Chapter 6: Inheritance

● Genetics: The branch of biology which deals with the study of heredity and
variations.
● Inheritance: The process by which characters are transmitted from parents to
offsprings.
● Variations: Living things when reproducing sexually their offspring differ somewhat
from their parents, such differences.
● Heredity: The way by which genes transmit characters from parents to offspring.
● All humans contain two sets of 23 chromosomes. Haploid set (n=23) parental origin
and contributed by sperm. Haploid set (n=23) maternal origin comes from eggs.
● Two chromosomes similar in size, shape, and position of centromere - Homologous
pair of chromosomes
● Chemical material of chromosomes: chromatin
● Deoxyribo nucleoprotein, also called nucleo- protein, is composed of
DNA(DeoxyriboNucleic Acid H3PO4, 40%) and special protein (Histone 60%)
● Eukaryotic chromosomes are composed of chromatin.
● DNA is a double helical structure. It is made up of billions of units called deoxyribo
nucleotides. These nucleotides are made up of deoxy ribo sugar , phosphoric
acid and nitrogenous bases.
● Nucleosome: Section of DNA that is wrapped around a core of protein.
● Super coil: When a number of string nucleosomes wrap up into a high order coil
called a super coil.
● DNA model suggested by Waston and Crick in 1953
● DNA model:
❖ DNA is a double helical structure.
❖ Each helix is a polynucleotide chain which are twisted around each other.
❖ Outer part is called upright (made up of deoxyribose sugar , phosphate );
Inner part is called Rungs ( made up of paired nitrogenous bases).
❖ Both helix in a pair are complementary to each other and held by hydrogen
bonds.
❖ Complementary helixes have complementary bases. i.e Adenine pairs with
thymine and cytosine always pairs with Guanine.
● Gene: It is the small segment of DNA which has information in coded form to
synthesis protein. Basic unit of biology information.
● Mutation: The change in the coded information.
● Variation in genes can give rise to two or more alternative forms of genes. Called
Alleles or Allomorph.
● The process of duplication of DNA is called replication of DNA.
● A gene expresses itself by synthesising a protein. This protein works as an enzyme,
which carries down a chemical reaction to produce a metabolic product.
● In Eukaryotic cells, DNA is located in the nucleus, while most of the metabolism
occurs in cytoplasm. Therefore, DNA requires carriers called RNA ( Ribonucleic
acid). Genetic information flows from DNA to mRNA than to ribo in cytoplasm. It is
two step process: 1. Transcription 2. Translation
● Gregor John Mendel - Father of Genetics,he studied seven traits in pea plants
one by one.
● Pure breed : if an organism is self fertile, the offspring always look exactly like
parents.
● Mendel took gene as a factor : if parents same factor = homozygones for traits; if
diiferent = hybrid or heterozygous
● Dominant factor: The factor which is able to express and mask the expression of
others .
● Recessive factor: The factor which is unable to express and masks the expression
of others .
● Phenotype: physical appearance of a trait on the basis of inherited genes like tall.
● Genotype: Genetic makeup of a trait like Tt, TT.
● Gamete: A gamete is a reproductive cell of an animal or plant. In animals, female
gametes are called ova or egg cells, and male gametes are called sperm. Ova and
sperm are haploid cells, with each cell carrying only one copy of each chromosome.
During fertilisation, a sperm and ovum unite to form a new diploid organism.
● Law of segregation or law of pure gametes: In an organism, the factors (genes)
exist in pairs but during gametes formation these factors segregate clearly from each
other, so each gamete has only one factor of a trait.
● Law of independent assortment: The genes of assorted traits are independent in
their inheritance.
● Multiple alleles: Multiple alleles can be defined as a series of forms of a gene
situated at the same locus of homologous chromosomes. According to Mendel, each
gene had two alternate forms or allele morphs being dominant and the other being
recessive.
❖ The ABO blood system is the first to discover multiple alleles. Karl
Landsteiner in 1901 discovered the ABO blood system.
❖ Explained by Bernstein in 1925. This system is controlled by a polymeric
gene I on chromosomes, contains three alleles e.g IA, IB, i

❖
❖ Rh factor: The Rh factor is an inherited protein that can be found on the
surface of the red blood cell. It has two traits: Rh(dominant) and rh(recessive).
If your blood type is positive, then your blood cells have the Rh protein (Rh
+ve person produced by dominant). If your blood type is negative, then your
blood cells lack the Rh protein (Rh -ve person produced by recessive rh rh).
 ❖ Antigen: Any substance that induces the immune system to produce
antibodies against it is called an antigen.
❖ Antibodies: Antibodies are protective proteins produced by your immune
system. They attach to antigens (foreign substances) — such as bacteria,
fungi, viruses and toxins — and remove them from your body.

❖
❖
● Codominance: Codominance, as it relates to genetics, refers to a type of inheritance
in which two versions (alleles) of the same gene are expressed separately to yield
different traits in an individual.
● Incompetent dominance: Incomplete dominance is a form of Gene interaction in
which both alleles of a gene at a locus are partially expressed, often resulting in an
intermediate or different phenotype. It is also known as partial dominance. For eg., in
roses, the allele for red colour is dominant over the allele for white colour.
● Causes of Variations: 1. Environment variations, 2. Heritable variations
● Types of Variations:
1. Continuous variations: Continuous variation is where the different types of
variations are distributed on a continuum. Small difference. E.g Height, Skin colour,
Intelligence etc.
2. Discontinuous variations: Discontinuous variation is where the different types of
variations are placed into discrete categories. Sharp difference : Six fingers
(heradactyl hand ), tongue rolling, Detached earlobe, attached earlobe
● The theory of Natural selection or Darwanism:
Chapter 7: Man and Environment
Chapter 8: Biotechnology
Chapter 9: Pharmacology
● Pharmacology is the scientific study of the effects of drugs and chemicals on living
organisms where a drug can be broadly defined as any chemical substance, natural
or synthetic, which affects a biological system.
● Pharmacology is a medical science or biological science that deals with the
discovery, chemistry, effects, uses and manufacture of drugs. It is studied under
pharmacy discipline.
● Oswald Schmiedeberg (1838–1921) is generally recognized as the founder of
modern pharmacology.
● Drugs derived from: Plants and Animals
● Categories of drugs - 1. Pharmaceutical drugs 2. Addictive drugs
● Sources of pharmacutical drugs
❖ Plants: roots, seeds, flowers and leaves help to form drugs.They can used
herbs. E.g. Cinchona tree contains Quinine, Opium from opium popy
❖ Animals: from animal parts and products( hormoes, enzymes, bile juice,
animal extractives). E.g Gonadotropoin horome (from horse serum or urine of
pregnant woman )- is sex controlling hormone; Hyaluronidase enzyme
present in leech head, snake venom or mamilia testes.
❖ Microorganizm : E.g. Bacteria - Tetracyline, Fungi- Lovastine
❖ Minerals: some minerals are used to synthesize drugs. E.g Iron for iron
deficinecy; Zinic make zinci oxide toothpaste; Gold salt to treat rheumatiod
arthitis.
❖ Synthetic:
There 200 synthetic drugs compunds and 90 different marijuna drug compund

● Usage of drugs
1. Painkiller – Paracetamol, Panadol, Asprin
2. Antibiotics – fight against bacterial infection; Penicillin, Tetracyline,
Cephalosporin
3. Vaccine — Hepatitis vaccine, Covid -19 vaccine, Rabies vacine
4. Sedtives— helpful in treating anxiety;
● Father of Antiseptic Surgery is Joseph Lister
● Alexdener Flemming discovered Penicillin in 1928
● Antiseptic:
● Addictive drugs
1. Sedatives
2. Narcotics : Heroin , Morphine
3. Hallucinogen: Marijuana
●