Type of Unit Cells

1. Simple/Primitive (P) – atoms are only positioned at the corners.

2. Body-centered (I) – an additional atom is positioned at the center of the unit cell.

3. Face- centered (F) – atoms are positioned at the corners, as well at the faces of the unit

cell.

4. Base-centered (C) – atoms are positioned at the corners, as well at two opposite faces

of the cube (usually at the top and bottom faces).

Sample Problem 1. Determine the FCC unit cell volume. Calculate the volume of an FCC unit
cell in terms of the atomic radius R Solution: In the FCC unit cell illustrated below. The atoms
touch one another across a face diagonal the length of which is 4R. Since the unit cell is a cube,
its volume is a3, where a is the cell edge length. From the right triangle on the face.

Sample Problem 2. Computation of the Atomic Packing Factor for FCC Show that the atomic
packing factor for the FCC crystal structure is 0.74. Solution: The APF is defined as the fraction
of solid sphere volume in a unit cell
 Sample Problem 3. Copper has an atomic radius of 0.128 nm, an FCC crystal structure,
and an atomic weight of 63.5 g/mol. Compute its theoretical density and compare the answer
with its measured density

Solution: Since the crystal structure is FCC, n, the number of atoms per unit cell, is 4.
Furthermore, the atomic weight ACu is given as 63.5 g/mol. The unit cell volume Vc for FCC
was determined in sample problem 1 as 16𝑅 3√2 where R, the atomic radius, is 0.128 nm.
Substitute in the theoretical density equation.

Classification of Materials

1. Metals

• Materials in this group are composed of one or more metallic elements (such as iron,
aluminum, copper, titanium, gold, and nickel), and often also nonmetallic elements (for
example, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen) in relatively small amounts. Atoms in metals and their
alloys are arranged in a very orderly manner.

2. Ceramics

• Ceramics are compounds between metallic and non-metallic elements; they are most
frequently oxides, nitrides, and carbides.

For example, some of the common ceramic materials include aluminum oxide (or
alumina,Al2O3), silicon dioxide (or silica, SiO2), silicon carbide (SiC), silicon nitride (Si3N4),
and, in addition, what some refer to as the traditional ceramics—those composed of clay
minerals (i.e., porcelain), as well as cement, and glass.

With regard to mechanical behavior, ceramic materials are relatively stiff and strong—
stiffnesses and strengths are comparable to those of the metals
3. Polymers

• Polymers include the familiar plastic and rubber materials, atoms share electrons to form
covalent bonding.

• Polymers are soft, pliable, low strength, low density, thermal & electrical insulators, and
optically translucent or transparent.

• Many of them are organic compounds that are chemically based on carbon, hydrogen, and
other nonmetallic elements (O, N, and Si)

• Some of the common and familiar polymers are polyethylene (PE), nylon, poly(vinyl chloride)
(PVC), polycarbonate (PC), polystyrene (PS), and silicone rubber.

4. Composites

• A composite is composed of two (or more) individual materials, which come from the
categories (metals, ceramics, and polymers).

• Composites are made of different materials in intimate contact (example: fiberglass, concrete,
wood) to achieve specific properties.

Future of Material Science

1. Miniaturization: Engineered Nanostructured Materials (ENM), with a microstructure that has

length scales between 1 and 100 nanometers with unusual properties. Electronic components,
materials for quantum computing.

2. Smart materials: airplane wings that deice themselves, buildings that stabilize

themselves in earthquakes.

3. Environment-friendly materials: biodegradable or photodegradable plastics, advances

in nuclear waste processing, etc.

Crystals structure of solids

• Crystalline solids a solid that contains a regular and repeating atomic or molecular
arrangement over large atomic distances (long-range order). Examples are metals, ceramics, and
some polymers.

• Non-crystalline Solid, also termed as “amorphous” or “vitreous,” is a solid without long

range ordering atoms or molecules. Examples are some ceramics and most polymers.
Types of solid materials

1. Atomic solids

• Individual atoms that are held together by dispersion forces form an atomic solid.

• Their melting and boiling points and heats of vaporization and fusion are all very low, rising
smoothly with increasing molar mass.

• Examples are solid noble gases. (pure metals, silicon crystals, and diamond)

2. Molecular solids

• Individual molecules occupy the lattice points.

• Non-polar molecules – dispersion forces

• Polar molecules – dipole-dipole forces and H-bonding

• Molecular solids have higher melting points than the atomic solids (noble gases).

• Intermolecular forces are still relatively weak, so the melting points are much lower than
those of ionic, metallic, and

• Examples; (sucrose, solid carbon dioxide, water ice, etc.

3. Ionic solids

• The unit cell contains particles with whole, rather than partial, charges.

• Ionic solids typically have high melting points and low electrical conductivities.

• Ionic compounds are hard because only a strong external force can change the relative
positions of many trillions of interacting ions.

• Examples; (table salt, baking soda, lye, and bleach)

4. Metallic solids

• Powerful metallic bonding forces hold individual atoms together in metallic solids.

• The properties of metals—high electrical and thermal conductivity, luster, and malleability—
result from the presence of delocalized electrons.

• Metals have a wide range of melting points and hardnesses, which are related to the packing
efficiency of the crystal structure and the number of valence electrons available for bonding.

5. Network covalent solids

• Strong covalent bonds link the atoms together throughout a network covalent solid.

• All these substances have extremely high melting and boiling points, but their conductivity
and hardness depend on the details of their bonding. • Examples are graphite and diamond.
Amorphous solids are non-crystalline.

• Many have small, somewhat ordered regions connected by large disordered regions.

• Charcoal, rubber, and glass are some familiar examples of amorphous solids.

Lattice means a three-dimensional arrayof points coinciding with atom position.

Unit cell is the basic structural unit or building block of the crystal structure and defines the
crystal structure by virtue of its geometry and the atom positions within.

A vacancy is a point defect which vacant lattice site or missing atom from the atomic site. It may
be formed during solidification or by atomic rearrangement.

• Interstitial/ Self-Interstitial happened to an atom from the crystal if it is positioned in an

interstitial site between the matrix atoms.

X-ray diffraction refers to the scattering of X rays by the units of a crystalline solid. The
scattering, or diffraction, patterns produced are used to deduce the arrangement of particles in
the solid lattice.

Types of Metal Alloy

 FERROUS ALLOYS

• Those in which iron is the prime constituent—are produced in larger quantities than any
other metal type. They are especially important as engineering construction materials.

 Iron containing compounds exist in abundant quantities within the Earth’s crust

 Metallic iron and steel alloys may be produced using relatively economical extraction,
refining, alloying, and fabrication techniques

 Ferrous alloys are extremely versatile, in that they may be tailored to have a wide range of
mechanical and physical properties.

 NON FERROUS ALLOY

Alloy systems are classified either according to the base metal or according to some specific
characteristic that a group of alloys share. All non-ferrous alloys do not share a common
property; it varies according to the composition and the heat treatment method in producing
the alloy. Some of the common features of different alloys are listed below.

• Copper, aluminum, magnesium, and titanium alloys • the refractory metals • the superalloys
• the noble metals; • miscellaneous alloys including those that have nickel, lead, tin, zirconium,
and zinc as base metals.

Ferrous Alloy
1. Steels

• Steels are iron–carbon alloys that may contain appreciable concentrations of other alloying
elements; there are thousands of alloys that have different compositions and/or heat
treatments.

 Low-Carbon Steels - a carbon content of less than 0.25%.

 Medium-Carbon Steels - a carbon steel with a carbon percentage content of 0.25% to 0.60%.

 High-Carbon Steels - normally having carbon contents between 0.60 and 1.4 wt%, are the
hardest, strongest, and yet least ductile of the carbon steels.

2. Stainless Steels

• The stainless steels are highly resistant to corrosion (rusting) in a variety of environments,
especially the ambient atmosphere. Their predominant alloying element is chromium; a
concentration of at least 11 wt% Cr is required. Corrosion resistance may also be enhanced by
nickel and molybdenum additions.

• 3 Classes of Stainless steels

 Martensitic - are capable of being heat-treated. Austenitic and Ferritic stainless steels are
hardened and strengthened by cold work because they are not heat-treatable.

3. Cast Iron

• Generically, cast irons are a class of ferrous alloys with carbon contents above 2.14 wt%; in
practice, however, most cast irons contain between 3.0 and 4.5 wt% C and, in addition, other
alloying elements.

• For most cast irons, the carbon exists as graphite, and both microstructure and mechanical
behavior depend on composition and heat treatment.

-Gray Iron

-Ductile Iron

-White Iron

-Malleable Iron

Non Ferrous Alloy

1. Copper and Its Alloys

2. Aluminum and Its Alloys

3. Magnesium and Its Alloys

4. Titanium and Its Alloys

5. Refractory Metals

6. The Superalloys

7. The Noble Alloy

8. Miscellaneous Nonferrous Alloys

Fabrication Techniques

1. FORMING OPERATIONS

• Forming operations are those in which the shape of a metal piece is changed by plastic
deformation. The deformation must be induced by an external force or stress, the magnitude of
which must exceed the yield strength of the material.

• When deformation is achieved at a temperature above that at which recrystallization occurs,

the process is termed hot working, otherwise, it is cold working. For hot-working operations,
large deformations are possible, which may be successively repeated because the metal remains
soft and ductile.

• Cold working produces an increase in strength with the attendant decrease in ductility
because the metal strain hardens; advantages over hot working include a higher quality surface
finish

Forging is mechanically working or deforming a single piece of a usually hot metal; this may be
accomplished by the application of successive blows or by continuous squeezing.

Rolling, the most widely used deformation process, consists of passing a piece of metal
between two rolls; a reduction in thickness results from compressive stresses exerted by the
rolls. Cold rolling may be used in the production of sheet, strip, and foil with a high quality
surface finish. Circular shapes, as well as I-beams and railroad rails, are fabricated using
grooved rolls.

For extrusion, a bar of metal is forced through a die orifice by a compressive force that is
applied to a ram; the extruded piece that emerges has the desired shape and a reduced
complicated cross-sectional geometry; seamless tubing may also be extruded.

Drawing is the pulling of a metal piece through a die having a tapered bore by means of a
tensile force that is applied on the exit side.

Casting is a fabrication process whereby a totally molten metal is poured into a mold cavity
having the desired shape; upon solidification, the metal assumes the shape of the mold but
experiences some shrinkage.
Sand Casting- A two-piece mold is formed by packing sand around a pattern that has the shape
of the intended casting.

Die Casting- the liquid metal is forced into a mold under pressure and at a relatively high
velocity and allowed to solidify with the pressure maintained.

Investment (sometimes called lost-wax) casting- the pattern is made from a wax or plastic that
has a low melting temperature.

A variation of investment casting is lost-foam (or expendable pattern) casting. Here, the
expendable pattern is a foam that can be formed by compressing polystyrene beads into the
desired shape and then bonding them together by heating.

Continuous Casting- Using this technique, the refined and molten metal is cast directly into a
continuous strand that may have either a rectangular or circular cross section

MISCELLANEOUS TECHNIQUES

Fabrication technique involves the compaction of powdered metal followed by a heat treatment
to produce a denser piece. The process is appropriately called powder metallurgy.

Welding may be considered to be a fabrication technique. In welding, two or more metal parts
are joined to form a single piece when one-part fabrication is expensive or inconvenient.

3D Printing

Annealing of Ferrous Alloy

Normalizing - An annealing heat treatment called normalizing is used to refine the grains

Full Anneal - A heat treatment known as full annealing is often used in low- and medium-
carbon steels

Spheroidizing - Medium- and high-carbon steels having a microstructure containing even

coarse pearlite may still be too hard to machine or plastically deform conveniently.

Polymers

Most polymers are organic in origin, and a lot of organic materials are hydrocarbons;
(composed of hydrogen and carbon). Furthermore, the intramolecular bonds are covalent.

The molecules in polymers are gigantic in comparison to the hydrocarbon molecules already
discussed; because of their size they are often referred to as macromolecules.

• These long molecules are composed of structural entities called repeat units.

• The term monomer refers to the small molecule from which a polymer is synthesized.

• A repeat unit is also sometimes called a mer. “Mer” originates from the Greek word polymer
meros, which means part; the term polymer was coined to mean “many mers.”
• Inorganic polymers – cement, glass, sand, clays • Organic polymer can be synthetic or
natural: ➢ Synthetic polymers – adhesives, fibers, coatings, rubbers ➢ Natural polymers –
polysaccharides, proteins, DNA, polyisoprene rubber

Type of Molecular Structure

1. Linear Polymers

• are those in which the repeat units are joined together end to end in single chains.-
polyethylene, poly(vinyl chloride), polystyrene, poly(methyl methacrylate), nylon, and the
fluorocarbons.

2. Branched Polymers

• Polymers may be synthesized in which side-branch chains are connected to the main ones,;
these are fittingly called branched polymers.

3. Crosslinked Polymers

• In crosslinked polymers, adjacent linear chains are joined one to another at various positions
by covalent bonds. Many of the rubber elastic materials are crosslinked; in rubbers, this is called
vulcanization.• Examples of cross-linked polymers include: Polyester fiberglass, polyurethanes
used as coatings, adhesives, vulcanized rubber, epoxy resins and many more.

4. Network Polymers

• Multifunctional monomers forming three or more active covalent bonds, make three-
dimensional networks, and are termed network polymers.

Stereoisomerism denotes the situation in which atoms are linked together in the same order
(head-to-tail) but differ in their spatial arrangement.
Geometrical stereoisomerism

Cis and Trans

• In which the CH3 group and the H atom are positioned on the same side of the double bond.
This is termed a cis structure, and the resulting polymer, cis- polyisoprene, is natural rubber.

Thermoplastics soften when heated (and eventually liquefy) and harden when cooled processes
that are totally reversible and may be repeated. Irreversible degradation results when a molten
thermoplastic polymer is raised to too high of a temperature. Most linear polymers and those
having some branched structures with flexible chains are thermoplastic. Examples of common
thermoplastic polymers include polyethylene, polystyrene, poly (ethylene terephthalate), and
poly (vinyl chloride).

Thermosetting polymers are network polymers. They become permanently hard during their
formation, and do not soften upon heating. Thermoset polymers are generally harder and
stronger than thermoplastics and have better dimensional stability. Most of the crosslinked and
network polymers, which include vulcanized rubbers, epoxies, and phenolics and some
polyester resins, are thermosetting.

Miscellaneous Mechanical Properties

Impact strength - the degree of resistance of a polymeric material to impact loading may be of
concern in some applications.

Fatigue - Polymers may experience fatigue failure under conditions of cyclic loading.
Tear strength and hardness - Tear strength, the mechanical parameter that is measured, is the
energy required to tear apart a cut specimen that has a standard geometry.

Type of Polymeric Materials

1. Plastics - are materials that have some structural rigidity under load, and are used in general-
purpose applications. Polyethylene, polypropylene, poly(vinyl chloride), polystyrene, and the
fluorocarbons, epoxies, phenolics, and polyesters may all be classified as plastics.

2. Elastomers – Natural rubber is still utilized to a large degree because it has an outstanding
combination of desirable properties. However, the most important synthetic elastomer is
styrene- butadiene copolymer (SBR), which is used predominantly in automobile tires,
reinforced with carbon black.

3. Fibers – Most commercial fiber polymers are utilized in the textile industry, being woven or
knit into cloth or fabric.

4. Coatings – are frequently applied to the surface of materials to serve one or more of the
following functions: • (1) to protect the item from the environment that may produce corrosive
or deteriorative reactions; • (2) to improve the item’s appearance; and • (3) to provide electrical
insulation.

5. Adhesives – An adhesive is a substance used to bond together the surfaces of two solid
materials termed “adherends”.

6. Films – are materials have found widespread use in the form of thin films.

7. Foams – Foams are plastic materials that contain a relatively high volume percentage of small
pores and trapped gas bubbles. Both thermoplastic and thermosetting materials are used as
foams; these include polyurethane, rubber, polystyrene, and poly(vinyl chloride).

Addition polymerization - (sometimes called chain reaction polymerization) is a process by

which monomer units are attached one at a time in chainlike fashion to form a linear
macromolecule.
Condensation polymerization – Condensation (or step reaction) polymerization is the
formation of polymers by stepwise intermolecular chemical reactions that may involve more
than one species.

Polymer Additives

1. Fillers – Fillers are materials are most often added to polymers to improve tensile and
compressive strengths, abrasion resistance, toughness, dimensional and thermal stability, and
other properties.

2. Plasticizers – The flexibility, ductility, and toughness of polymers may be improved with the
aid of additives called plasticizers. Their presence also produces reductions in hardness and
stiffness. Plasticizers are generally liquids having low vapor pressures and low molecular
weights.

3. Stabilizers – Some polymeric materials, under normal environmental conditions, are subject
to rapid deterioration, generally in terms of mechanical integrity. Additives that counteract
deteriorative processes are called stabilizers.

4. Colorants – Colorants impart a specific color to a polymer; they may be added in the form of
dyes or pigments.

5. Flame retardants – The flammability of polymeric materials is a major concern, especially in

the manufacture of textiles and children’s toys.

Molding is the most common method for forming plastic polymers.

1. Compression Molding- the appropriate amounts of thoroughly mixed polymer and

necessary additives are placed between male and female mold members.

2. Injection Molding- the polymer analogue of die casting for metals, is the most widely used
technique for fabricating thermoplastic materials.

3. Extrusion - is the molding of a viscous thermoplastic under pressure through an open- ended
die, similar to the extrusion of metals.

4. Blow Molding - process for the fabrication of plastic containers is similar to that used for
blowing glass bottles.

5. Casting - polymeric materials may be cast, as when a molten plastic material is poured into a
mold and allowed to solidify. Both thermoplastic and thermosetting plastics may be cast.

Mechanical Properties of Metals

Two types of Deformation

 Plastic deformation

 Elastic deformation

The degree to which a structure deforms or strains depends on the magnitude of an imposed
stress. Stress and strain are proportional to each other through the relationship.

• This is known as Hooke’s law, and the constant of proportionality E (GPa or psi) is the
modulus of elasticity, or Young’s modulus.

• Deformation that is “recoverable” when the load is removed

Hardness- is a measure of a material’s resistance to localized plastic deformation

Engineered Nanomaterials

The word nano came from the Greek Word “nannos” which literally pertains to dwarf. In
science, it is a unit of measurement for very small quantity and has an equivalent of 1 billionth.•
Nanomaterials pertain to materials with at least one dimension ranging from 1 to 100
nanometer in size. A nanometer is about 1 millionth of a millimeter which is 100,000 thousand
thinner than a sheet of paper.

• There is an abundance on nanomaterials in our environment these are called Incidental

nanomaterials.

• The applications of these products can be seen from medicine, energy, food production,
electronics etc.

ENs can be classified into fullerenes nanotubes, nanofibers and nanowires, quantum dots and
nanoparticles.

Fullerenes

• Molecules with structure of hollow sphere, ellipsoid and tubular and is composed of carbon
atoms are called fullerenes. • They are commonly referred as “Bucky ball” named after
Buckminster Fuller who design buildings according to this shape. It resembles a hollow
spherical dome made up of 60 carbon atoms.

Graphene

• Graphene is made up of one carbon atom sheet that is densely packed that densely packed in
honeycomb crystal lattice. Graphene is basic building block of carbon nanotube and fullerenes.

Carbon Nanotubes

• Carbon Nanotubes (CNT) have a cylindrical structure in the form of tube. CNT is an
engineered nanomaterial known as “bucky tube” and has a nano scale in diameter and length
of more than 100 nm. Carbon Nanotubes may be made in a single or multi nanotube layer. Its
tensile strengths is comparable to steel and many times stronger to Kevlar.
Quantum dots are another form of ENs and has been used as a semiconductor. Quantum dots
are 2-10 nanometers in diameters and was known as nanocrystals. Quantum are also known to
respond into different wavelengths of light.

Nanoparticles

• Nanoparticles are nanomaterials with size ranging from 2 -100 nm. Because nanoparticles are
too small, and are invisible to the naked eye, they are usually supplied suspended in liquid.

Nanofiber’s diameter ranges from 50nm -300 nm which is slightly larger than a typical
nanomaterial but still invisible to human eye. Inorganic nanofibers are produced by
electrospinning and catalytic synthesis in terms of nanotubes. Nanowires are just like nano
fibers but can electricity and smaller in diameter (4 nm and above).

Top-down approach pertains to size reduction of bulk materials. This route uses physical
process like milling, crushing and grinding. These processes are not suitable for creating
uniformly sized and shaped nanomaterials. This creates imperfection on the nanomaterials and
which has a significant in the physical properties and surface morphology of it. Example of this
is ball milling .

Bottom-up approach refers to the material synthesis from atomic level. In this route materials
are built from atom to atom, molecule to molecule or cluster by cluster. This route is usually
chosen because if its ability to produce a uniform shape, size and distribution nano-scale
materials. Thus includes chemical synthesis with precisely controlled reaction to inhibit further
particle growth. Example of this process are sol gel method, gas condensation, and furnace.

Disadvantages of Nanomaterials

1. Instability of the particles

2. Impurity

3. Biologically harmful

4. Recycling and disposal