REPORT ON

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING LEVEL II (SNT-TC-1A)

AT

PACS GLOBAL, MANGALORE

Submitted by

MOHAMMED SAFWAN
Reg. No.:190909564
Branch: Mechanical Engineering

Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering

MANIPAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

June-2022
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 CONTENTS

Page
No
Certificate 2
Acknowledgement 4
1.0 Introduction 5
1.1 Company Profile 5
1.2 Company Values 5
1.3 Non-destructive testing 6
1.4 Standard Terminology for Non-destructive Examinations 8
2.0 Objectives and outcomes of the training 10
3.0 Different types of NDT methods performed during the training period 11
3.1 Visual testing (VT) 11
3.2 Dye penetrant testing (DPT) 15
3.3 Magnetic particle testing (MPT) 20
3.4 Ultrasonic Testing (UT) 24
3.5 Radiographic testing (RT) 29
Conclusion 33
References 34

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The satisfaction and euphoria that accompany the successful completion of any task would be
incomplete without specifying the name of the people who have made it possible, whose
constant guidance, support and encouragement gratified our efforts in this success.
I would like to express my sincere thanks to the manager at PACS Global Ms. Chaithra
Shetty for allowing me to acquire industrial training in the organization.
I would also like to express my heartful gratitude to the training coordinator at PACS Global
Mr. Akhilesh K, for providing me with an opportunity to do the internship in PACS
GLOBAL, and giving me all support and navigation, which made me complete the internship
duly.
I owe my deep gratitude to my internship coordinators Mr. Pavan Hiremath & Mr. Dolfred
Vijay Fernandes, who has taken a keen interest in my internship and guided me all along, till
the completion of the internship by providing all the crucial information.

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 1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 COMPANY PROFILE

PACS Global is one of the best educational institutions working since 2018, in Kerala and
Karnataka. They provide best training & certification in the field of Mechanical, Electrical,
Civil and Quality Management Engineering. They offer unique opportunities to face
challenges through their enriched learning, academic excellence, professional training and
corporate exposure. They deliver courses and examinations to all major industrial sectors like
oil & gas, Logistics, Mechanical, Civil and Safety. PACS Global is one of the top training
institutions in Kerala and Karnataka. “We don’t build a business-WE BUILD PEOPLE-and
then people build the business”. This is what PACS have believed in since the day they
started their HR and Recruitment services and currently, it came true, they always care their
candidates by giving career does not like by giving promises. Their team comprises of
recruiters, Engineers who understand the tactics of interviews and vacancy creation very well
and have a good number of contacts in the field. They believe in the quality of the profiles,
not in the quantity of the profiles and are good in what it does.

Fig 1: PACS Global

1.2 COMPANY VALUES

PACS GLOBAL emphasizes on the intellectual development of students by providing them
with a practical mode of learning and thereby channelling their technical knowledge towards
innovative real-world application. Providing quality work through dedication.
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1.3 NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
Non-destructive testing (NDT) is a group of analysis techniques used for evaluating the
properties of steel materials, components, or welds without causing any damage to them.
NDT techniques are used to detect and evaluate internal and surface defects (such as
imperfections, discontinuities, and flaws etc.) that may cause failure under the designed
operating conditions. These internal and surface defects may be the areas of lower integrity in
comparison to other portion of the steel material or may consists of the presence of cracks,
voids and other imperfections. NDT gives indirect yet valid results and, by definition, leave
the test object fit for its intended use.
The terms non-destructive examination (NDE), non-destructive inspection (NDI), and non-
destructive evaluation (NDE) are also used for these testing techniques. Since there is no
permanent alteration in the steel material being tested by NDT techniques, the NDT
techniques are considered very important for material inspection. NDT saves both money and
time in product evaluation, troubleshooting, and research.
NDT techniques constitute very specialized type of work that plays a critical function. These
techniques need the service of highly specialized and qualified technicians who use
sophisticated equipment and methods to evaluate areas of the steel component that are
difficult or impossible to examine using the naked eye.
The NDT techniques are used for detecting defects during manufacture and fabrication as
well as the defects developed during service of the steel components. However, it is not
possible to detect all the possible defects by examining a component by NDT. Further in
NDT, it is not the defect that is detected but the resulting effect on the material such as the
modification of physical properties (attenuation to ultrasound or the electrical conductivity
etc.). NDT techniques do not provide direct information but indirect information which need
to be interpreted. Some NDT techniques are more direct and accurate than others.
There are a variety of NDT techniques which can be used to evaluate the steel materials,
components, or welds. All NDT techniques share several common elements which include
the following.
 There is some source of probing energy or some type of probing medium.
 There is a discontinuity that must cause a change or alteration of the probing medium.
 There is some means of detecting the change.
 There is some means of indicating the change.
 There is some means of observing and/or recording this indication so that an
interpretation can be made.
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The suitability of a technique of NDT for a given application is determined by considering
the above elements. The source of the probing energy or probing medium is to be suitable for
the test object and for detecting the defect or discontinuity sought. If present, a defect or
discontinuity is to be capable of somehow modifying or changing the probing medium. Once
changed, there is to be some way of detecting these changes. These changes to the probing
medium by the discontinuity are to form some indication or otherwise be recorded. Finally,
these indications are needed to be reviewed in order for it to be interpreted and to classify the
discontinuity.
A number of NDT techniques have been developed, each one having advantages and
limitations making it more or less appropriate for a given application. With the variety of
NDT techniques available, it is important to select the technique which provides the
necessary results. A combination of different NDT techniques can also be applied to provide
assurance that the material or component is fit for use.
There are many different methods of NDT of steel materials and components. The more
common NDT methods used for the evaluation of steel materials, components, or welds
are (i)Visual inspection, (ii)Dye penetrant inspection, (iii)Magnetic particle testing,
(iv)Radiographic inspection, (v)Ultrasonic testing, and (vi)Eddy current testing.

Where is NDT used?

NDT is used to test the quality of components and machine condition before or during their
active use. Non-destructive testing is used for condition assessment and quality control in a
wide range of industries, which include (but are not limited to):
 Aerospace – testing castings.
 Automotive – to test the durability of piston heads.
 Manufacturing – to test the quality of components before it goes into production.
 Medical devices – to test the durability and composition of stents.
 Military and defence – ballistics testing and analysis.
 Packaging – to test the structure and chances of leakage for packages.
 Marine industries – to identify corrosion.
 Power generation – to test welding-related defects.
 Waste management – to identify redeemable metals in waste.
 Petrochemical industry – to test pipelines used to transport oil.

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Why is NDT used?
The distinct advantage of NDT is the reusability of the tested components. On top of that,
non-destructive testing can often be employed on components that are still in operation.
Devices and testing equipment used to conduct most methods of NDT are compact and
portable. This makes it easier to test components in a working machine.
Additional benefits of conducting non-destructive testing are listed below:
 Conducting NDT ensures the safety of working components. Components
suffer wear and tear, which inevitably leads to malfunctions and failures. NDT helps
to spot early signs of degradation and helps identify the causes of equipment failures.
The maintenance team can use that info to perform corrective maintenance and adjust
their preventive maintenance efforts. All of this leads to improved asset reliability.
 Quality assurance purposes. NDT methods can be used to assure the quality of the
output of production. The quality assurance team will be able to quickly analyse
whether the product is within the tolerance limits.
 Assessing the remaining useful life of machines. The wear and tear of machines is a
natural byproduct of their operations. They must be replaced after their useful
lifetime. But all machines do not degrade at the same rate due to the different
operating conditions and other factors. An NDT inspection can help estimate how
long the machines can be used before it is better to purchase a replacement.

1.4 Standard Terminology for Non-destructive Examinations

Standard Terminology for Nondestructive Examinations is good starting point from which
key non-destructive testing terms are defined. Additionally, this standard provides a simple
but useful chart that presents the basic decision-making steps that follow a non-destructive
testing (NDT) indication from interpretation to acceptance or rejection. First let’s review
some basic non-destructive testing definitions and see where they fit into the decision-making
process.

Indication: The response or evidence from a non-destructive examination. This is located at

the top of the process.

Interpretation: The determination of whether indications are relevant, non-relevant, or

false.

False indication: A non-destructive testing (NDT) indication that is interpreted to be caused

by a condition other than a discontinuity or imperfection.

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Relevant indication: A non-destructive testing (NDT) indication that is caused by a
condition or type of discontinuity that requires evaluation.

Non-relevant indication: A non-destructive testing (NDT) indication that is caused by a

condition or type of discontinuity that is not rejectable.

Evaluation: Determination of whether a relevant non-destructive testing indication is cause

to accept or to reject a material or component.

Fig 2: Standard terminology for NDE

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 2.0 OBJECTIVES AND OUTCOMES OF THE TRAINING

Objectives:

1) Foundation: To provide students with a strong knowledge of terms, concepts,

principles etc. involved in non-destructive testing.
2) Skills: To provide practical training in handling and testing the non-destructive testing
equipment’s.
3) Data Analysis: To develop knowledge and skills for interpretation and evaluation of
the results.
4) Awareness and professional Ethics: To offer environment to enhance team essential
skills for effective careers in the inspection profession.

Outcomes:

1) Ability to understand the basic theory and principles of NDT methods.

2) Understand the scope and limitations of the techniques and methods.
3) Understand the specification or codes or acceptable criteria used in the procedure.
4) Ability to set-up and calibrate the equipment.
5) Ability to conduct the testing independently.
6) Awareness of measurement of errors in instrumentation, human and environment.
7) Use of appropriate measurement techniques to collect data.
8) Interpret the results and investigate the possible artifacts
9) Evaluating the results w.r.t. the applicable codes, standards and specifications.
10) To show confidence to take responsibility for on job training and guidance of trainees
and NDT personnel.
11) To demonstrate the ability to organize and report the results of the test.

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 3.0 DIFFERENT TYPES OF NDT METHODS PERFORMED
DURING THE TRAINING PERIOD

3.1 VISUAL TESTING (VT)

Visual inspection is by far the most common nondestructive testing (NDT) technique. When
attempting to determine the soundness of any part or component for its intended application,
visual inspection is normally the first step in the examination process. Generally, almost any
component can be visually examined to determine the accuracy of its fabrication. For
example, visual inspection can be used to determine whether the part was fabricated to the
correct size, whether the part is complete, or whether all the parts have been appropriately
incorporated into the device. While direct visual inspection is the most common
nondestructive testing technique, many other NDT methods require visual intervention to
interpret images obtained while carrying out the examination. For instance, penetrant
inspection using visible red or fluorescent dye relies on the inspector’s ability to visually
identify surface indications. In arriving at a definition of visual inspection, it has been noted
in the literature that experience in visual inspection and discussion with experienced visual
inspectors revealed that this NDT method includes more than use of the eye, but also includes
other sensory and cognitive processes used by inspectors.

Fig 3: Visual testing

Visual inspection is the process of examination and evaluation of systems and components by
use of human sensory systems aided only by mechanical enhancements to sensory input as
magnifiers, dental picks, stethoscopes, and the like. The inspection process may be done

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using such behaviors as looking, listening, feeling, smelling, shaking, and twisting. It
included a cognitive component wherein observations are correlated with knowledge of
structure and with descriptions and diagrams from service literature. The human eye is one of
mankind’s most fascinating tools and can assess many visual characteristics and identifying
various types of discontinuities.

1] Physical Principle:
The human eye is one of mankind’s most fascinating tools. It has greater precision and
accuracy than many of the most sophisticated cameras. It has unique focusing capabilities and
has the ability to work in conjunction with the human brain so that it can be trained to find
specific details or characteristics in a part or test piece. It has the ability to differentiate and
distinguish between colors and hues as well. The human eye can assess many visual
characteristics and identifying various types of discontinuities. The eye can perform accurate
inspections to detect size, shape, color, depth, brightness, contrast, and texture. Visual testing
is essentially used to detect any visible discontinuities, and in many cases, visual testing may
locate portions of a component that should be inspected further by other NDT techniques.
Many inspection factors have been standardized so that categorizing them as major and minor
characteristics has become common. Surface finish verification of machined parts has even
been developed, and classification can be performed by visual comparison to manufactured
finish standards. In the fabrication industry, weld size, contour, length, and inspection for
surface discontinuities are routinely specified many companies have mandated the need for
qualified and certified visual weld inspection. This is the case particularly in the power
industry, which requires documentation of training and qualification of the inspector.
Forgings and castings are normally inspected for surface indications such as laps, seams, and
other various surface conditions.

2] Inspection Requirements:
Requirements for visual inspection typically pertain to the vision of the inspector; the amount
of light falling on the component, which can be measured with a light meter; and whether the
area being inspected is in anyway obstructed from view. In many cases, each of these
requirements is detailed in regulatory code or other inspection criteria.
Mechanical and/or optical aids may be necessary to perform visual testing. Because visual
inspection is so frequently used, several companies now manufacture gages to assist visual
inspection examinations. Mechanical aids include measuring rules and tapes, calipers and
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micrometers, squares and angle measuring devices, thread, pitch and thickness gages, level
gages, and plumb lines. Welding fabrication uses fillet gages to determine the width of the
weld fillet, undercut gages, angle gages, skew fillet weld gages, pit gages, contour gages, and
a host of other specialty items to ensure product quality.

Fig 4: Visual testing equipment’s

At times direct observation is impossible and remote viewing is necessary which requires the
use of optical aids. Optical aids for visual testing range from simple mirrors or magnifying
glasses to sophisticated devices, such as closed-circuit television and coupled fiber optic
scopes. The following list includes most optical aids currently in use:
 Mirrors (especially small, angled mirrors).
 Magnifying glasses, eye loupes, multilens magnifiers, measuring
magnifiers.
 Microscopes (optical and electron).
 Optical flats (for surface flatness measurement).
 Borescopes and fiber optic borescopes.
 Optical comparators.
 Photographic records
 Closed circuit television (CCTV) systems (alone and coupled to
borescopes/microscopes).
 Machine vision systems.
 Positioning and transport systems (often used with CCTV systems).
 Image enhancement (computer analysis and enhancement).

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3] Practical Consideration:
Visual inspection is applicable to most surfaces, but is most effective where the surfaces have
been cleaned prior to examination, for example, any scale or loose paint should be removed
by wire brushing, etc. Vision testing of an inspector often requires eye examinations with
standard vision acuity cards such as Jaeger, Snellen, and color charts. Vision testing of
inspectors has been in use for about 40 years. Although many changes in NDT methods have
taken place over the years and new technologies have been developed, vision testing has
changed little over time. Also, little has been done to standardize vision tests used in the
industrial sector. For those seeking certification in the area of visual testing, (Visual and
Optical Testing) provides a useful reference.

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3.2 DYE PENTRANT TESTING (DPT)
This method is frequently used for the detection of surface breaking flaws in non-
ferromagnetic materials.

Fig 5: Dye penetration test

The subject to be examined is first chemically cleaned, usually by vapors phase, to remove
all traces of foreign material, grease, dirt, etc. from the surface generally, and from within the
cracks. Next the penetrant (which is a very fine thin oil usually dyed bright red or ultra-violet
fluorescent) is applied and allowed to remain in contact with the surface for approximately
fifteen minutes. Capillary action draws the penetrant into the crack during this period. The
surplus penetrant on the surface is then removed completely and thin coating of powdered
chalk is applied. After a further period (development time) the chalk draws the dye out of the
crack, rather like blotting paper, to form a visual, magnified in width, indication in good
contrast to the background. The process is purely a mechanical/chemical one and the various
substances used may be applied in a large variety of ways, from aerosol spray cans at the
simplest end to dipping in large tanks on an automatic basis at the other end. The latter
system requires sophisticated tanks, spraying and drying equipment but the principle remains
the same. Dye Penetrant Testing is a method that is used to reveal surface breaking flaws by
bleed out of a colored or fluorescent dye from the flaw. The technique is based on the ability
of a liquid to be drawn into a "clean" surface breaking flaw by capillary action. After a period
called the "dwell," excess surface penetrant is removed, and a developer applied. This acts as
a blotter. It draws the penetrant from the flaw to reveal its presence. Colored (contrast)
penetrants require good white light while fluorescent penetrants need to be used in darkened
conditions with an ultraviolet "black light".

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1] Selection of appropriate Penetrant, Developer, and Solvent Remover Based on
Requirement:
Selection of appropriate penetrant for appropriate material is essential. Physical properties of
penetrant like viscosity, surface tension, wetting ability specific gravity, volatility,
flammability play a crucial role in selection of penetrant. Even chemical activity of penetrant
should be non-corrosive towards the material being inspected. The test has to be conducted
according to ASNT and ASTM standards and codes. By coming to know the test piece
conditions as a mild steel and TIG welded, type II penetrant that is visible penetrant, which is
of sensitive level 4 and the method used to remove excess penetrant from the part is Method
A- Water washable, Form d – non aqueous type 2 Visible dye developer has been chosen.

2] Inspection:
1.Pre-Cleaning of Component (surface
preparation): The surface must be free from oil,
grease, water, rust, scale, acids, even water or
other contaminants that may prevent penetrant
from entering flaw. The cleaning solvent used is
volatile which does not leave any moisture. Fig 6: Pre-cleaned component

2.Penetrant Application and Dwell Time: The penetrant material is applied by spraying.
The penetrant is left on the surface for a sufficient
time to allow as much penetrant as possible to be
drawn from or to seep into a defect.
Penetrant dwell time is the total time that a penetrant
is in contact with the surface part. The time varies Fig 7: After penetrant application
depending on the application penetrant material used, form of the material used, and the type
of defect being inspected. The penetrant used is duel which work both as fluorescent and
visible red and dwell time is 20 min.

3. Excess penetrant removal: This is the most delicate part of the inspection procedure
because the excess penetrant must be removed from the surface of the sample while removing
as little penetrant as possible from defects. As our penetrant is emulsified previously it is
water washable as the component is rinsed with water and gently wiped in one direction with
lint free cloth.
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4.Developer Application: A thin layer of
developer is then applied to the sample to
draw penetrant trapped in flaw back to the
surface where it will be visible. The
developers attain
variety of forms that may be applied by Fig 8: After Developer application
dusting, dipping, or by spraying. We applied through spray at a distance of 15 cm away from
component to apply developer in atomized form even layer.

5.Inspection: Inspection is then performed

under appropriate lighting to detect indication
from any flaw which may be present. As it is
Visible dye penetrant it can be viewed under
the visible light. The absorbed porosity in the
component is shown in the figure.
Fig 9: Cluster porosity observed on the component

6.Post cleaning of the surface: The final step in the process was to thoroughly clean the
surface of the component, to remove the developer from the component that were found to be
acceptable.

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 Fig 10: DPT process

Common uses of Dye penetrant testing:

Dye penetrant Testing (DPT) is one of the most widely used non-destructive Testing (NDT)
methods. Its popularity can be attributed to two main factors: its relative ease of use and its
flexibility. DPT can be used to inspect almost any material provided that its surface is not

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extremely rough or porous. Materials that are commonly inspected using DPT include the
following:
 Metals (aluminum, copper, steel, titanium, etc.)
 Glass
 Many ceramic materials
 Rubber
 Plastics
DPT offers flexibility in performing inspections because it can be applied in a large variety of
applications ranging from automotive spark plugs to critical aircraft components. Penetrant
materials can be applied with a spray can or a cotton swab to inspect for flaws known to
occur in a specific area or it can be applied by dipping or spraying to quickly inspect large
areas. In the image above, visible dye penetrant is being locally applied to a highly loaded
connecting point to check for fatigue cracking. Dye Penetrant Testing can only be used to
inspect for flaws that break the surface of the sample. Some of these flaws are listed below:
 Fatigue cracks
 Quench cracks
 Grinding cracks
 Overload and impact fractures
 Porosity
 Laps
 Seams
 Pin holes in welds
 Lack of fusion or braising along the edge of the bond line.
As mentioned above, one of the major limitations of a penetrant inspection is that flaws must
be open to the surface.

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3.3 MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING (MPT)

This method is suitable for the detection of surface and near surface discontinuities in
magnetic material, mainly ferrite steel and iron. Magnetic particle Testing (MPI) is non-
destructive testing method used for defect detection. MPI is fast and relatively easy to apply,
and part surface preparation is not as critical as it is for some other NDT methods. These
characteristics make MPI one of the most widely utilized non-destructive testing methods.
MPI uses magnetic fields and small magnetic particles (i.e., Iron filings) to detect flaws in
components. The only requirement from an inspect ability standpoint is that the component
being inspected must be made of a ferromagnetic material such as iron, nickel, cobalt, or
some of their alloys. Ferromagnetic materials are materials that can be magnetized to a level
that will allow the inspection to be effective. The method is used to inspect a variety of
product forms including castings, forgings, and weldments. Many different industries use
magnetic particle inspection for determining a component's fitness-for-use. Some examples
of industries that use magnetic particle inspection are the structural steel, automotive,
petrochemical, power generation, and aerospace industries. Underwater inspection is another
area where magnetic particle inspection may be used to test items such as offshore structures
and underwater pipelines.

Basic Principles:
In theory, magnetic particle testing has a relatively simple concept. It can be considered as a
combination of two nondestructive testing methods: magnetic flux leakage testing and visual
testing. For the case of a bar magnet, the magnetic field is in and around the magnet. Any
place that a magnetic line of force exits or enters the
magnet is called a “pole” (magnetic lines of force exit the
magnet from north pole and enter from the south pole).
Fig 11: Magnet
When a bar magnet is broken in the center of its length, two complete bar magnets with
magnetic poles on each end of each piece will
result. If the magnet is just cracked but not broken
completely in two, a north and south pole will form
at each edge of the crack. Fig 12: Flux leakage in the magnet
The magnetic field exits the north pole and reenters at the south pole. The magnetic field
spreads out when it encounters the small air gap created by the crack because the air cannot

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support as much magnetic field per unit volume as the magnet can. When the field spreads
out, it appears to leak out of the material and, thus is called a flux leakage field.
If iron particles are sprinkled on a cracked magnet, the particles will be attracted to and
cluster not only at the poles at the ends of the magnet, but also at the poles at the edges of the
crack. This cluster of particles is much easier to see than the actual crack and this is the basis
for magnetic particle inspection.
The first step in a magnetic particle
testing is to magnetize the component
that is to be inspected. If any defects
on or near the surface are present, the
defects will create a leakage field. Fig 13: MPT Principle
After the component has been magnetized, iron particles, either in a dry or wet suspended
form, are applied to the surface of the magnetized part. The particles will be attracted and
cluster at the flux leakage fields, thus forming a visible indication that the inspector can
detect.

MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION:

As the test specimen was mild steel, therefore magnetic particle inspection was also possible.
We chose fluorescent magnetic particles for better sensitivity of inspection.
1)Surface Preparation:
• The surface of the component was cleaned thoroughly before the inspection since the
surface must be free of grease, oil and other moisture that could prevent the
suspension from wetting the surface and preventing the particles from moving freely.
• A thin layer of paint, rust or scale will reduce test sensitivity, but can sometimes be
left in place with adequate results.
• Specifications often allow up to 0.076 mm of a nonconductive coating (such as paint)
or 0.025 mm of a ferromagnetic coating (such as nickel) to be left on the surface.
• Any loose dirt, paint, rust or scale must be removed.

2)Magnetic Particle Application

The suspension which we used was wet fluorescent magnetic particles which were dispersed
over the surface of the component. Usually, the stream of suspension is diverted from the part
just before the magnetizing field is applied.

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3)Application of magnetizing force: The magnetizing force was applied using the
Electromagnetic (EM) yokes, these were U-shaped cores of soft iron, usually laminated, with
a coil wound around the base of the U. The magnetic force was applied immediately after the
fluorescent magnetic particles were dispersed over the surface of the component. When we
pass an electric current through the coil the result is a north and south pole at the ends of the
core. This makes it look like a horseshoe magnet. Direct current yokes have some advantages
over the permanent magnet yokes. It is possible to vary field strength using varying current
and the EM yoke is also easy to place onto
and remove from the part as no field
exists until current is applied.
Operation of the EM yoke and of the coil
method of longitudinal magnetization
utilize the field that results in a solenoid.
Fig 14: MPT of the component
In the EM yoke the field is concentrated and directed by the laminated steel core which
extends to form legs (often flexible). Coil magnetization is performed using fixed coils
having the conductors housed in a holder. Often coils are made without the convenience of a
fixed support by merely wrapping the cables around the test piece. This is usually done for
larger or irregular shaped parts.
Unlike permanent magnets, yoke and coil magnetizations can be varied in strength (as well as
switched off and on). Sensitivity of the test relies not only on the amount of current and
number of turns, but also on the ratio of the test part cross-sectional area to the coil area
where the part is placed into the coil. The ratio is called the fill factor and it is recommended
that the fill factor not exceed 10%. When using coils another consideration is length of coil
with respect to the part length.
When testing a part, only a single orientation of defect may be expected, however other
orientations might occur. An effective MPI test usually involves tests in more than one
direction. Weld inspections using yokes are usually done using an "X" pattern thereby
inducing longitudinal magnetizations in 2 directions at right angles to each other.
Longitudinal Magnetic field is induced in the component with the help of Yoke. These
longitudinal magnetic lines will pass through the material and if any gap or interruption is
occurred, the magnetic flux leakage will take place in that area. At this point, magnetic flux is
highly comparative to other areas.

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Inspection:
 When the component was exposed to the ultraviolet light in the dark room, the
fluorescent particles fluoresced and made it easier to detect flaws in the component
material and the flaw which was observed on the component was the cluster porosity.
 Due to their slight residual magnetism, oxide particles in wet suspension are present
mostly in clusters that settle out
of suspension much faster than
the individual particles. That
makes it possible to see and
measure the concentration of
the particles for process control
purposes. Fig 15:Cluster Porosity observed
 The fluorescent magnetic particles are considered ideal for detecting hairline surface
cracks on smooth surfaces. Fluorescent Magnetic Particles inspection that was carried
out with the help of U.V (black light) light defect are viewed easily, and cluster
porosity was observed on the specimen.

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3.4 ULTRASONIC TESTING (UT)

Ultrasonic testing (UT) comprises a range of non-destructive testing (NDT) techniques that
send ultrasonic waves through an object or material. These high frequency sound waves are
transmitted into materials to characterize the material or for flaw detecting. Most UT
inspection applications use short pulse waves with frequencies ranging from 0.1-15 MHz,
although frequencies up to 50 MHz
can be used. One common
application for this test method is
ultrasonic thickness measurement,
which is used to ascertain the
thickness of an object such as when
assessing pipework corrosion.

Fig 16: Ultrasonic Testing

Ultrasonic testing is used in a wide range of industries due to its suitability for many different
materials. UT is ideally used for inspection of dense, crystalline structures such as metals.
Ceramics, plastics, composites and concrete can also be successfully inspected but with
reduced resolution, since the attenuation in these materials is higher.
Ultrasonic technology has been successfully employed in the medical sector for many
decades and is increasingly the preferred option for both routine diagnostic imaging and
medical research because of the absence of ionising radiation.

Working:
Ultrasonic inspection uses a piezoelectric transducer connected to a flaw detector, which in
its most basic form is a pulser-receiver and oscilloscope display. The transducer is passed
over the object being inspected, which is typically coupled to the test object by gel, oil or
water. This couplant is required to efficiently transmit the sound energy from the transducer
into the part, however This couplant is not required when performing tests with non-contact
techniques such as electromagnetic acoustic transducer (EMAT).

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UT Methods:
Ultrasonic testing can be performed using two basic methods – pulse-echo and through-
transmission methods.
With pulse echo testing, the same transducer emits and receives the sound wave energy. This
method uses echo signals at an interface, such as the back of the object or an imperfection, to
reflect the waves back to the probe. Results are shown as a line plot, with an amplitude on the
y-axis representing the reflection’s intensity and distance or time on the x-axis, showing the
depth of the signal through the material.
Through-transmission testing uses an emitter to send the ultrasound waves from one surface
and a separate receiver to receive the sound energy that has reached the opposite side of the
object. Imperfections in the material reduce the amount of sound that is received, allowing
the location of flaws to be detected.

Types of UT:
Ultrasonic testing can also be split into two main types: Contact and Immersion testing.

 Contact ultrasonic testing is typically used for on-site inspections accessibility or

portability. Contact ultrasonic inspection can be performed where only one side of a
test specimen as reachable, or where the parts to be tested are large, irregular in shape
or difficult to transport.
 Immersion ultrasonic testing is a laboratory-based or factory-based non-destructive
test that is best suited to curved components, complex geometries and for ultrasonic
technique development. In this method, the component or material is submerged in a
water, which acts as a couplant in place of the gels used for contact ultrasound.
Immersion UT generally uses pulse-echo method, and robotic probe trajectories can
be used to inspect complex surfaces which would be hard to cover with contact
probes. Immersion UT can be used for a wide range of wall thickness and material
types, making it a suitable testing method for a variety of applications and industries.

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Inspection:

Probing is done according to surface condition of inspection. As the inspection area is weld
region, we cannot directly place probe over weld region. An angle probe of 45 deg was
chosen to develop sheer wave for inspection.
1. Calibration of the machine is done by using V1 and V2 blocks. Adjustments are carried out
using zero key, range, thickness and other parameters given to device.
2. Specimen reference block is prepared with grade material having same dimensions of test
samples. By considering the thickness of the sample sound path, surface distance is
calculated. Tolerances are considered as + 1 or -1 on SP and SD values while plotting
distance amplitude curve (DAC).
3. Near field effects play a main role if the
testing material thickness is less. A-Scan echo
is displayed at their non-electronically
compensated height and the peak. Amplitude
of first each is set to 80% and second echo is
less than the 1st and the third echo is less than
2nd echo. By using specific path values, the Fig 17: DAC Curve
practical values are noted.
Table 1: Table of data to draw DAC Curve
S.N Thicknes Actual Actual Ref
o s surface Beam Db
T=40 distance path
1 ¼ t = 10 9.84 13.9 58.8
2 ½ t = 20 19.96 57.9 57.9
3 ¾ t = 30 24.53 65.6 65.6

Inspection was carried over the component by applying 2T oil as couplant and HEZ (Heat
Effect Zone) was thoroughly inspected. The cluster porosity was found in large scales.
Cluster Porosity was above the acceptance line of DAC Curve which was up to depth of 4.3
mm. Other pin holes and minor defects under repair line were needed to be repaired which
were at 3.54 mm depth and the amplitude of flaw was 45% from the graph (with the help of
curve), we predicted this as an inclusion.

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 Fig 18: Cluster porosity observed Fig 19: Inclusion observed

V1 Calibration Block:

V1 Calibration Block is designed for verification of the ultrasonic flaw detectors used in the
course of welded joints quality control by the UT method.

Fig 20: V1 calibration block

V1 Calibration Block allows:

 to determine the UT beam index and X-value with an error of ±0.5 mm
 to determine the probe angle of the ultrasonic wave with an error of ±1 ang. Degr.
 to determine uncontrolled (“dead zone”) of the ultrasonic straight beam piezoelectric
probes in steel
 to determine resolution (in steel) of the ultrasonic straight beam piezoelectric probes
 to determine the scan horizontal linearity of the ultrasonic flaw detectors
 to adjust the scan speed and sensitivity of the straight beam, double crystal, angle
beam piezoelectric transducers

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V2 Calibration Block:

V2 Calibration Block is designed for verification of the ultrasonic flaw detectors used in the
course of welded joints quality control by the UT method.

Fig 21: V2 calibration block

V2 Calibration Block allows:

 to calibrate the sweep of the flaw detector by the ultrasonic wave velocity for the
straight beam piezoelectric transducers
 to calibrate the sweep of the flaw detector by the ultrasonic wave velocity for the
angle beam piezoelectric transducers
 to set a conditional level of sensitivity of the UT flaw detectors with the straight and
angle beam transducers
 to determine the probe index and X-value of the angle beam transducers
 to determine the UT wave entry angle in steel.

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3.5 RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING (RT)

Radiographic Testing (RT or X-ray or Gamma ray) is a non-destructive testing (NDT)

method that examines the volume of a specimen. Radiography (X-ray) uses X-rays and
gamma-rays to produce a radiograph of a specimen, showing any changes in thickness,
defects (internal and external), and assembly details to ensure optimum quality in your
operation.
RT usually is suitable for testing welded joints that can be accessed from both sides, except
for double-wall signal image techniques used on some pipe. Although this is a slow and
expensive NDT method, it is a dependable way to detect porosity, inclusions, cracks, and
voids in weld interiors.
RT makes use of X-rays or gamma rays. X-rays are produced by an X-ray tube, and gamma
rays are produced by a radioactive isotope.

Working Principle:
The method is based on the same principle as medical radiography in a hospital. A piece of
radiographic film is placed on the remote side of the material under inspection and radiation
is then transmitted through from one side of the material to the remote side where the
radiographic film is placed.

Fig 22: Radiographic Testing

The radiographic film detects the radiation and measures the various quantities of radiation
received over the entire surface of the film. This film is then processed under dark room
conditions and the various degrees of radiation received by the film are imaged by the display

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of different degrees of black and white, this is termed the film density and is viewed on a
special light emitting device.
Discontinuities in the material affect the amount of radiation being received by the film
through that particular plane of the material. Qualified inspectors can interpret the resultant
images and record the location and type of defect present in the material. Radiography can be
used on most materials and product forms, e.g., welds, castings, composites etc.
Radiographic testing provides a permanent record in the form of a radiograph and provides a
highly sensitive image of the internal structure of the material.
The amount of energy absorbed by the object depends on its thickness and density. Energy
not absorbed by the object causes exposure of the radiographic film. These areas will be dark
when the film is developed. Areas of the film exposed to less energy remain lighter.
Therefore, areas of the object where the thickness has been changed by discontinuities, such
as porosity or cracks, will appear as dark outlines on the film. Inclusions of low density, such
as slag, will appear as dark areas on the film, while inclusions of high density, such as
tungsten, will appear as light areas.
All discontinuities are detected by viewing the weld shape and variations in the density of the
processed film. This permanent film record of weld quality is relatively easy to interpret if
personnel are properly trained. Only qualified personnel should conduct radiography and
radiographic interpretation because false readings can be expensive and can interfere
seriously with productivity, and because invisible X-ray and gamma radiation can be
hazardous.

Film Processing:
The radiographic film consists of a transparent, blue-tinted base coated on both sides with an
emulsion. The emulsion consists of gelatin containing microscopic, radiation sensitive silver
halide crystals, such as silver bromide and silver chloride. When X-rays, gamma rays or light
rays strike the crystals or grains, some of the Br- ions are liberated leaving the Ag+ ions. In
this condition, the radiograph is said to contain a latent (hidden) image because the change in
the grains is virtually undetectable, but the exposed grains are now more sensitive to reaction
with the developer.
When the film is processed, it is exposed to several different chemical solutions for
controlled periods of time. Film processing basically involves the following five steps:
 Development: The developing agent gives up electrons to convert the silver halide
grains to metallic silver. Grains that have been exposed to the radiation develop more
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 rapidly but given enough time the developer will convert all the silver ions into silver
metal. Proper temperature control is needed to convert exposed grains to pure silver
while keeping unexposed grains as silver halide crystals.
 Stopping the development: The stop bath simply stops the development process by
diluting and washing the developer away with water.
 Fixing: Unexposed silver halide crystals are removed by the fixing bath. The fixer
dissolves only silver halide crystals, leaving the silver metal behind.
 Washing: The film is washed with water to remove all the processing chemicals.
 Drying: The film is dried for viewing.

Placement of IQI:
 To be placed at worst location/Extreme edge of radiographic film.
 To be placed at Source Side, in case use Film Side ~ DWSI/DWDI (Indicate Letter
F).
 For Weld, Wire Type IQI to be kept across the weld.
 For Weld, Plate & Hole, Step Wedge, parallel to weld 3mm away from weld edge
 When there is no accessibility, Block/shim to be used & IQI to be placed on it.
 Density of radiograph varies from location of IQI by more than -15% to 30 % then
another IQI is required.
 For Circumferential weld in SWSI-Panoramic technique, 3 IQI’s at 120o apart, 4 IQI
at 90o apart.
 Backing rings or strips and root penetration are not to be considered as part of the
weld or reinforcement thickness in selection of the IQI.
 The material of the IQI shall be of similar radiographic density to that of the material
under examination, i.e., use steel for steel, aluminum for aluminum, etc.

Wire type IQI:

 In Wire Type IQI, Four standards - ASTM, ISO, DIN, EN.
 ASTM has four Sets- A, B, C, D & its wire identification.
 All 6 wires are equally spaced and same height.
 4 alternative Sets for ASTM Standard available – Selected by End User

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 Fig 23: Wire type IQI table according to ASTM
Inspection:
It involved exposing the test component to the penetrating radiation so that the radiation
passes through the component being inspected and the cording medium placed against the
opposite side of the component. The part was placed between the radiation source and a piece
of film. For the purpose of sensitivity, the wire type IQI was used according to ASTM of Set
B with wire identity 11 and the IQI was placed at the film side. The radioactive isotope which
was used was Iridium 192 and the image technique which was used was single wall single
image technique was used since the inspected component was the mild steel plate. Thicker
and denser areas will stop more radiation. The film darkness will vary with the amount of
radiation that reaches the film through the test object. Radiography test was conducted, and
slag inclusion and cluster porosity were observed in the film after the film processing process
of the film was performed. The sensitivity achieved was good and the defects in the film were
observed easily.

Fig 24:Cluster porosity and slag inclusion observed

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 CONCLUSION
Based on above work done during the training period, we can say that Non-Destructive
Testing is a wide group of analysis techniques used in science and technology industry to
evaluate the properties of a material, defects in the component or a system without causing
damage, which uses many non-conventional principles to perform its function where few
such examples may be use of electromagnetic radiation, sound, and inherent properties of
materials for testing.
Like every other thing in universe, NDT also has some advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages like reliability, accuracy, precision, fast operations are also accompanied by
disadvantages like need of training, high maintenance, high capital costs etc.
On a whole, we can say that NDT is a revolutionary advancement in field of mechanical
testing. And based on its scope and increasing areas of application we can say that many
more new advancements in NDT are yet to come.

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 REFERENCES

 https://pacsglobal.in
 https://limblecmms.com/blog/non-destructive-testing-ndt/
 https://www.asnt.org
 https://www.wermac.org/others/ndt_rt.html
 “Non-destructive testing” Sadashiva M, Karthika Reddy G, Srinivasa M R
 ASNDT- American Society of Non-Destructive Testing.
 S.V. Ranganayakulu, R. Goutham and M. Premkumar “Non- Destructive Evaluation
of Mild Steel Material”.

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