POLICY DEVELOPMENT

Strategic Study on the Utilization of

Underground Space in the Netherlands

J. Edelenbos, R. Monnikhof, J. Haasnoot, F. van der Hoeven,

E. Horvat and R. van der Krogt

Abstract--In the Netherlands, interest in utilization of underground space has been increasing over the
past decade. T• examine the p•tential f•r subsurface space use• a nati•nal "Strategic Study •n the Utilizati•n
of Underground Space" was carried out by the Centre for Underground Construction (Centrum Ondergronds
Bouwen, COB) and Delft University of Technology (TUD), on the initiative of the National Physical Planning
Service (Rijksplanologische Dienst, RPD) of the Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment.
The paper describes the objectives of the study, the characteristics of underground space use in the
Netherlands, positive and negative influences on the potential use of such space, and conclusions of the
Strategic Study, including likely prospective applications of subsurface space in the Netherlands.
© 1998 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Increasing Interest in Utilization of tal resources in the Netherlands, while at the same time
Underground Space increasing the functionality of the country's spatial devel-
opment and infrastructure.
otwithstanding the adverse conditions for utiliza-

N tion of under{~ound space in Holland, interest in

the possibilit:ies for underground space use is in-
creasing in the Netherlands. This is partly a result of the
growing c o m p l e x i t y and t h e i n c r e a s i n g n u m b e r of
infrastructural and spatial planning problems, which are
moreover compounded by an ever-increasing awareness of
"quality" aspects, such as the environment, nature and
liveability. This interest is not confined to underground
alternatives in major projects (generally infrastructural)
currently in preparati.on, but is also directed at the question
of what benefits unde:rground construction could contribute
in general to the future development of the Netherlands.
In that context, it was recognized t h a t a need existed for
a more comprehensive and in-depth vision of uses of the
underground domain. This "strategic vision" would have to
indicate the extent to which underground construction
could offer structural solutions able to absorb part of the
future pressure to co:aserve scarce space and environmen-
Present addresses: J. Edelenbos and R. Monnikhof, Research
Assistants, Faculty of Technology, Policy and Management, Delft
University of Technology, Jaffalaan 5, P.O. Box 5015, 2600 GA
Delft, The Netherlands; J. Haasnoot, TauwMabeg Civil Engineering
and Construction, P.O. Box 2817, 3000 CV Rotterdam; F. van der
Hoeven, Faculty of ArchitectureDelft University of Technology; E.
Horvat, Chair of Underground Construction, Delft University of
Technology, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Stevinweg 1, P.O. Box
5048, 2600 GA Delft, The Netherlands; and R. van der Krogt, DI-I'V
Environment and Infrastructure, P.O. Box 1076, 3800 BB
Amersfoort, The Netherlands.
These developments were the reasons for performing a
study with a time horizon to 2030, the "Strategic Study on
the Utilization of Underground Space". It was carried out by
the Centre for Underground Construction (Centrum
Ondergronds Bouwen, COB) and Delft University of Tech-
nology (TUD), on the initiative of the National Physical
Planning Service (Rijksplanologische Dienst, RPD) of the
Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environ-
ment. The summary of the study was personally offered to
the Dutch minister of Housing, Spatial Planning and the
Environment.
The objective of the study was to develop a strategic
vision of utilization of underground space in the Nether-
lands in support of sustainable and functional spatial devel-
opment. In this respect, "strategic" means aimed at develop-
ing a policy for the (very) long term. The word "strategic"
also carries the connotation "multidisciplinary", because
underground construction has interfaces with a range of
different areas of policy, such as spatial planning, environ-
ment, traffic and transport, safety and the economy.
In this study, the year 2030 is applied as the planning
horizon partly in view of the fact that the lead time required
for strategic, physical planning and the technical develop-
ment and optimization of (future-oriented and novel) con-
cepts, followed by the procedural and technical project
preparation and execution stage, is roughly 30 years. An-
other relevant factor is that underground structures may
have a structure-defining effect extending over a very long
term. For that reason, it is essential to obtain a realistic
picture of the function that an underground structure could
perform, not only in the initial years following its comple-
tion but for decades afterwards as well.

Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology,Vol. 13, No. 2, pp. 159-165, 1998
0886-7798/98/S--see front matter C 1998Published by Elsevier Science Ltd.
All rights reserved.
Pergamon
PH:S0886-7798(98)00043-1
Table 1. Primary functions and function types
Primary
functions Function types
Residential - urban residential
- rural/suburban residential
Work - business and services
- industrial manufacturing and utilities
- retailing
- small-scale manufacturing and
research
Leisure - "indoor" sports and recreation
- culture
- entertainment facilities (e.g. bars,
discos etc.)
Transport - passenger transport
- vehicular goods transport
- non-vehicular transport (substances,
bulk cargo, waste, electricity, digital
data, etc. by cabling, piping and tubing)
Storage - goods
- (hazardous) waste
- oil, gas and chemicals
2. Characteristics of Utilization of Underground
Space in the Netherlands
In the Netherlands, underground construction has to
cope with soft soil conditions, w i t h - - a t certain locations
(notably in the western Netherlands)---poor to very poor
ground conditions, often in combination with high ground-
water levels. In spite of these adverse conditions, there are
no obstacles in engineering terms for construction below
ground level. However, in urban areas the adverse condi-
tions with regard to ground and groundwater are increased
by the presence of a wide variety of objects in the under-
ground domain, such as wooden foundation piles, cables
and sewers. This situation has a major impact on the costs
of underground construction, which is of great importance
as feasibility is determined largely by affordability.
3. Relevant Functions and Facilities for
Underground Construction
When analysing the role which underground construc-
tion may have for the development of the built environment,
it is necessary to differentiate certain functions therein.
Table i lists the primary functions and function types that
were considered relevant to the strategic study.
4. Potential Impediments to the Utilization of
Underground Space
When comparing underground with "ordinary" above-
ground constructions, a number of potential impediments
to the realization and utilization of underground construc-
tions can be identified. These impediments relate, first, to
the relatively high costs of underground construction and
the fact that societal and policy aspects are difficult to
quantify (e.g, monetarize) when making a comparative
assessment between underground or aboveground. Addi-
tionally, impediments are concerned with aspects of percep-
tion connected with the use of underground facilities, uncer-
tainties regarding the application of certain technologies,
safety and service aspects, possible nuisance and damage
during and after the construction process, and lastly, the
often unfavourable geo-conditions.
160 TUNNELLINGANDUNDERGROUNDSPACETECHNOLOGY
The impediments mentioned are indicated here aspoten-
tial impediments because in many cases measures are
conceivable that would (at least in part) reduce the impedi-
ment. The potential impediments and possible measures
are summarized in Table 2.
The principal impediment beyond doubt is the cost as-
pect, illustrated by the following "Delft Case" example
(SOVI 1993). This case study involves the comparative
assessment of the underground and aboveground options
for enlargement of an extremely busy railway track passing
straight through the city, the results of which are shown in
Table 3.
The good news that viaducts and tunnels are virtually
identical in costs if the nuisance costs are included is
clouded by the u n c e r t a i n t y a b o u t f u n d s r e q u i r e d to
p a y for t h e r e d u c t i o n in n u i s a n c e . The government
might be expected to provide such financial compensation in
the light of the public interest aspect of such projects.
Another possibility could be t h e p o t e n t i a l for m u l t i p l e
l a n d u s e in t h e b r o a d sense; siting the railway track
underground generates highly attractive (long-term) devel-
opment opportunities for the city, to such an extent indeed
that t h e a d d i t i o n a l c o s t s o f t h e u n d e r g r o u n d o p t i o n s
c o u l d be m o r e t h a n c o m p e n s a t e d .
Furthermore, it is essential to realize that the (geo-)
conditions, the selected construction method, and the con-
cept have a very strong impact on the costs. The price per
square metre for a basement structure may vary by up to a
factor of two (often contrary to all expectations) due to local
conditions. Another relevant factor is the very strong influ-
ence of bored tunnel diameter on costs (see Table 4).
5. Impediments Relating to Enabling Factors
In addition to the above-mentioned potential impedi-
ments, impediments relating to enabling factors can also be
distinguished. These are factors concerning anything that
is societally and institutionally defined as being relevant to
the execution of underground projects and the use of under-
ground space. These impediments are connected with legal
aspects, spatial planning aspects and zoning plans, the lack
of a (dynamic) integrated assessment framework, inte-
grated decision-making processes, and unfamiliarity with
the possibilities of underground construction among plan-
ners and administrators. In this context, too, measures are
conceivable that can (in part) reduce the impediment (see
Table 5).
6. Motive F o r c e s for U n d e r g r o u n d C o n s t r u c t i o n
As mentioned above, there are no technological limita-
tions on underground construction, hut in most cases the
aboveground option is the easiest way to execute a project,
technically, financially and administratively alike. There
must, therefore, be clear motives for choosing the under-
ground option on the basis of its specific advantages. In
that respect, various actors or groupings will have various
motives.
In an underground project, generally speaking, the fol-
lowing societal groupings can be differentiated: users, in-
vestors and operators; nearby residents and nearby work-
ers; and the community or the public as a whole. Table 6
outlines in a broad sense what motives are most relevant to
which groupings.
Many of the motives for underground construction are
related to the q u a l i t y of the physical environment. This is
a very important factor because quality aspects receive
more and more attention as society and the economy con-
tinue to develop. In the Netherlands, for some considerable
time we have clearly seen a process of progressive aware-
ness about quality aspects such as the environment, the
landscape and liveability. In recent years, a number of
different groupings have moreover focused growing atten-
Volume 13, Number 2, 1998
tion on spatial quality, with specialregard to aspects such
as efficientuse of space, functionality (function improve-
ment, etc.),town planning, and architecture. In view of the
increasing demand for quality, underground construction
therefore has an important potential role to play.
Table 2. Summary of potential impediments to underground construction
Impediments
I. Costs
• Underground construction is relatively expensive
II. Perception aspects
• Negative associations with underground spaces in
general
• Realistic senses of lack of safety and orientation
II1. Uncertainties with regard to application of technology,
safety and use aspects
• Unfamiliarity with certain construction methods (e.g.,
tunnel boring) ms~y lead to overestimation of risks and
costs, or precisely the underestimation of risks.
• There is uncertainty as to safety standards to be im-
posed for underground spaces.
• An underground space is inflexible; enlargement in-
volves engineering problems
• Maintenance and management of underground facilities
is more difficult.
IV. Nuisance and damage during and after construction
• Noise and vibrations are potential sources of nuisance
during construction
• The realization of underground constructions can easily
cause settlement and subsidence
• Construction work can create a traffic nuisance and
reduce the accessibility of buildings and areas
V. Geo-conditions
• The soil survey does not generally give a totally reliable
picture of the physical geo-conditions.
Volume 13, Number 2, 1998
7. Strategic Aspects of the Utilization of
Underground Space
The possibilitiesand preference for underground alter-
natives have been assessed for the relevant function types
with reference to a broad set of criteria for underground
construction. These criteria are costs, external safety,
I
Nuances/PossibleSolutions
An objective cost comparison of aboveground and un-
derground options must include not only the "standard"
construction costs but also those costs and benefits that
are less easily expressed in monetary terms (e.g., mul-
tiple land use, forms of nuisance, physical lifetime);
these must be assessed in relation to the financial
investments
In underground construction procedures, specific cost
optimization is possible (e.g., with regard to tunnel
diameters and multidisciplinary and integrated design)
• Measures relating to layout, design, safety and ventila-
tion can exert a positive effect on perceptions.
• The functionality of the underground location of a facility
must be clear to the user.
Hands-on experience can improve familiarity with new
techniques
• Development of a clear-cut safeguarding vision has
been initiated with regard to safety standards
• A long-term vision can increase the economic and soci-
etal value of an underground facility
• Specific inspection techniques are available for under-
ground facilities
• Technical measures (insulation, damping, etc.) can re-
duce vibration
• Engineering measures can be taken where subsidence
of the ground level is unacceptable
• Application of trenchless techniques and tunnel boring
methods enables substantial reduction of nuisance ef-
fects at ground level.
• Damage to underground facilities caused by other exca-
vation or construction operations can be partly pre-
vented by means of appropriate records in the land
register
The soil survey should be performed in an optimized way
Good preparation enables rapid and effective action to
be taken if unexpected soil conditions and objects are
encountered.
TUNSELLn~O AND UNDERGROUND SPACE TECHNOLOGY 161
Table 3. Case study of underground options for construction of an extremely busy railway track passing straight through
the city of Delft.

Viaduct Tunnel Tunnel

(open trench) (TBM method)

Construction costs 308 494 536

Land/demolition/damage 122 146 37

Sub-item 1: Direct costs 430 640 573

(100%) (148%) (133%)
Maintenance and operation 31 64 47

Sub-item 2: life-cycle costs 461 704 620

(100%) (152%) (134%)
Nuisance (monetarised) 133 168 5

Sub-item 3: Total costs incl. nuisance 594 872 625

(100%) 147%) 105%)

liveability for neighbourhood residents, i n t e r n a l
safety, user aspects (perception aspects, functionality,
etc.), spatial utilization, and environmental impact.
Because the possibilities for underground construction de-
pend not only on the function but also on the location, a
number of relevant location types have been formulated,
each with their own characteristic features in relation to
inter alia population, traffic and urban development.
By applying the above-mentioned criteria and location
types, a strategic analysis was performed in order to gain
insight into future uses of underground space. This analysis
was performed as objectively and systematically as possible
for four different scenarios. The methodological aspects of
the analysis are elaborated upon in the following article in
this issue (Monnikhof et al. 1998).
8. What Trends Tend to Increase Demand for
Underground Space Utilization?
In the four scenarios, different developments have been
assumed for a number of factors considered relevant. The
strategic analysis has revealed that, as a result, the (ex-
pected) demand for underground space utilization also
works out differently for each scenario, that demand vary-
ing according to location type and function type. One general
conclusion of this scenario-based analysis is that demand
for the utilization of underground space will rise (strongly)
if the following developments occur (Nos. 1-3 are demand-
defining, Nos. 4-6 stimulating):
1 An increasing quality consciousness, largely as-
s0ciatod with higher standards being generally set on
external safety, the physical living conditions, and the
environment in general;
2 An increasing pressure on the space available,
resulting in increasing importance of efficient space
utilization and compaction. Even at the current rate
of increase of demand for space, the utilization of
underground space in populated areas will become
more and more necessary in the coming decades;
3 R i s i n g m o b i l i t y , resulting in increased nuisance,
space occupancy by infrastructure and environmen-
tal pollution caused in particular by road traffic;
4 Strong economic g r o w t h , because this will create
more financial room but also because it will lead to
increases in both mobility and quality consciousness;
5 T e c h n o l o g i c a l p r o g r e s s , which creates more engi-
neering possibilities for use of the underground do-
main, and enables the resultant experience and inno-
vations to have a cost-reducing effect;
6 An active government: a strict policy on spatial,
environmental and safety matters, a spearhead tech-
nology policy, selective investments in infrastructure,
and increasing "underground" experience and educa-
tion of administrators will result in increased utiliza-
tion of underground space.
9. Conclusions of the Strategic Analysis
On the basis of the characteristics of the individual
function types, it can be concluded that goods transport,
non.vehicular transport and storage of oil, gas, water, waste
and hazardous materials (industrial, radioactive, chemical)
appear a priori to be the best candidates to assign to the
underground domain. The only function types that ap-
peared to be a priori non-candidates were residential (both
urban and rural/suburban) and business and services.
Criteria that generally disfavour underground construc-
tion are: costs, internal safety and user aspects. Criteria
that generally favour underground construction of a func-
tion type are: external safety, living conditions for
neighbourhood residents, and space utilization. The "envi-
ronmental impact" criterion yields mixed recommenda-
tions, but nevertheless it more often favours underground
than aboveground construction of a function type.
The strategic analysis of the utilization of underground
space for various function types at the specific location types
yielded the following results:
Table 4. The influence of diameter on the cost of bored
tunnels (indicative). source: K1VI-report 1993 (see
references)
Dla. of tunnel
cross-section (m) Percentage cost
12.0 114%
10.0 100%
7.5 63%
6.0 50%
4.5 38%

162 T~NZ~INO ANDUNDERGROUND SPACE TECHNOLOGY Volume 13, Number 2, 1998

Table 5. Summary of impediments relating to enabling factors.
ImpQ~diments
I. Legal aspects
• Unclear legislation and regulation concerning
decisionmaking on (major projects)
• Unclear public and private law provisions concerning
underground construction
II. Spatial planning aspects and zoning plan
• Spatial planning schemes and planning policy are en-
tirely focused on aboveground activities
III. Lack of a (dynamic) integrated assessment framework
• Underground options are often not---or not seriously--
incorporated in tlne decision-making process
• Lack of a good method for comparing differing under-
ground and aboveground options
IV. Lack of integra~teddecision-making process
• Major projects feature an unclear and unmanageable
decision-making process,yielding a frequently subopti-
mal outcome wiih regard to utilization of underground
space
V. Unfamiliarity witl~ the possibilities of underground
construction
• .Utilization of underground space is a relataively new
concept in the Netherlands, and many possibilities are
still unknown
For each scenario t:he following conclusions can be drawn:
(a) underground accommodation of a substantial propor-
tion of g o o d s t r a n s p o r t , n o n - v e h i c t f l a r t r a n s p o r t
and goods s t o r a g e in busy urban a r e a s (mixed
residential areas, historical city contres and (large-
scale) central urban areas) will increasingly be the
preferred option, because of the many positive effects
expected with regard to the mobility problem and
quality of the physical environment;
(b) for m a i n i n f r a s t r u c t u r e a n d t r a n s h i p m e n t loca-
tions, underground construction of n e w i n t e r s e c t -
ing i n f r a s t r u c t u r e for goods t r a n s p o r t will in-
creasingly bec¢,me the preferred option;
(c) underground ~,torage of oil, gas, waste and haz-
ardous m a t e r i a l s , particularly for safety consider-
ations and on account of the substantial benefits of
dual land utilization will become more and more
preferred. Indvlstrial and hazardous (e.g. radioactive)
waste must, however, remain retrievable.
For the "Growth" and =Quality" scenarios, the following
additional conclusions can be drawn:
(a) In large-scale urban centres, historical city
Volume 13, Number 2, 1998
Nuances/Possible Solutions
Harmonization and synchronization of legal procedures
concerning decisionmaking on (major) projects is under
study
Legislation and regulation concerning underground con-
struction should be transparently presented and if nec-
essary allowed to be amended
• Develop an integrated spatial planning vision on the use
of both aboveground and underground space
• Possible solution by amending the Spatial Planning Act
Development of a (dynamic) integrated assessment
framework, to ensure that all the relevant aspects and
options are considered at each stage of the assessment
process
Well-designed integrated decision-making procedures
can improve the manageability of the assessment pro-
cess between various options and can improve the
outcome
To ensure optimized utilization of the possibilities of
underground construction, certain actors must possess
certain know-how; information strategies acan be formu-
lated with that objective
c e n t r e s and mi~ed r e s i d e n t i a l areas, besides
goods t r a n s p o r t underground infrastructure for
p a s s e n g e r t r a n s p o r t will also be capable of yield-
ing major advantages, including the construction of
underground (railway) stations.
(b) In busy urban areas and r e s i d e n t i a l areas, it is
probable that larger-scale underground construc-
tion of parts of the function types "industrial manu-
facture and utility plants", and "retailing and small-
scale manufacture", "education and research ~, "in-
door sport and recreation ~, "culture ~and "entertain-
ment facilities ~ (e.g. bars, discos, etc.) will yield
major benefits; the main opportunities here lie in
facilities c a u s i n g n u i s a n c e (smell, noise) and
s a f e t y risks and which need not n e c e s s a r i l y b e
located a b o v e g r o u n d (shopping arcades, labora-
tories, concert halls, pop-music podiumR, gymnasi-
ums, snack bars, urban workshops, etc.). This cre-
ates scope for efficient space utilization, mutually
enhancing functional combinations, and spatial qual-
ity. The same applies equally to facilities that ben-
efit from constant temperature and humidity levels
(storage areas, archives, etc.).
TUNNELLINGANDUNDERGROUNDSPACETECHNOLOGY163
Table 6. Motives for underground construction, relevance per grouping.
(Category of) motive forces
1. Underground construction as the
only realistic alternative
2. Greater functionality
3. Shelter from 'outside'
4. Energy saving
5. Durability and maintenance
6. Higher building densities
7. Better accessibility/ reduced barrier
effect
8. Multiple/ efficient land use
9. Combinations with other facilities
10. 'Ugly' things underground
11. Reduced impact on surroundings
12. Reduced environmental impact
13. Preservation of valuable functions
14. Increased external safety
15. Economy and exports
(c) For m a i n i n f r a s t r u c t u r e a n d t r a n s h i p m e n t lo-
cations, on large-scale industrial complexes
and on business estates underground construc-
tion of new intersectinginfrastructure for both goods
and passenger transport will also be the preferred
option in many cases.
(d) In areas of o u t s t a n d i n g landscape value, it
may realistically be expected t h a t (longer term) all
infrastructural facilities relating to goods trans-
port will be (partly) constructed underground. In
these areas, p a s s e n g e r transport will also have
to be accommodated underground more often.
10. Prospective Potential Applications
The prospectiveness of underground construction appli-
cations is defined at the strategic level by those applications'
societal and economic return in the long(er) term by
comparison with a corresponding above-ground alterna-
tive. The economic return is defined above all by the criteria
"costs", "user aspects", "(efficient) space utilization", and
the scope for larger-scale application. The societal return is
defined above all by the criteria "external and internal
safety", "physical living conditions for neighbourhood resi-
dents", "space utilization (quality)", "environmental im-
pact", and the scale on which positive effects can be achieved
with regard to these aspects. The results of an assessment
based on economic and societal returns will vary according
to function type, location type and scenario.
Particularly in the weaker e c o n o m y scenarios, the
importance of the e c o n o m i c return o u t w e i g h s the
societal return. Above all, under these circumstances, it
will be necessary to set priorities because of the relatively
high costs of underground construction. The underground
164 TUNNELLINGANDUNDERGROUNDSPACETECHNOLOGY
Largely relevant for (groupings):
Users, investors/ operators, community/society
Users, investors/ operators
Users, investors/ operators
Investors/ operators, community/ society
I
Investors/ operators, community/ society
Investors/ operators, neighbourhood residents/ workers,
community/ society
Users, neighbourhood residents/ workers
Investors/ operators, neighbourhood residents/ workers,
community/ society
Users, investors/ operators
Investors/ operators, neighbourhood residents/ workers
Investors/ operators, neighbourhood residents/ workers
Community/society
Neighbourhoodresidents/ workers, community/ society
Neighbourhood residents/ workers, community/ society
Investors/ operators, community/ society
applications which can still be considered prospective when
assessed on the basis of mainly economic return are: (i)
underground goods transportation systems in urban areas
and areas featuring high levels of business activity and
traffic density (e.g. around Schiphol Airport); (ii) under-
ground storage; and (iii) underground construction of a
range of functions at strategic locations with the purpose of
creating spatial compaction. Relative to the investment
requirements, these applications moreover yield a com-
paratively high societal return:
(i) In the case of underground goods transportation
systems, examples include UTP (unit transport by
pipeline), ULS (underground logistic system) and
PWT (pneumatic waste transport), which enable
goods or waste to be carried through an unmanned
underground system consisting of tubes and collec-
tion points. Depending on the location and circum-
stances, this type of system can be developed into
economically competitive alternatives to the existing
aboveground systems because of its high efficiency in
carrying goods and materials.
The development of these systems requires a struc-
tured approach, in which large-scale application is
pursued and s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n is essential in order to
enable them to be matched to other systems and
modalities. The development of these systems can be
further promoted by means of supporting policy, for
example, in the form of a ban on disruptive freight
transport in relevant area zones and by favourable
funding arrangements.
(ii) Underground storage may relate to goods storage
(combined with transport), storage of waste, hazard-
ous materials, chemicals, water, oil and gas. In the
long(er) term, underground storage can also become
Volume 13, Number 2, 1998
 economically corapetitive with aboveground storage,
mainly on accou].~t of the spatial advantages but also
because of advantages relating to quality aspects. In
this context, developments can also be supported by
policy, for example in the form of a ban on the above-
ground storage of hazardous materials in certain
areas.
(iii) Spatial compaction at strategic locations by means
of underground construction m a y take various forms:
• underground stations combined with shops, car-
parks, storage, etc.
• underground shopping centres combined with car-
parks, storage, distribution systems, etc.
• underground main transit infrastructure at the
periphery of and t h r o u g h populated areas.
• undergroundconstructionofpartsoffunctiontypes
causing nuisance and safety risks to the surround-
ings, such as "industrial manufacture and utilities ~
a n d "retailing a=ad small-scale manufacture", with a
view to the development of c o m p a c t cities.
In most cases, expert application of spatial compaction
will result in economically and societally attractive alterna-
tives. In this respect, the price per square metre of land or
floor space (costs and returns) can be an important factor.
The prospectiveness of underground options is strongly
defined by a project's b c a t i o n and circumstances. The great
challenge is to set priorities for applications in such a way
t h a t the outcome is optimized at the national level. To t h a t
end, it is very important to have an integrated, future-
looking vision with regard to the utilization of both above-
ground and underground space, with a time horizon of at
least several decades. Both spatial planning policy and
policy on traffic and transport can play a large role in this
respect, in combination with a supporting policy aimed at
promoting underground applications where those contrib-
ute most to desired developments.
References
American Society of Ci'vil Engineers. 1973. Need for National
Policy for the Use of Underground Space, proceedings of the
Volume 13, N u m b e r 2, 1998
Engineering Foundation Conference "Need for National Policy
for the Use of Underground Space", Berwick Academy, South
Berwick, Mass. ASCE.
Baker, R. F. et al. 1972. The Use of Underground Space to Achieve
National Goals. A report of the American Society of Civil
Engineers ASCE.
Carmody, J. and Sterling, R. 1993. Underground Space Design: a
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