can be completed in less than 15 minutes (often in only 5 minutes) of a typical home computer's CPU time,
regardless of antenna system complexity.

Regulatory use of radials

The ITU over the past 50 years — in consideration of the various population densities of its members —
officially mandates a minimum of 5 radials for an entire antenna system.

Although many broadcasting regulators around the world had to find some way of regulating longwave
and mediumwave antenna patterns and power, only the FCC chose to implement the radial method in its
fullest form.
The FCC decision to fully implement radials evolved from 1925 to 1975. Technology had changed, and by
the 1980s, computer terrain simulation of station interference and station patterns could be done on
mainframes, typically using Cartesian or other non-radial methods.

The FCC rules on radials were relaxed in stages from 1996 to 2013. It is expected that the 2013 ruleset for
radials will probably endure without change for a decade.

Footnotes
a. Longstanding US FCC regulations for AM broadcasting stations require 120 radials, each 14
 wave long. Amateurs have found that between a third and a half that number are ample, and
that the length of the radials may be 18  wave or shorter if there are enough of them.
b. In one unusual case, the strip mall built around the WSB AM tower near Atlanta has every
metal object (such as plumbing and ductwork) grounded for this reason.
c. When the radials are packed together too densely, they begin to interfere with each other's
electrical field lines, and reduce each other's effect. Various other shapes such as a solid
ring with a few conducting spokes may be better than several radials.

See also
broadcast range
ground plane antenna
ground plane
radio antenna

References

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