PATTERN OF REFLECTED SOUND

CONCAVE REFLECTOR

Concave sound-reflecting surfaces (such as barrel-vaulted

ceilings in churches and curved rear walls in auditoriums)
can focus sound, causing hot spots and echoes in the
audience seating area.

Because concave surfaces focus sound, they also are

poor distributors of sound energy and therefore should be
avoided where sound-reflecting surfaces are desired (e.g.,
near stage, lectern, or other source locations in rooms).
FLAT REFLECTOR
Flat, hard-surfaced building elements, if large enough and
oriented properly, can effectively distribute reflected
sound. The reflector shown below is tilted slightly to
project sound energy toward the rear of an auditorium.
CONVEX REFLECTOR
Convex, hard-surfaced building elements, if large enough,
can be most effective as sound-distributing forms.

The reflected sound energy from convex surfaces

diverges, enhancing diffusion, which is highly desirable
for music listening.

In addition, reflected sound from convex surfaces is more

evenly distributed across a wide range of frequencies.
ECHOES
An echo is the distinct repetition of the original sound
and is sufficiently loud to be clearly heard above the general
reverberation and background noise in a space.

To determine if echoes are present in completed spaces,

sharply clap your hands or slap two books together. Listen
for any strong repetition of the original clap.

Note the direction and strength of any echoes and how long
it takes any “fluttering” or “ringing” to drop off to inaudibility.
For speech signals, echoes can be perceived when the time
intervals between the direct and reflected sounds are
greater than 60 ms (about 1/17s).

In auditoriums, sound-reflecting flat or concave rear walls

and high or vaulted ceilings are potential echo producers.

The graph shows the amount in decibels an echo is above

or below the direct speech for time delays (ms) in rooms
with a reverberation time of about 1 s at mid-frequencies.
An echo that falls in the shaded area on the upper right of
the graph will be annoying to most listeners (> 50 percent
disturbed).
ECHO CONTROL PRINCIPLES
 Potential echo-producing surfaces should be treated with
efficient sound- absorbing materials ( see Section 2) or
shaped as shown below.

The front portion of the ceiling is lowered to reduce the

delayed reflections from overhead and reoriented to
provide useful reflections toward the rear of the
auditorium.

Potential Echo-Producing Surfaces;

Revised Ceiling Profile (To prevent echoes and distribute sound evenly)

Sound-Absorbing Wall Treatments: “Deep” treatment can be provided by either

thick sound-absorbing materials or thin sound-absorbing materials installed with
an airspace behind as shown below
 REAR-WALL ECHO CONTROL TREATMENT

A flat, sound-reflecting rear wall can produce echoes or unwanted,

long- delayed reflections in medium to large auditoriums. Three
solutions to control “slap” echoes (i.e., sharp return of sound) from a
rear wall are shown below.

Perforated facings, which are highly transparent to sound waves, can

be used to conceal sound-absorbing treatment (e.g., dome at Rotunda,
University of Virginia) or sound-diffusing treatment (e.g., curved
surfaces over stage at Orpheum Theatre, Vancouver, B.C., Canada).

(clockwise, from top left) Echo-Producing Rear Wall (Echo at ceiling-wall reentrant angle);
Sound-Absorbing Treatment (Extend deep treatment from seated head level);
Surface Modulations or “Rumples” (Use cylinders with different radii for optimum diffusion);
Splayed Walt (To produce useful short-delayed reflections)
 SIDE WALLS

Ray-diagram analyses are useful in the horizontal plane to study sound energy
reflected from the side walls. These lateral reflections help create a favorable
auditory spatial impression (or intimacy), which is essential for the satisfactory
perception of music performances. Early sound reflections from side walls can
add strength to the direct sound.
The initial-time-delay gap ITDG can be found by subtracting the direct sound
path D from the reflected sound path R. Both paths are measured to a listener
seated near the centerline of the hall, halfway between the conductor and the
first balcony face (or rear wall). ITDG in milliseconds equals the path difference
(R - D) in feet times 0.9. For concert halls, ITDG should be less than 20 ms.

Wide fan shapes and semicircular floor plans usually don't provide strong, early
lateral reflections because the side walls will be located too far apart. Unless
Fan Shape (For lecture room) overhead sound reflectors can be used to help overcome the absence of lateral
sound reflected from walls, music will sound distant and lack fullness of tone.

The “reverse” fan shape (rooms with decreasing width to ward rear) can
provide strongest lateral reflections and spatial impression for music
 SIDE WALLS

Reverse Fan Shape (Side walls at rear reflect sound toward audience
for definition of music)

Rectangular Shape (Dashed lines indicate preferred orientations for a lecture room); Stepped Shape
(Alternate elements of side walls are parallel to provide lateral reflections toward audience for music hall)