Text of practice exercises for Module 2.

3:
A recommendation was made by the DSMB committee that the study be halted.
DSMB committee made a recommendation to halt the study.
DSMB committee recommended that the study be halted.
Major differences in the reaction times of the two study subjects were found.
We found major differences in the reaction times of the two study subjects.
We found major differences in the reaction times of the two study subjects.
It was concluded by the editors that the data had been falsified by the authors.
The editors concluded that the authors falsified the data.
The editors concluded that the authors falsified their data.
The first visible-light snapshot of a planet circling another star has been taken by NASA’s
Hubble Space Telescope.
NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope has taken the first visible-light snapshot of a planet circling
another star.
NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope has taken the first visible-light snapshot of a planet circling
another star.
Therefore, the hypothesis that the overall kinetics of a double transtibial amputee athlete and an
able-bodied sprinter at the same level of performance are not different was rejected.
Therefore, we did not reject that the overall kinetics of a double transtibial amputee athlete and
an able-bodied sprinter at the same level of performance.
Therefore, we reject that the overall kinetics of a double transtibial amputee athlete and an able-
bodied sprinter at the same level of performance are comparable.
The fear expressed by some teachers that students would not learn statistics well if they were
permitted to use canned computer programs has not been realized in our experience. A careful
monitoring of achievement levels before and after the introduction of computers in the teaching
of our course revealed no appreciable change in students’ performances.
Many teachers feared that the use of canned computer programs would prevent students from
learning statistics. We monitored student achievement levels before and after the introduction
of computers in our course and found no detriments in performance.

Review of each center’s progress in recruitment is important to ensure that the cost involved in
maintaining each center’s participation is worthwhile. We should review each center's recruitment
progress to make sure its continued participation is cost effective.
It should be emphasized that these proportions generally are not the result of significant increases
in moderate and severe injuries, but in many instances reflect mildly injured persons not being
seen at a hospital.
Shifting proportions in injury severity may reflect stricter hospital admission criteria rather than true
increases in moderate and severe injuries.

Important studies to examine the descriptive epidemiology of autism, including the prevalence
and changes in the characteristics of the population over time, have begun.
Studies have begun to describe the epidemiology of autism, including recent changes in the
disorder's prevalence and characteristics.

Text for practice exercises Module 3.2

Evidence-based medicine teaches clinicians the practical application of clinical epidemiology, as
needed to address specific problems of specific patients. It guides clinicians on how to find the
best evidence relevant to a specific problem, how to assess the quality of that evidence, and
perhaps most difficult, how to decide if the evidence applies to a specific patient.
Evidence-based medicine teaches clinicians the practical application of clinical epidemiology:
how to find the best evidence relevant to a specific problem, how to assess the quality of that
evidence, and how to decide if the evidence applies to a specific patient.
Finally, the lessons of clinical epidemiology are not meant to be limited to academic physician-
epidemiologists, who sometimes have more interest in analyzing data than caring for patients.
Clinical epidemiology holds the promise of providing clinicians with the tools necessary to
improve the outcomes of their patients.
Finally, clinical epidemiology is not limited to academic physician-epidemiologists--who are
more interested in analyzing data than caring for patients—but provides clinicians with the tools
to improve their patient’s outcomes.

Text of examples Module 3.5

Most scents remain constant in their quality over orders of magnitude of concentration (12).
Nevertheless, at high concentrations, quality tends to be negatively correlated with intensity, as
was the case, for example, for the cinnamon oil used in this study. Hence, reliability of absolute
scorings was achieved by calibrating the amount of perfume ingredients with initial ratings for
intensity against a reference substance of known concentration. The final concentrations were in
principal chosen in a way such that individual ratings showed variance among participants within
the sliding scale between 0 and 10 (meaning that people could decide whether they liked a scent
or not). This procedure seemed successful for most scents; however, the concentrations for
bergamot (highest average ratings) and vetiver (lowest average rating) could probably been
reduced even more, as both scents did not show any discriminating power at the level of
common alleles (people agreed largely on the quality of these two scents) (see Table 2).
Interestingly, the pooled rare alleles showed discriminating power for…
Perfume intensity and quality are negatively correlated at high concentrations. If the scent is too
strong, people will rate it unfavorably. Hence, we chose the final concentrations of each perfume
ingredient so that it had similar intensity to a reference scent. The resulting concentrations appeared
appropriate for most scents. As participants preferences varied along the sliding scale between 0
and 10. However, participants largely agreed on bergamot and vetiver, so lower or higher
concentrations may have been needed for these scents.

Although the methodological approaches are similar, the questions posed in classic epidemiology
and clinical epidemiology are different. In classic epidemiology, epidemiologists pose a question
about the etiology of a disease in a population of people. Causal associations are important to
identify because, if the causal factor identified can be manipulated or modified, prevention of
disease is possible. On the other hand, in clinical epidemiology, clinicians pose a question about
the prognosis of a disease in a population of patients. Prognosis can be regarded as a set of
outcomes and their associated probabilities following the occurrence of some defining event or
diagnosis that can be a symptom, sign, test result or disease.
Despite methodologic similarities, classic epidemiology and clinical epidemiology differ in aim. 
Classic epidemiologists pose a question about the etiology of disease in a population of people.
Etiologic factors can be manipulated to prevent disease. Clinical epidemiologists pose a question
about the prognosis of a disease in a population of patients; prognosis is the probability that an
event or diagnosis will result in a particular outcome.

Text of examples Module 3.6

The concept of chocolate having potential therapeutic benefits for people with diabetes mellitus,
especially type 2 diabetes mellitus, presents a number of intellectual challenges, from both
clinical and sociological perspectives. It seems almost counterintuitive to suggest an energy-
dense food that is high in sugar, and often seen as a treat or a “dietary sin”, could offer such
promise. However, a large volume of mechanistic and animal model studies has been undertaken
demonstrating the potential benefits of cocoa and chocolate for both glucose regulation and
modification of complications associated with diabetes. Cesar Fraga in the American Journal of
Clinical Nutrition first proposed the potential of chocolate for people with diabetes in 2005. It
was suggested that we should consume more cocoa and chocolate to reduce the burdens of
hypertension and diabetes.(1) Grassi and colleagues (2) further reinforced this potential for its
antihypertensive and insulin-sensitizing effect with the mechanistic data. However, the
hypothesis of chocolate having a beneficial effect remains counterintuitive to the average
consumer and has yet to gain support among the wider medical and healthcare community.
Many mechanistic and animal studies suggest health benefits for cocoa and chocolate particularly
for patients with hypertension and type 2 diabetes. These studies suggest that cocoa and chocolate
can lower blood pressure, improve glucose regulation, improve insulin sensitivity and reduce
complications from diabetes. But the idea of chocolate is medicine has yet to gain widespread
support among consumers or among the wider medical and health care community. It seems
counterintuitive that a high sugar energy dense food one often seen as a treat or dietary sin could
promote health. 

Headache is an extraordinarily common pain symptom that virtually everyone experiences at one
time or another. As a pain symptom, headaches have many causes. The full range of these
causes were categorized by the International Headache Society (IHS) in 1988. The IHS
distinguishes two broad groups of headache disorders: primary headache disorders and
secondary headache disorders. Secondary headache disorders are a consequence of an
underlying condition, such as a brain tumor, a systemic infection or a head injury. In primary
headache disorders, the headache disorder is the fundamental problem; it is not symptomatic of
another cause. The two most common types of primary headache disorders are episodic tension-
type headache (ETTH) and migraine. Although IHS is the most broadly used/recognized
classification system used, a brief comment on others would be appropriate – especially if there
are uses that have epidemiologic advantages.
Headache is a pain symptom that almost everyone experiences. That's the headaches are important
sentence. The International Headache Society groups headaches into two types based on
cause. Notice my use of the colon here. Primary headache disorders and secondary headache
disorders. In primary headache disorders, the headache itself is the main complaint. The two most
common types are episodic tension type and migraine. Secondary headache disorders result from
an underlying condition, such as a brain tumor, a systemic infection or a head injury.

The data we collected from the state and the church lacks connection. However we used
LinkedPr07 to determine the associated between suicide and the church activities.
The study concluded that waste stabilization ponds have high efficacy and optimal performance
in warm climate and windy areas respectively--which reduces health risks.
Major limitations are incomplete sample, susceptibility factors, (e.g., familial influences), and
reliability of TD instruments for drug dependence.
Neuropeptides are important mediators in nervous system.
Peer graded assignment
Consuming metal ions can be a double-edged sword. Foods that contain Fe and Cu ions are
needed to maintain normal body function such as synthesis of metalloprotiens. But, studies have
linked excess intake of these ions may cause depositions of iron oxides in the brain: (1) resulting
Parkinson's disease; (2) chronic inflammatory diseases due to oxidative damage; and (3) other
pathological processes such as premature aging.
As for many food components, consuming metal ions can be a double-edged sword. Trace metals
such as Fe and Cu ions help maintain normal body functions, such as the synthesis of
metalloproteins. However, studies have linked excess intake to oxidative damage [2] and
inflammation, as well as specific conditions, including Parkinson's disease [1], cancer [3], and
premature ageing [4].
Text of examples Module 4.1
1. In assessing the quality of an instrument we distinguish three quality domains, i.e.
reliability, validity, and responsiveness. Each domain contains one or more measurement
properties. The domain reliability contains three measurement properties: internal
consistency, reliability, and measurement error. The domain validity also contains three
measurement properties: content validity, construct validity, and criterion validity. The
domain responsiveness contains only one measurement property, which is also called
responsiveness. The term and definition of the domain and measurement property
responsiveness are actually the same, but they are distinguished in the taxonomy for
reasons of clarity. Some measurement properties contain one or more aspects, that were
defined separately: Content validity includes face validity, and construct validity include
structural validity, hypotheses testing, and cross-cultural validity.
We assess each instrument based on reliability, validity, and responsiveness. These
domains may be subdivided into measurement properties. Reliability includes these
three measurement properties. Validity includes these other three. And responsiveness
is both a domain and a measurement property. Some measurement properties
additionally contain multiple aspects. For example, construct validity includes structural
validity, hypothesis testing and cross cultural validity.

2. The church’s record-keeping system and its high level of accuracy has been previously
reported (2). Briefly, the church creates and maintains a church record for each individual who is
baptized into the church. These records are created at the congregation level at the time of
baptism and then forwarded to the general church level where the membership record is added to
the church membership database. These records contain minimal information including name,
date of birth, parents’ names, dates of church ordinances, and current address. Each congregation
has a lay membership clerk who is responsible for updating the membership records for the
members of the congregation. Such updates would include dates of ordinances received after
baptism (e.g., priesthood ordination or marriage), name of spouse when a member marries,
change of current address and date of death.
While the accuracy of the church record is dependent upon lay clerks within each congregation,
each member has an opportunity to review their membership record once a year to check it for
accuracy. For this reason and because the church emphasizes accurate record keeping, the
information available from the church records is quite reliable, especially for members who are
actively involved in the church. When a member dies and the clerk reports his/her death to the
Church Membership Council, the membership record is updated and then archived in the
church’s deceased membership file.

The church's record-keeping system is accurate and reliable. When a new member is baptized,
the church congregation creates a member record that Includes: Name, date of birth, parents'
names, current address and dates of church ordinances (e.g. marriage), spouse name, changes
of address, and date of death. Members may review their membership record once a year,
which helps ensure accuracy. When a member dies, the membership record is archived.
3. Previous studies have consistently reported increased risk of subsequent drug use associated
with conduct problems and antisocial behavior in childhood (1-5), and an association of drug
dependence with conduct problems was found in a general survey of young adults (9).
Furthermore, long-term relationships between aggressive, unconventional, and impulsive
behaviors have also been found with drug use involvement generally (10-12). However, different
pathways between early childhood misbehavior and drug involvement may exist. Psychiatric
symptoms and cognitive disabilities may be manifest as aggressive behaviors and drug use may
be a response to impulsive tendencies that often co-occur with aggression or misbehavior.
Distress and failure to adopt responsible conventional roles and behaviors may be important
mediators linking childhood misbehavior to late drug dependence (13,14).

Previous studies reported association between drug use and antisocial, unconventional behaviors
in children that includes: impulsive, aggressiveness, and unconventional. But, mental disorders
may also present these symptoms—Distress and failure of conventional roles are linked to play a
role in childhood misbehaviors and drug dependence.

Previous studies have linked early childhood conduct problems—including aggressive, antisocial
and unconventional behaviors—with subsequent drug use (1-5). Several pathways may explain
this link: aggressive children may have underlying psychiatric disorders or cognitive disabilities
that increase their risk of drug use; misbehavior tends to co-occur with impulsivity, which
increases the risk of drug use; and childhood misbehavior may lead to long-term problems such
as persistent distress or failure to ever adopt conventional roles or behaviors, which may lead to
drug dependence(13,14).

Text for editing, demo edit 4

In our digital lives, we generate huge amounts of data: social relationships, purchasing behavior,
and videos watching. Companies are analyzing these data and using these them to drive
decisions, a practice called “big data analytics” For example, the online company Zynga, studies
how its audience plays the game and users that the effectively to modify the game.
In a recent work on ‘Interactions with Big Data Analytics’, authors Danyel Fisher and collegaous
review the state of the field by interviewing sixteen pioneering big data analysts. The authors
discuss the definition of big data, contemporary ways of analyzing data and challenges particular
to big data; they also prose a pivotal five-step workflow for analyzing big data.
The authors draw a refreshing parallel to the old-age mainframe computing where analysts
submitted the work to massive system and had to wait for hours to obtain the results. With big
data analytics, argue the authors, the analyses require huge computing power, so scientists must
submit the results to a super-computer and wait the results. End user computers display but do
not process the results. WHAT IMPLICATIONS DOES THIS PARALLLEL HAVE?
ADD MOTE ABOUT; The definition of big data, contemporary ways of analyzing data and
challenges particular to big data.
The authors propose a general five-step approach for big data analytics requiring: data, choosing
the architecture for analyzing the acquired data, fitting the data for the chosen architecture,
coding and debugging and fine tanning. This five-step process is separated as many times as
necessary until meaningful results are obtained. The paper citations that many business users
currently lack many of the skills to perform this workflow. They propose XX to address this skill
gap.
The potential of big data analytics is vast, for example, companies can design more user-friendly
interfaces, enrich customer experience by analyzing the ways customers use the product, and
understand healthcare spending. In harnessing the exploding world of data, we are constrained
only by the limits of our human ability to think creatively.

et.al. talk about interesting developments in the world of analyzing data. Authors define analytics
as a term that refers to any data driven decision. An example of application of analytics is Zynga,
an online games company that studies how its audience plays the game and uses that data
effectively to modify the games.
The paper reports the state of practice by interviewing sixteen pioneering analysts in this
field. The paper discusses about the definition of big data, contemporary ways of analyzing data,
challenges peculiar to big data, and proposes a five step workflow type of an approach to
analyzing big data. In our digital lives (interactions through information technology devices) we
generate huge amounts of data: social relationships, purchasing behavior, watching of videos,
etc. Big Data Analytics aims to construct the big picture from the minutia of our digital lives.
The authors draw a refreshing parallel to the old age mainframe computing where the
work would be submitted to massive systems and the results would be obtained after a period of
time. Big data analytics, argue the authors, is very similar: that it involves hypothesis and needs
huge computing power, that it is often submitted and results are available after a period of time,
and that the end user computers are only used for viewing the results and not for processing.
Pivotal contribution of the paper is the generalization of how big data analytics can be
approached. Acquiring data, choosing the right architecture for analyzing the acquired data,
fitting the data for the chosen architecture, coding and debugging, and fine tuning are the five
steps suggested by the authors. This five step process repeats itself as many times as necessary
until meaningful results are obtained. The paper cautions the skill gap in bringing the right
proportion of scientific flavor in models created by business users.
Of immediate significance, is the potential to apply big data analytics to design more user
friendly interfaces, enrich customer experience by analyzing the ways customer uses the product,
understand healthcare spending, etc. The limitation is only our human ability to think creatively
and harness the exploding world of data.