‘Advances Tonics in Well Completion De. Mase 1 2 3. HYDRAULIC FRACTURING Fracturing is used in order to break down a producing formation hydraulically with a sand carrying fluid, the sand being used to prop the resulting fracture. Hydraulic fracturing is @ well mechanical stimulation technique aimed to improve the matrix permeability surrounding a wellbore and create deep penetrating fractures that provide high capacity channels for the flow from deep within the producing formation to the wellbore. AA fracture treatment should be used in order to increase the original permeability of the reservoir near the wellbore. The injected fluid is pumped at a rate above the fracture pressure of the reservoir in order to create ‘cracks or fractures within the rock, thus creating new conductive channels through which oll or gas may flow easily to the wellbore. Once he pressure is released after the treatment the induced fracture will tend to close, so a proppant of sand or small beads will normally be mixed with the treating fluid in order to keep the fracture open after the treatments finished. AI Basics of Rock Mechanics Rocks generally obey the same laws of mechanics as other materials such {as metals, but because of discontinuities and inhomogeneities, they are sufficiently different that a relatively new branch of engineering, rock mechanics, has developed. Rock mechanics and the related rock stress condition are important in many areas of oll and gas production operations. Rock mechanics Is the engineering discipline concern with mechanical behavior of rocks. In drilling, penetration rate, lost circulation, abnormal pressures, hole problems and hole eccentricity are related to rock mechanics. In primary ‘cementing, the maximum displacement rate, cement column height and lost circulation are related to rock mechanics. In sand control, formation strength and gravel placement are related to rock mechanics. In hydraulic fracturing, fracture initiation and propagation pressures, fracture geometry (length, width and height), required proppant strength and fracture conductivity are related to rock mechanics. In fracture acidizing and matrix acidizing, rock mechanics play @ similar role, In reservoir engineering, even the basic concepts of porosity and permeability are related to rack mechanics. Part-3: Hydraulic Fureating, a4‘Advanced Tops in Well Completion De Nast Various rock properties and elastic constants can be measured on cores in the laboratory simulating downhole conditions. Downhole logging measurements present an approach to in-situ determination of rock properties. In an ideal relaxed geologic area, rock stress conditions could bbe approximated from simple relations using these measurements. Since earth tectonics also influence in-situ stress conditions, simple calculations per se are usually insufficient to fully characterize actual stress conditions. ‘Actual rack stress conditions can be determined more directly by step-rate ‘or flow back measurements during hydraulic fracturing or other well treatments Involving pressures in excess of the fracture pressure. The following discussion defines some rock mechanics parameters and the relations between them, and briefly describes how they can be determined, 3.2. Mechanical Properties of Rocks (Siiimititlé) inmRoDuCE THE THO TYPES OF THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF ROCKS NEED TO BE EOITTED A) STATIC USING AMLAL ROCK TESSTING 8) DYNAMIC USING ACCOUSTIC ROCK MEASUREMNENT Rocks are inhomogeneous composite materials containing different crystals. Discontinuities and micro-cracks are randomly oriented ‘throughout this material. Since rocks have a very low tensile strength and since they are normally under compressive stresses in the earth, most ‘measurements of rock properties are made by applying compressive loads. ‘As compressive load Is applied to a rock, the micro-cracks, particularly those that are perpendicular to the load, begin to close. Much of this intial strain Is not related to the deformation of the crystals themselves. Rock Strength a ) Rock strength can be specified in terms of tensile strength, compressive strength, shear strength or impact strength. In the context of fracture gradient, only the tensile strength of rock is of importance. The tensile Strength of rock is defined as the pulling force required to rupture a rock sample divided by the sample's cross-sectional area. The compressive strength of rocks can be anywhere from one to two orders of magnitude greater than their tensile strenath, The tensile strength of rock Is very small ond is of the order of 0.1 of the compressive strength. Thus, a rock is mare likely to fail in tension than in compression. The solution of most rack mechanics problems usually begins with a mathematical treatment of the problem. Like all other branches of engineering, these solutions are generally based on certain assumptions. Part-3: Hydraulic Furcating, 32“Topics in br. M. Nase In rock mechanics, it Is usually assumed that rocks are Isotropic, homogeneous and elastic. The definitions of these terms follow: ‘+ Elasticity: If the deformations produced in a body by external forces completely disappear by the removal of the forces, then the material Is considered to be perfectly elastic. ‘+ Homogeneous: A material is homogeneous if the smallest element of it has the same physical properties as the body itself. + Isotropic: If the elastic properties of a body do not change with direction, then the body is isotropic. + Stress: Stress is an applied external force on a solid body that causes internal resulting forces to exist within the body whose resultant force will be equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the applied force. A stress could be tension if it tends to elongate the subjected body or compression if it tends to contract the subjected body. ty where; 5 = Stress, F = Applied force, and A= Cross sectional area Part-3: Hydraulic Fureating, 33‘Advanced Topics in Well Completion ra t.Nase A stress Is called normal (©) if it the fractured area is perpendicular (aormal) to the direction of the applied force. A stress is called sheer stress (©) ifthe fractured area Is parallel to the direction of the applied force. + Strain: Is the resultant deformation of a body, as a function of its original dimensions, caused by an applied force (stress). TensileStrain= bo . AL Gob (3-2) Where; Le = Original length, L Elongated length, and AL = The longitudinal strain, Figure (31): Mustrates the longitudinal stain due to elongation of steel bar Figures (3-1) shows a bar whose natural length is Lo and which elongates to a length L when equal and opposite pulls is exerted at its ends. Figure (3-2) illustrates the direction of the applied stress on a steel bar with the corresponding axial and lateral strains. Strain is aslo defined as the compression (positive) or extension (negative) resulting from the application of external forces, divided by the original dimension, Poisson's Ratio: Compressive stress applied to a block of material along a particular axis causes it to shorten along that axis but also to expand in all directions perpendicular to that axis as illustrated in Figure (3-10). The Poisson's ratio, v, [s @ measure of how much a material will deform in a direction Part-3: Hydraulic Fureating. 34‘Advanced! Topics in Well Completion nM Na Perpendicular to the direction of the applied force, parallel to the plane on hich the stress induced by the strain is acting raaal Figure (3-10): Mlustrates the Poisson's ratio measurement of sold body ‘The ratio of the strain perpendicular to the applied stress, to strain along the axis of applied stress, is termed Poisson's ratlo ( V ). The Poissons ratio is also defined as the ratio of the absolute value of strain in the lateral direction to the strain in the axial direction. Port-3: Hydraulle Fureating 35‘Advanced Topics in Well Completion —_ Dr. M, Nase ~ seca Sti nf) ‘Axial Strain in /in Gai ‘A material that under stress deforms laterally as much as it does axially would have a Poisson's ratio of 0.5; A material that does not deform laterally under axial load would have a Poisson's ratio of 0.9. Mild steel has a Polsson’s ratio of about 0.3. In general, limestone, sandstone, shale and salt, exhibit Poisson's ratios of approximately 0.15, 0.25, 0.4 and 0.5 respectively. Figure (3-10) ilustrates the Poisson's ratio measurement of solid body. The Poisson’s ratio Is defined as: vy =~ Sra Eaxil (3-24) The Poisson's aio cnlfeimated frm soni og readings os 2L ate (3) i where; ate ats ‘Sonic compressional wave transit time, (sec), Sonic shear wave transit time, (usec). Axial Strain Later strain Figure (3-2): Lateral strain vs. axial strain in a body Port-3: Hydraulic Furcatng 36‘Advanced Topics in Well Completion —_____De.M. Nasr ‘Young's Modulus (Modulus of Elasticity) ‘The amount of strain caused by a given stress is a function of the stiffness of a material. Young’s modulus also is @ measure of how much a material will elastically deform under a load. Young's modulus is the amount of stress required to deform a sample a certain amount. It is also an indication Of the stiffness (hardness) of a rock. Stiffness can be represented by the slope of the axial stress-strain plot and Is termed the Young's modulus (E). E Is defined as the young’s modulus or the modulus of elasticity or elastic model and iti represented by the following equation: ste “stress Compressiv € Ste38 |ID/I0? | yy jig? Tensile Strain ” Compressiv e Strain | in in FIA ats (35) ry 7) Materials with high young’s modulus (e.g., glass, tungsten carbide, diamond, and granite) to be very hard and brittle (susceptible to brittle fracture). Conversely, materials with a low Young's modulus (e.g., rubber, polystyrene foam and wax) tend to be soft and ductile (resistant to brittle fracture). The young’s modulus plays an important role In hydraulic fracturing design; it governs how wide a fracture will open when subjected to a given downhole pressure. The width and the length of the fracture is dependent on the stiffness (hardness) of the rock, and the Young’s modulus is a measure of this property. For mild steel, the Young's modulus or ‘modulus of elasticity is 30x 10° psi. For rock, E values range from 0.5% 10° to 1210° psi. Common values for average young’s modulus for different rock hardness are illustrated in Table (3.1). ‘Two types of Young's modulus: 1) Static Young's modulus: This type of young’s modulus is called the static Young's ‘modulus and itis applicable to hydraulic fracturing. The 2) Dynamic Young’s modulus This is the rock property measured by special sonic logging tools. Plain Strain Modulus, E'_ Part-3: Hydraulic Furceting, a7r Jstion De. M Nase In hydraulic fracturing, the strain in the direction perpendicular to the fracture plane (i.e., the direction in which fracture width is produced) is effectively zero. This is because in this situation the denominator in the axial strain equation (the axis parallel to the applied force creating the fracture) Is so large that the strain is effectively is zero, even though there has been measurable material deformation. The plain strain modulus implies that strain only exists in a direction perpendicular to the direction in which the strain Is zero. To account for this anomaly, fracture models use the plane strain modulus, E, to calculate the fracture width. The plain strain modulus is a measure of how rocks deform laterally along their horizontal or vertical planes with an applied horizontal stress. ‘The plain strain “Tt can be defined as follows: € e oF) ea) ‘Shear Modulus (Modulus of Rigidity) ‘The shear modulus is similar to Young's modulus, except that t refers to the material being in shear than in compression or tension. It defines how much energy is required to elastically deform a material in shear. Shear stress applied to a particular plane surface in a block of material causes that plane to move with respect to a second parallel plane some perpendicular distance away as shown in Figure (3-6). Figure (2:6): Change in shape of a body in shear Part-3: Hyrule Fureating 38Figure (3-7) shows the resultant shear deformation which causes change in shape of a body. The ratio of the applied shear stress to the resulting langle of deformation is a measure of the rigidity of the material. This ratio is termed the shear modulus or modulus of rigidity (G). For a fluid, G for a solid, G Is a finite number. The ratio of a shearing stress to the corresponding shearing strain is called the shear modulus of a material and will be represented by G. It is also called modulus of rigidity or the torsion modulus. ‘Advanced Topics in Well Comaletion De. Ma Nast The shear stress is given by: pin’ Where Fs force applied on the body ‘A = the area of the block of material parallel to the line of action of the applied force (this is the plane along which the shear stress acts) and is equal to a x b. Shearing Strain (r)= K=tan§ = 4 (3-3) where 9% The deformation or fracture angle. shearing Sires reo arsress_ vat [eet Meee © | radian| Deformatio in Radius (3-9) Part-3: Hydraulic Fureating 39‘The shear modulus (G) can also be determined from sonic log reading by the following equation: c-424-s0%/ 8) ate (10) Where; G = The shearing modulus, (psi), > = Bulk density read from density log (figure 3-8), (gmyec) Ats = Shear sonic wave transmit time log (figure 3-9),(u sec) ‘The shear modulus is related to the Young's modulus, (E) as follows: E=2G6(1+¥) G1) (3-12) It is another elastic constant, which defines how much energy Is required to deform a material by the application of external pressure. This is special form of compressive stress, in which the applied compressive stress is equal inall directions. Imagine a block of material, which originally has a pressure PA, applied to it and has a volume VI. This pressure Is increased to P2, which causes the volume to decrease to V2, as illustrated in figure... The Increase in bulk stress is the same as the increase in pressure, P2-P1. The bulk strain is equal to the change in volume, V2-V1, divided by the original volume Vi. Compressive load applied on all sides of a block of material, as occurs in a hydrostatic condition, causes a reduction in total bulk volume. The ratio of, stress applied (force per unit surface area) to the change in volume per Unit of original volume is termed the bulk modulus (Ke). art-3: Hydraulle Furcating, 310‘Advanced Topics in Well Completion eM. Nast % Force/ Surfacearea ThangenVolume/OriginalVolume in in? iy -(| FA Vaviy, J eo ) 2 We W/V ‘The modulus relating an increase in hydrostatic pressure to the corresponding fractional decrease in volume is called the bulk modulus and it is represented by (Ks). ap Ke = SAVING (3-15) a oe ‘The minus sign is introduced into the equation because the term V2-V1 will always be of the opposite sign to the term P2-Py. The bulk modulus is therefore is a measure of how much energy it takes to compress a material using external applied pressure. Figure (36): Change in shape ofa body due to change in volume from Vi to V2 as pressure increases from P1 to P2 in shear. Part-3: Hydraulic Furcating, BatAdvanced Topics in Well Complati eM. Nase The Bulk Modulus elated to the Young's Modulus by te fllowing equation: Ky 3(L-2) ‘The bulk modulus can also be calculated using the sonic log data as deserived in the followingyequation: Ken Py 2 4 santo! eee (3-16) "© = Bulk modulus, (psi), Ate = Sonic compressional wave transit time, (H 5€c), Gs = Sonic shear wave transit time, (usec), and = Bulk density read from density log, (gm/cc). Rock bulk compressibility ‘The reciprocal of the bulk modulus is called the rock bulk compressibility with porosity, (Cs). i Aw ong --(Ptt] cs ee ee 17) Fee i 34x10 = 8 (3-18) Where; >= Rock bulk compressibility, (psi). Port-3: Hydraulic Furcating 32‘Advanced Topics in Well Completion rm, Rock grain compressibility ‘The ratio (AV/Vs) Is the fractional change in volume. Hence the compressibility of a substance is defined as its fractional change in volume per unit increase in pressure. The rock grain compressibility with zero Porosity can be defined as: , - Changein Matrix Volume Hydrostati Pressure a Volume strain= “Y Vo (3-4) Where; Ve = Original volume, and AV. = Volume change ‘The rock grain compressibility with zBro porosity Is calculated from the following equation’ a7 | eae 1.3410! the 38 pes Where; © = Rock grain compressibility, (psi), ‘m2__ Matrix compressional sonic wave transit time, (H sec), ‘Atsma___ Matrix shears sonic wave transit time, (\1 sec). Part-3: Hydraulic Furcating, 343“Topics in Well Completion Dra Nase Figure (3-8): Illustrates the density log reading versus depth. Part-3: Hydraulic Furcating.adv ‘in Welt Figure (3-9): Shows the compressional and the shear sonic transit wave time for a typical reservoir rock, Part-3: Hydraulic Furcating, 345‘Advanced Topics in Well Completion Pore Elasticity Constant To account for the anisotropically of the stressed formations Blot (1941) proposed a correlation factor (%), which is termed as the poroelastic Constant or the Biot elastic constant, in order to account for the shalinesss of the rock because the cementation existing between the grains prevented the full magnitude of the pore pressure from counteracting the applied load. ‘This constant can be thought of as the efficiency with which the pore pressure counteracts the total applied stress (overburden).The poroelasticity (“) should be considered in fracture mechanics calculations and it is defined as follows: “a 1____Bulk Modulusof Dry Rock Bulk Modulusof SkeletonMaterial (3.21) where (t= #9), ang; G aa1-& & (3-22) Use of this model is reasonable for low porosity, low permeability sandstones, shales and carbonates. Parameter approaches the greater limit for a compliant rock and less for a stiff low-porosity rock. Typically, for petroleum reservoirs, (“) is about 0.7, but its value changes over the life ‘of the reservoir. The poroelastic constant (“) is a scalar only for isotropic ‘materials. It is a tensor in anisotropic rocks. Another Important poroelastic, parameter Is the poroelastic stress coefficient ("! ), defined as: (0-29) x -v), ‘The poroelastic stress coefficient describes the in-situ stress change caused by injection and or production. Young's modulus ang Poisson’s ratio are functions of the rock’s naraness and elasticity and are used in the fracture hardness. These two elastic rock properties are usually determined by a compressive strength measurement in the laboratory in which loads and deformations are measured. However, the properties are sometimes deduced from sonic log determinations. ‘Common values for Poisson’s ratio and Young's modulus for different rock compressive strength are presented in Table (3.1). Part-3: Hydraulle Furcating, 316‘Advanced Topics in Well Completion Dr. M, Nase Table (3-1): Variation of Young's Modulus and Poisson's Ratio with Rock Type Rock TYPE Young's Modulus (10" psi) | _Poisson’s Ratio Limestone 5-15 03-035 | Uneonsolidated Sandstone 02-13 0.25 - 0.35 Consolidated Sandstone 1-3 0.15 - 0.30 Sitstone a5 0.20-0.30 ~ Shale is 025-045 Coal 01-10 035-045 Figure (3-11); illustrates the relationship between the sonic transit travel time and the young’s modulus for some sedimentary rocks. 5 3 5 ' : Figure (3-11): Acoustic time ~Young’s modulus chart Part-3: Hydraulic Fureating- 247‘Advanced Topics in Well Completion Dra. Nase Determination of rock static and dynamic mechanical properties ‘The mechanical static rock properties are determined from laboratory measurements where the rock dynamic mechanical properties are determined from either laboratory or log measurements. In the static measurements a static load Is applied to the rock and the resultant deformation is observed where in the dynamic measurement a sound wave |s propagated through a rock sample in the laboratory or it is propagated through the well bore during log measurements. 1. LABORATORY MEASUREMENTS: A. Laboratory testing for the measurements of rock static elastic properties: The laboratory tests of the static elastic rock properties are composed of: 1) Uniaxial (unconfined compression) test 2) Triaxial (confined compression) test 3) Hydrostatic (confined compression) test These two test are the most useful tests in the study of mechanical properties of rocks. The difference between the two tests resides in the presence or absence of confining pressure applied to the specimen. 1) Uniaxial compression test; the brine saturated rock is inserted into the load frame and it Is subjected to a compression force in either direction and the axial load is increased with zero confining pressure. All unconfined compression tests were performed at room temperature with pore pressure inside the rack sample drained to the atmosphere. The axial stress and the axial and radial deformations of the rock specimen are monitored. The following rock mechanical properties are obtained from the test: a) The unconfined compressive strength Co (also termed uniaxial compressive strenath) as the peak stress. b) Young's modulus E (Lanyeritial modulus as the slope of the axial stress vs. axial strain curve). ©) Poisson’s ratio v as the ratio between radial and axial strains. Most rocks exhibit britle failure in unconfined failure tests, so it is straightforward to identify Co. the stress strain curve is, however, quite often nonlinear, which means the E and v depend on the axial Part-3: HydrauileFurcatng 318‘Advanced Topics in Well Completion ra Nas stress level. It is common to specify the values of E and v at 50 % of the peak stress. 2) Triaxial compression test; it is also called the multistage triaxial compression test, during the tri-axial testing, a constant pore pressure can be maintained inside the specimen; this is known as an Undrained test. In contrast, if the pore pressure is exposed to the atmosphere, the gauge pore pressure will be zero and the test will be called as drained. Regardless of what test condition is used, the principal effective stresses (i.e. 10’ and 30') will be used for the fallure analysis. In a standard triaxial test a plug, normally 1.5°%3” (diameter x length), Is mounted in a triaxial cell as shown in Figure 1. The sample is loaded hydrostatically up to a predetermined confining stress, at which time the cell pressure is kept constant, while the axial stress is increased until failure. The stress increase can elther be done using a constant load Increment or 2 constant deformation increment versus time. The triaxial test is usually performed by increasing the axial and confining loads simultaneously, Until a prescribed hydrostatic stress (confining pressure, horizontal ‘minimum stress) is level reached. Then, the confining pressure is, kept constant while the axial load is increased until failure occurs. The axial loading is normally applied such that it gives a constant axial deformation. The following same rock properties as in the uniaxial testing are obtained from the triaxial testing except that in this case the rock sample is subjected to different stages of confining pressures, and it Is therefore the following rock mechanical properties are obtained from the test: a) Young's modulus E (tangential modulus as the slope of the axial stress vs. axial strain curve). b) Poisson's ratio v as the ratio between radial and axial strains. 3) Hydrostatic test; the test can be performed under drained or undrained conditions. In drained experiments the fluid pore pressure is kept constant during the test (this case resembles the initial undepleted reservoir), where in the underained experiments the pore pressure inside the rock sample changes during the test (this case resembles the depletion of the reservoir). The difference between the Part-3: Hydraulic Fureating 349)‘Advanced Topics in Well Completion ei, Nast hydrostatic test and the triaxial test Is that the pore pressure is pressured to the reservoir pressure where in the triaxial test the pore Pressure is kept constant at atmospheric pressure, The following rock mechanical properties are obtained from the test: a) The rock grain modulus; it is determined from the drained hydromantic experiment, and the slope of the axial stress versus the volumetric strain curve Is the rock grain modulus. bb) The rock bulk modulus; it is determined from the undrained hydrostatic experiment, and the slope of the axial stress versus the volumetric strain is the rock bulk modulus. ©) The rock grain (matrix) modulus or as itis called the solid particles modulus; it is determined from the hydrostatic test when the pore pressure inside the rock sample equals the confining pressure. It is calculated as the slope of the axial stress versus volumetric strain curve. The reciprocal of the rock grain modulus (1/rock grain modulus) Is the rock grain ‘or matrix compressibility Smelt ure 1p el cl ton te mgartont phere sea ovotng maclanmenf ores Netshow Be ‘otc meoar ae ona ub Mudd pat of ee Part-3: Hydraulic Furcating 3-20‘Advanced Topics In Well Completion eM. Nast 33. Stress-Strain Relations (title) Hooke’s Law When a body Is subjected to a specific stress, it will undergo a specific strain. If the body returns to its original dimension upon removal of the stress, the action is said to be elastic. However, if upon the removal of the stress the body does not return to Its original dimensions, and there is a residual strain, the action Is said to be inelastic (plastic). In this case the ‘material will start to plastically deform. Rocks tend not to plastically deform very much instead they pass from elastic deformation to brittle (fracture). ‘The mathematical relationship between stress and strain is described by the theory of elasticity which assumes one to one correspondence between stress and strain (and consequently, that the behavior is reversible). Because this Is usually the assumed case in hydraulic fracturing, most of the simulation models use the theory of elasticity. Other theories such as the theory of plasticity are particularly useful for predicting the stress concentration around a wellbore or the behavior of soft formation during reservoir depletion. ‘The theory of elasticity is formulated mathematically by Hooks law which describes the directly proportional between stress and strain. Figure (3-5) show a typical stress-strain body deformation for a rock showing the deformation angle in the three directions. The relationship between stress ‘and the strain can be represented by the following equation: o=Ee (3-5) Where; 6 Stress, 5 Strain, and ‘A = Constant of proportionality. Port-3: Hydraulic Furcating 321vanced Topics In Well Completion ra Nasr gure (3-5): tutte the stress versus strain mocks Young's Modulus (£) = 2 ; and Poisson's Ratio (V) = <9. Note: Several important concepts are defined in the figure: Elastic region: If the stress Is relieved, the specimen will return to its original state. Yield point: The point beyond which permanent changes will occur. ‘The sample will not return to its original state upon stress rellef. Uniaxial compressive strength: the peak stress Ductile region: A region in which the sample undergoes permanent deformation without losing the ability to support load. Brittle: ‘A region in which the specimen ability to withstand stress decreases rapidly as deformation is increased. | Port-3: Hydraulic Furating, 322Figure Principle sketch of stress versus deformation in a uniaxial compression test. In triaxial test, one usually plots the difference between the principal stresses versus axial deformation for various confining pressures, as Indicated in figure below. 6-93} confing presse a Figure: Tiss testing typical influence ofthe confining pressure on the shape of he eiferentil tres (ail stressminus confining pesse)principle ‘Sketoch of stress versus deformaion ‘As it can be seen from the confining pressure curves in the figure, the failure ability of the specimen to rupture increases as the confining pressure Increases. It ie therefore difficult to predict precizely when the specimen will fail under compressive load. Tt can be understood that the confining pressure delays the failure action as its value increased. In both curves (uniaxial and triaxial) post failure behavior exhibits 2 considerable variation and in the case of triaxial test the failure behavior Increases due to increased confining pressure. It is therefore difficult to precisely determine the axial stress that creates the rock failure because at point the rock could fail in shear before it breaks in either tension or compression. Port-3: Hydraulic Fureating 323‘Advanced Topics in Well Completion _ a ‘The stress strain relationship (curve) whether itis constructed from either Uniaxial or triaxial tests cannot be used alone to precisely predict the failure point of the specimen. This is because it describes the failure process of the Fock in the axial direction only (normal to the horizontal plane of the rock) and since rock fracture in shear faster than in tension or compression, it is therefore necessary to determine the shear forces that make the rock to fracture in shear rather than tension or compression. The method to determine the shear stress that causes failure to the rock specimen from the measured rock triaxial stresses («1,02/03) Is the Mohr circle, 34. Regional Rock Stresses (In Situ Principal Stresses) ‘Subsurface rocks are normally in a state of compressive stress due to the weight of the overburden. This overburden weight creates stresses in both the vertical and horizontal directions. Sedimentary rocks have little inherent tensile strength, rather are held together by compressive stresses. A fracture is extended when sufficient differential hydraulic pressure Is applied to overcome these compressive stresses. ‘At any point below the earth’s surface, three mutually perpendicular stresses exist as shown in Figure (3-12). Rocks are fractured when the applied forces are greater than the underground stresses, The stresses that are exerted on a subsurface formation can be represented by components, in three directions. Vetical or Overburden Oy ‘nk oso Gi, Maximum Horizantal “A \tinumom Horizont Figure (3-12): Stress components and preferred plane of fracture and the direction of the stresses on a rock body. Port-3: Hydraulic Furcating, 324Advanced Taps in Well Completion r.M, Nase ‘The maximum principal stress, (°V), is normally vertical and Is equal to the overburden stress In vertical holes. The intermediate and minimum total principal stresses (PH andh, respectively) are horizontal and directly influence the fracturing of rock. These forces that act on the rocks are shown in Figure (3-12). In theory, the flud pressure required to rupture ‘a borehole should be greater than or equal to the minimum principal stress. However, the creation of @ borehole within the earth's surface produces @ magnification of stresses around the borehole wall such that the resulting stresses are several times larger than the least principal stress. Rocks buried deep in the ground are subjected to high stresses. These usually differ in different directions since they originate from many different sources. For instance, the vertical stress at a particular depth will be due, essentially, to the weight of overlying formations. Hence, this is also known {as the overburden stress. The effect of this overburden stress will tend to ‘spread or expand the underlying rocks in the horizontal lateral directions ((.e. due to the Poisson effect). However, as outlined earlier, this tendency for lateral movement will be restrained by the presence of adjacent material, and therefore horizontal lateral stresses which confine the rock will result. Regional tectonic stresses, such as might cause earthquakes or mountain- building, contribute further to these horizontal stresses. Temperature Increases or reductions lead to thermal expansion or contraction, the ‘effects of which also contribute to the stresses in the ground. The result is that, In the undisturbed state before any engineering activity, the state of stress in the rock (termed the far field stresses, the in situ stresses or the virgin stresses) will generally be compressive and can be simplified and ‘approximated to: * Vertical total overburden stress, (°V) + Maximum total horizontal stress, (TH ) + Minimum total horizontal stress, (°n) @ The vertical or overburden stress (°V), which has the greatest magnitude and is therefore known as the maximum in situ stress, Port-3: Hydraulic Furcatng 3.25‘Advanced Topics in Well Completion De. Mase a The maximum horizontal stress (TH), which has a lower magnitude ‘and is termed the Intermediate in situ stress and which is aligned in the general direction (NW-SE), and a The minimum horizontal stress (Ch), which has the lowest magnitude and is thus known as the minimum in situ stress and which is aligned at right angles to (TH). Of course, local stresses may be modified by the presence of faults, or by the intrusion of salt domes into shallower formations. Also, in some formations, tendency for the rock to creep or flow over geological time periods (i.e. salt or soft mud rocks) can result in the horizontal stresses ‘equilibrating towards the magnitude of the overburden stress, such that all the stresses become equal and are isotropic. Also, as will be explained later, any reduction of fluid pressure throughout a reservoir can lead to changes in the magnitudes of the horizontal in situ stresses acting through the reservoir rock. Again, as most importantly, It should be remembered that stresses acting in different directions act lependently (i.e. they are tensor quantities) and as such they cannot be added together or resolved to obtain a single equivalent vale (l.e. as one ‘can do with vector quantities). Effective stress 35. Vertical Stress (Overburden Stress), (ov) Overburden stress (TV) is defined as the stress arising from the weight of rock overlying the zane under consideration. In geologically relaxed areas having little tectonic activity, the overburden gradient (=stress/depth) is taken as 1.0 psifft. In tectonically active areas, as in sedimentary basins which are still undergoing compaction or in highly faulted areas, the overburden gradient varies with depth, and an average value of 0.8 psi/ft is normally taken as being representative of the overburden gradient. In general, the overburden gradient varies from field to field and increases with depth, owing to rock compaction. For a given field, accurate values of overburden gradient can be obtained by averaging density logs from Part-3: Hydraulic Furcatna 3.26‘Advanced Topics in Well Completion or. Nase several wells drilled in the area. The density-depth graph can be converted to1an overburden gragient-depth graph by the use of the relation: overburden stress-[* Ba Gee 4° eptm) Density to Gravity (3-26) ‘The overburden vertical stress can also be represented by the following the equation and it can be calculated from an integration of the density log: aya 50 (3-27) If an average formation density is used the overburden stress is calculated from the following equation: 433.) "nya (3-28) Where; Sy = Vertical compressive tress, (ps!), Me __ average rock bulk density read from density log, (am/cc), 9 = Acceleration due to gravity, and D = Depth, (ft). Rock densities vary from 125 to 200 Ib/ft?; 144 lb/ft? is @ reasonable average and are the basis for the rule of thumb that the total vertical stress due to the overburden Is 1.0 psi/ft. 36 Formation Pore Pressure, (PP) Formation pore pressure ic defined as the pressure exerted by the formation fluids on the walls of the rock pores. The pore pressure supports part of the weight of the overburden, while the other part is supported by the grains of the rock. The terms pore pressure; formation pressure and fluld pressure are synonymous, referring to formation pore pressure). Formations are classified according to the magnitude of their pore pressure gradients. In general, two types of formation pressure are recognized: Part-3: Hydraulic Fureating, 327‘Advanced Topics in Well Completion rN 1) Normal pore pressure (or hydropressure). A formation is said to be normally pressured when its pore pressure is equal to the hydrostatic pressure of a full column of formation water. Normal pore pressure is usually of the order of (0.433 - 0.465 psi/ft) depending on the water salinity. 2) Abnormal formation pressure (or geopressure). This type exists in zones which are not in direct communication with its adjacent strata. ‘The boundaries of the abnormally pressured zone are impermeable, preventing fluid communication and making the trapped fluid support 2 larger proportion of the overburden stress. ‘The maximum value of abnormal formation pressure is (1 psi/ft) for tectonically relaxed areas and (0.8 psi/ft) for active areas. Exceptions to theses values were found in certain parts of Tran and Russia in which the abnormal formation pressure is in excess of the overburden gradient. Formation pressures (normal and abnormal) can be detected by ‘geophysical and logging methods. Geophysical methods provide prediction cf formation pressure before the well is drilled, while logging methods provide information after the well or section of well has been drilled. Logging tools are run on a wire line inside the well. They Include electrical, sonic, neutron, bulk density and lithology logs. In porous formations, the overburden stress, oy, is supported jointly by the rock matrix stress og and the formation pore pressure, Pe. Thus, lesa (3-36) where; oa Matrix stress or grain to grain stress, (psi), and & Formation pore pressure, (psi). 37 Pore Pressure and Effective stress Pore fluids in the reservoir rack play an important role because they support ‘a portion of the total applied stress. Hence, only a portion of the total stress, namely the effective stress component, is carried by the rock matrix. In addition, the presence of a freely moving fluid in a porous rock introduces a time-dependent character to the mechanical response of a rock. The rock Port-3: HydraulleFureating 328‘Advanced Topics in Well Completion Nas will react differently, depending on whether the rate of loading Is slow or fast compared to the characteristic time that governs the process of pore~ pressure diffusion (itself governed by the rock deformation) (Detournay et al,, 1986). In other words, to rigorously take into account the effects of the presence of the pore pressure, one needs to introduce and differentiate between drained and undrained properties. ‘The vertical matrix compressive stress Is reduced where the formation has Porosity and contains fluid. Part of the overburden load is supported by the pressured fluid (Figure 3-13). Effective vertical compressive strass in the rock matrix as proposed by Terzaghi (1923), °V: y=oy— (3-37) Where; OV = effective vertical compressive stress, (psi), ©V = Total vertical compressive stress, (psi), and "= Formation pore pressure, (psi). ‘As this equation Indicates, vertical matrix stress Is Influenced by pore pressure, Matrix stress Is increased by declining reservoir pressures. ‘Abnormal pressures reduce matrix stress-thus measurement of shale density (or something related) is a useful indicator of abnormal formation pressure zones in drilling operations because the higher pore pressure reduces shale compaction. Similarly the effective minimum or maximum horizontal stresses are also influenced by the pore pressure and the effective minimum horizontal stress equation can be written as follows: oh= cn —Fe (3-38) Where: oh Effective horizontal compressive stress, (psi), Sv = Total horizontal compressive stress, (psi), and Fb = Formation pore pressure, (ps) Part-3: Hydraulic Furcating 329‘Advanced Topics in Well Completion ra Nast 38 Horizontal Compressive Stresses In the Rock h ‘The horizontal compressive stresses Th and°H, which are induced when the vertical compressive stress (overburden) °V is applied, try to prevent the lateral expansion of the rock therefore, the horizontal strain Sh and FH equal to zero. If we consider a rock body as illustrated in Figure (3-12) stretched by a uniformly distributed normal stress “h, the resultant normal horizontal strains in the three principal directions in the absence of pore pressure are expressed according to Hooke’s law. The normal strains in the minimum and the maximum horizontal effective stresses and also the normal strain in the vertical stress direction can be expressed as follows: ey = vth nia ‘The contraction in the in the minimum horizontal stress direction will cause the material to expand in the maximum horizontal stress direction and the vertical stress direction. The negative sign associated with Poisson's ratio Is because expansion to be negative is considered to be negative by Convention. Now suppase this rock body is simultaneously subjected to CH , then similar to the above equations we will have: ot ‘Again now suppose this rock body Is also subjected simultaneously to °V then similar to the above equations we will have: sy =- ve a ‘Adding the three components of (°h), (4) and (FV) from the above equations, we obtain: Part-3: Hydraulic Furcatng. 3530‘Advanced Topics in Well Completion Na ae (3-29) a Pecceewe cae (3-30) oy =e Sy th a e e (3-31) ‘The strain equations after rearrangements can be written as follows: 1[o;,-v(ousov)] * @-32) ifs ie wu eblea-rewon] i eee ey =Bloy-v(oneou)] a For rocks in compression, the horizontal effective stresses will be equal ( ‘Sh = OH) ifthe tectonic forces are absent from the formation. Therefore it Is the same forces that cause faulting and folding that determine fracture direction, If we assume a formation layer to be homogeneous, isotropic, and linearly elastic then the adjacent sections of this body will tend to expand an equal distance laterally under a certain overburden stress. Therefore, their net interaction will be zero lateral displacement and therefore the strains in the horizontal plane are equal and they are ‘essentially equal to zero, thus, *="H = 0, Substitution the value of zero for ® or ® in either of the previous horizontal strain equations yields the following horizontal effective matrix stress equation: Insert derivation (eas) Young's modulus, (psi), Poisson's ratio, Principal minimum horizontal effective matrix stress, (si), | art-3: Hydraulic Furcating, 331‘Advanced Topics in Well Completion. oe. Nast O14 __ Principal maximum horizontal effective matrix. stress, (psi, OV = Principal vertical effective stress direction, (psi), Principal strain in the minimum horizontal matrix stress direction, %4 = Principal strain in the maximum horizontal matrix stress direction, and v= principal strain in the vertical stress direction, It Is assumed that in a tectonically inactive area and where rocks act as elastic materials, horizontal matrix stress is about one-third to one-half the vertical stress depending on the Poisson's ratio of the particular rock. With 2 value of Poisson's ratio for adjacent zones, it should be possible to predict ‘which zone would fracture preferentially. In soft shales or unconsolidated sands, horizontal matrix stress should be relatively higher. Rigid materials, such as dolomite or limestone should fracture at lower pressures. In salt zones where Poisson's ratio may be 0.5, horizontal matrix stress may be equal to vertical matrix stress, thus high fracture pressures~and perhaps horizontal fractures should result. Over geologic time, relaxation oF creep may affect horizontal rock stress causing it to be greater than would be calculated from elastic theory. This is particularly true in the cases of shales. ‘The horizontal compressive stress equation including the effect of the pore pressure 8 obtained after substitution of the effective vertical and horizontal stress equations into the above horizontal vertical stress Felationship (ea. 3.35) and the resulting minimum horizontal stress equation after rearrangement becomes: 4-8 -(7o)ta-m J (3-39) Orcminy= |g, (ov -Fb) + Fo GZ) a In permeable rocks, pore pressure Is a dynamic parameter influenced by production, injection or leakoff from the fracture during a fracturing job. Pore pressure also affects horizontal matrix stress, since, as was previously shown, pore pressure affects vertical matrix stress and horizontal matrix stress is a function of vertical matrix stress. The above equation can be Por-3: Hydraulle Fureating. 332Advanced T 2 Dr. M.Nasr written to include the Biot constant (%) in order to account for the anisotropically of the stressed formations, the minimum horizontal stress ‘htmin)after rearrangement of the equation becomes: (ole -araeon rien , (at) Where; % = Poroelastic constant, range (0.75 ~ 1.0) ‘The above equation is known as the Terzaghi fracture model and it is used to calculate the minimum horizontal stress in the rock. ‘The tectonic forces resulting from large crustal movements introduce an additional directional component which can be vectorially added to the stress components already described. The influence of such tectonic forces leads to a condition where the two horizontal stress components are Unequal. This tectonic regime also contributes to the sharp contrast in stresses experienced between adjacent lithologies. If the above case exists, the maximum horizontal stress, %(™"), can be calculated from the following: +A Oct Hina = Thin (3-42) In a tectonically inactive area and where rocks act as elastic materials, horizontal matrix stress is about one-third to one-half the vertical stress depending on the Poisson’s ratio of the particular rock. With a value of Poisson's ratio for adjacent zones, it should be possible to predict which h zone would fracture preferentially. In soft shales or unconsolidated sands, horizontal matrix stress should be relatively higher. Rigid materials, such {as dolomite or limestone should fracture at lower pressures. Failure criteria and yielding Under conditions of uniaxial (one dimensional) loading, material failure is simple. The material elastically deforms until a yield stress occurs, and then plastically deforms until the material fails. The point at which the strain changes from elastic to plastic Is referred to as the yield point or the yield stress. The maximum stress the material can withstand under plastic loading is often called the ultimate tensile (or compressive) stress or strength. For brittle materials such as most rocks, plastic deformation Pert-3: Hydraulic Furceting, 333‘Advanced Topics in Wall Completia De. M. Nase under uniaxial loading Is almost nonexistent. The material (rocks) will, for all practical purposes, deform elastically and fail without passing by the state of plastic deformation ((.e. the yield stress = ultimate tensile stress). It must also be recognized that under triaxial compressive loading, failure ‘occurs by shearing, not by conventional tension or compression. This means that under triaxial compressive loading, if a suitable balance is maintained among the three principal stresses, the shear stress can be kept below the level required for failure, and the material can essentially withstand infinite stress, Such a situation occurs when a solid block of ‘material (rack) is subjected to hydrostatic pressure. Rock Failure Criteria To understand a failure phenomenon, a specific and compatible criterion ‘must be applied. While some materials, such as sand, fall in shear, others, such as clay, may fall due to plastic deformation. There are several ‘mechanisms which can cause wellbore and near-wellbore instability problems and result in formation failure. Some are outlined below: + Tensile failure causing the formation to part + Shear failure without appreciable plastic deformation; + Plastic deformation which may cause pore collapse; + Erosion or cohesive failure; + Creep fallure which can cause a tight hole during drilling; ‘+ Pore collapse or comprehensive failure, which may happen during production. Many empirical criteria have been developed to predict rock and formation failure. It is essential to understand the physical interpretation of those criteria before they are applied for problems associated with drilling and wellbore construction. Appropriate criteria should be selected for a given problem. Generally, failure criteria are used to create failure envelopes, Usually separating stable and unstable regions. Attempts often made to linearize these failure envelopes. ‘These empirical failure criteria are based on data obtained from triaxial testing and they are developed for deciding when material failure occurs under triaxial loading. The main empirical criteria are: 1. Von Mises (maximum energy of distortion) 2. Tressca (maximum shear stress) 3. Mohr - Coulomb Port-3: Hydraulic Furcating 334‘Advanced Topics in Well Completion Dr. M.Nast Both Tresca and Vom Mises apply to ductile materials where the Mohr= Coulomb failure criterion is applicable to brittle materials. 39. Mechanics of Fracturing ‘The mechanics of fracture initiation and extension and the resulting fracture geometry are related to the stress condition near the borehole and in the surrounding rock, the properties of the rock, the characteristics of the fracturing fluid and the manner in which the fracturing fluid is injected. Hubbert and Willis presented a simplified fracture mechanics theory which ‘seems to explain many of the events observed in field operations during squeeze cementing, gravel packing, hydraulic fracturing and some Instances of lost circulation during drilling. Refinements of the basic theory are being developed, but knowledge of the Hubert and Willis theory provides a basis for understanding formation fracturing. 3.0 Fracture Initiation or the Breakdown Pressure ‘The formation breakdown pressure Is the pressure required to overcome the wellbore stresses in order to fracture the formation in the immediate vicinity of the wellbore. In oll well drilling, the fracture gradient may be defined as the minimum total in situ stress divided by the depth. Knowledge of fracture gradient Is essential to the selection of proper casing seats, for the prevention of lost circulation and to the planning of hydraulic fracturing for the purpose of increasing the well productivity in zone of low permeability, Anydraulic fracture treatment is accomplished by pumping a suitable fluid Into the formation at a rate faster than the fluid can leak off into the rock. Fluid pressure (or stress) is built up sufficient to overcome the earth compressive stress holding the rock material together. The rock then parts cr fractures along a plane perpendicular to the maximum compressive stress in the formation matrix. To initiate a fracture sufficient hydraulic pressure must be applied to overcome this increased stress level at the wellbore. Use of a ‘penetrating’ fluid, wherein fluid pressure tends to support some of the regional rock matrix load, reduces the required fluid pressure to initiate breakdown ‘The occurrence of ‘breakdown’ is often seen at the surface as a pressure peak. Once the pressure peak is surmounted, fluid can be injected into the Part-3: Hydraulic Fureating 335Advanced Topics in Well Completion eM. Nast formation at lower pressures. Breakdown effect is caused by the concentration of compressive stress in the formation close to the borehole. This stress concentration results when a portion of the rock is removed (by driling the hole) while the regional rock matrix load is unchanged; thus the rock at the borehole accepts greater compressive stress. As applied to sedimentary formation, the word fracture is sometimes thought to be an "irreparable occurrence’ somewhat the same as breaking a piece of glass. This is not true. In creating a fracture, the formation matrix stress is temporarily overcome using fiuid pressure. As soon as the fluid pressure is, relaxed, the fracture closes back with litle if any increase in conductivity along the fracture, unless propped open by sand, of in the case of a high pressure squeeze job, by cement filter cake. Accurate knowledge of the fracture gradient is of paramount importance in areas where selective production and injection is practiced, In such areas, the adjacent reservoirs consist of several sequences of dense and porous zones such that, if a fracture Is initiated (during drilling or stimulation), It can propagate, establishing communication between hydrocarbon reservoirs and can extend down to a water-bearing zone. The fracture gradient is dependent upon several factors, including type of rock, degree of anisotropy, formation pore pressure, magnitude of ‘overburden and degree of tectonics within the area. It follows that any analytical prediction method will have to incorporate all of the above factors In order to yield realistic values of the fracture gradient. 31 Horizontal Fracture ‘Assuming vertical components of force are exerted against the formation, the condition necessary for horizontal fracture initiation is that the wellbore pressure must exceed the vertical stress plus the vertical tensile strength of the rock: Py =0.433p, D+Sy al Where; i Borehole pressure required to initiate horizontal fracture, (Psi, % = Bulk density of formation rock, gm/cc art-3: Hydraulle Furcatig, 336‘Advanced Topics in Well Completion —_ be M, Nase 32 Vertical Fracture a Haimson and Fairhurst Method Conditions for vertical fracture initiation depend on the relative strength of the two principal horizontal compressive stresses. To cause formation breakdown, the pressure in the borehole must be somewhat greater than the minimum stress at the borehole, and must also overcome the tensile strength of the rock. Consider an uncased vertical wellbore (or an open hole) under the action of horizontal in-situ stresses (min ) and (Max), ‘The hydraulically induced fracture Is a vertical fracture and the fracture plane is perpendicular to the minimum horizontal in-situ stress as shown In Figure (3-12). The tensile strength of the rock is usually in the range of 100 to 500 psi A hydraulic fracture is induced by increasing the wellbore pressure (Pw) up to the point where the effective tangential stress (70 ~Py becomes equal to >. 1f (Sh = SH), this happens as 8 = 90° (where the stress concentration induced by the far field state of stress is minimum), the fracture initiates in a direction perpendicular to the minimum horizontal stress direction. Hubbert and Wills proposed the following equation for the determination of fracture initiation pressure for drained rock which means that there is no fluid penetration inside rock (no fluid leak off from the fracture faces into the formation). (212) = 3&rgan ~ Poe (3-44) © Writing the above equation in terms of the effective tangential stress: 34622) Po 3g ~Piae~FP—P a Substitution of the value of the tensile failure stress (~T) and rearranging the equation yietds: Pie = 3h pan ~Hipax * To ~ PP 4 Where; Part-3: Hydraulic Furcating, 337‘Advanced Topics. in Well Comeletion De Nase Borehole pressure required to initiate vertical fracture, (psi), Horizontal tensile strenath of the formation, (ps!) @ The rock tensile strength is only used for the calculation of the rock Initiation fracturing pressure, and may be obtained from core samples. If no experimental data are available, a typical value of 200 psi is recommended. @ If the wellbore fluid penetrates the formation, porvelastic effects must be taken into account to calculate the tangential stress concentration, (%® ), around the wellbore. The above equation is only valid when no fluld Invades or penetrates the formation. In porous ‘and permeable rocks the fracturing fluid normally penetrates the formation, thereby changing the magnitude of the stress concentrations around the borehole. The effect of fluid penetration is to create a force radially outward which reduces the stress concentrations at the walls of the hole, thereby making it easier to fracture. Haimson and Fairhurst modified the above tangential stress equation to take Into account the effects of fluid penetration (poroelastic effects): Py = 3¢hmn—THinax * To PO (3-47) Py = 30h py ~ Oa * To Pa = 2AP) aon Pu ~3Oh pp ~Stpgg * To —Po + 2nQP ca 3ohnn ~Snee ~29P + To 2(1-n) (3-51) = a(1-2) . (a=) (3-48) @ Again assuming horizontal stresses are equal (isotropic), (“hmn = ‘hmax), and substituting the nis equation into the above equation, the initiation fracturing pressure equation becomes: are-3: Hyarauie Furcatig, 338vanced Topics in Well Completion . Dr MNase i 2-4 (352) Where; FR, _ Borehole pressure required to initiate vertical fracture, (ps), ©v Vertical compressive stress, (Psi), Sh, Maximum principal horizontal matrix stress, (psi), hq Minimum principal horizontal matrix stress, (ps!) T,_ Horizontal tensile strength of the rack (minimal), (psi, and, F _ Formation pore pressure, (psi) 1 Barree (1996) proposed another equation for determining the fracture initiation pressure which is illustrated as follows: (oy -aP)+aP +7, This equation gives the magnitude of the horizontal stresses in the formation, provided the horizontal stresses are equal and the formation is Uniform. In order to determine the stress at which the formation will fracture, it is often necessary to add a component (°") account for the tensile strength of the rock (often minimal due to brittle fracture effects ‘and the effects of the tectonics) When a well is drilled the preexisting stress fleld in the rock is distroded.an approximate calculation of this distortion has been made by assuming the rock to be elastic, the borehole is smooth and cylindrical and the borehole axis Is vertical, It has been shown that the tangential (circumferential) stress along the periphery of the well bore Is equal to twice the horizontal compressive stress at a considerable distance from it.then the pressure that will fracture the borehole vertically is the sum of that required in order to Part-3: Hydraulic Furating 339vanced Topics in Well Completion peaiee DM. Nast reduce the compressive stresses on the wall of the hole to zero plus the tensile strength of the rock. Prac =26y +S ov + St Substituting the minimum horizontal stress equation into the above ‘equation gives: Pre Cou ath) ;2°.) athe Sr Where; Virac = Fracture pressure, (psi), oe ‘Vertical compressive stress, (psi), and, Fe = Formation pore pressure, (psi) Ss: he rock tensile strength ‘The breakdown pressure is the pressure required to initiate a fracture from the wellbore. Due the effects of the stresses induced by the presence of the wellbore, the breakdown pressure is usually greater than the fracture extension pressure which is a measure of the pressure required to propagate the fracture through the formation, away from the Influence of wellbore effects. The fracture extension pressure is a very Important quantity in fracturing because it is the most significant contributor to the bottomhole treating pressure, which in turn helps to define the surface treating pressure, the loading on the completion and the proppant selection. 3.13 Fracture Extension As injection of fracturing fluid continues, the fracture tends to grow in width as fluid pressure in the fracture, exerted on the fracture face, works against the elasticity of the rock material. After gradient fracturing fluid ‘pad’ has been injected to open the fracture wide enough to accept proppant, sand (the most common proppant) Is added to the fracturing fluid and is carried into the fracture to hold it open after the job. Part-3: Hydraulic Furcating, 3-40‘Advanced Topics in Well Completion pr. MNase A vertical fracture is grown in length upward, downward and outward. The growth upward or downward may be stopped by a barrier formation; downward growth may also be stopped by fallout of sand to the bottom of the fracture. The growth outward away from the wellbore, (as well as upward or downward) will be stopped when the rate of fracturing fluid leakoff through the face of the fracture into the formation equals the rate Of fluid injection into the fracture at the wellbore. © Hubbert and Wills Method: By applying the theory of elasticity, and assuming the rock is an elastic medium and has a tensile failure stress (Ta), the expression for the vertical fracture initiation pressure for non-permeable formations where no fracturing fluid invades or penetrates the formation is presented by Hubert and wills method. The Hubbert and Willis method Is based on the premise that fracturing occurs when the applied fluid pressure exceeds the sum of the minimum effective horizontal stress and formation pressure. In other words it is equivalent to the total minimum horizontal stress. The fracture plane is assumed to be always perpendicular to the minimum principal stress. If Polsson ratio values for the formation to be analyzed are not avallable, Hubert and Willis proposed a correlation for the determination of fracture gradient (FG) based only overburden pressure and formation Pore pressure and assuming To equal to zero and the total injection or fracturing pressure required to keep and extend a fracture is given Prac = Ahn FP (3-53) Substitution of the minimum effective horizontal stress equation into the above equation yields: Prac=[ tou 7 354) Substitution of the effective vertical stress equation yields: Prac =[ >, fou Fo) + t (3-55) ‘Since most rocks have a poison’s ratio of approximately 0.25; Substituting this value of (¥) in the above equation gives: Part-3: Hydraulic Fureating 341‘Advanced Topics in Well Completion ra © Eaton Method: ‘The Eaton method is the most widely used in the oll industry. It is basically 2 modification of the Hubbert and Willis method, in which both overburden stress and Poisson's ratio are assumed to be variable. Poisson's ratio is a rock property which describes the effect produced in one direction as stress |s applied in a perpendicular direction, Most rocks tested under laboratory conditions produce a Poisson's ration of 0.25-0.3. Under field conditions, however, the rock is subjected to a much greater degree of confinement {and Poisson's ratio can vary from 0.25 (or less) to a maximum value of 0.5. ‘The fracturing extension or propagation pressure which Is always lower than the fracturing initiation pressure is equal to the horizontal minimum stress. Fracture reopening pressure or extension pressure as proposed by Eaton Is calculated form the following minimum horizontal matrix stress ‘equation (Eaton's equation) Pext= Chemin St min Coy -08}( =) +P Peat oy -0( 7 rahe Sr 3.14 Fracturing Treatment Process After fracturing initiation, continual pumping would result in the fracture propagating in a plane parallel to the maximum stress and perpendicular to the minimum stress. Fracture extension pressure Is lower than the reopening pressure, but must exceed the minimum horizontal stress. It is a function of the minimum horizontal stress, pump rate, hydraulic fluid characteristics, leak off due to microfissures, and matrix permeability. ‘The hydraulically induced fracture propagates from the wellbore into the reservoir as pumping continues. A typically downhole pressure record (\.e.. the pressure measured inside the hole near the opening of hydraulic fracture) is sketched in Figure (3-16). It Is clear that the applied wellbore: pressure first balances the reservoir pressure (or pore pressure), then ‘overcomes the compressive circumferential hole stress, causing a tensile stress on the hole surface. A fracture is initiated when this surface stress reaches the tensile failure stress of the rock medium, Part-3: Hydraulic Fureating 342‘Advanced. Topics in Well Completion De. Nase ‘The hydraulically induced fracture propagates in the reservoir as pumping continues, and at the same time the frac-fluid leaks off from the fracture surface into the surrounding rock medium. It is important to observe that the opening of the fracture is maintained by the differential between the net pressure (fluid pressure minus reservoir pressure) and the minimum in-situ stress, while the rate of fluid leak-off from the fracture surface Is. ‘caused by the net pressure alone. Referring to Figure (3-16) again, the maximum pressure is the initial breakdown pressure, (Ps). The pressure drops, but not always in the fleld, when a fracture is initiated at the hole surface. The near constant portion of the pressure curve is the propagation pressure (Por). This is the pressure that causes the propagation of hydraulic fracture into the reservoir. When pumping stops, the pressure drops suddenly to a lower value but continues to decrease slowly to the reservoir pressure due to fluid leaking off from the fracture as shown in the figure. The transition point Is called the shut-in pressure, psi (or the instantaneous shut-in pressure, ISIP).At this point, the fluid flow inside the fracture has ceased, and there is no friction loss due to fluid flaw inside the fracture. However, fluid continues to leakoff from fracture surface and the fracture ‘opening width continues to decrease. The fluld pressure inside the fracture eventually reaches to equllibrium with the minimum in-situ stress (min) and at this point the hydraulic fracture closes. The fracture closure pressure, which can be determined from the pressure decline analysis, is taken as a measure of the minimum in-situ stress. Although the instantaneous shut-in pressure (ISIP) is somewhat higher than the fracture closure pressure, the ISIP can be easily Identified fram the measured pressure-time curve. The ISIP is often used to estimate the magnitude of the minimum horizontal in-situ stress by field engineers. Unfortunately, the situation is somewhat more complicated in field conditions. The underlying control factors for this pressure drop are discussed by McLennan and Roegier. Most wellbures that need fracturing are cased wellbores. To fracture a cased wellbore, the wellbore is first perforated with shaped charges to form a series of perforated holes spiralling along the wellbore surface. The Perforations are typically made at spacing’s of 4 to 6 inches and at a phase angle of 60 to 120 degrees as shown in the Figure. When the wellbore is pressurized, the perforated holes in (or near) the direction of maximum horizontal in-situ stress (MX) will be fractured first. Figure (3-16) Part-3: Hydraulic Fureating, 343‘Advanced Topics in Well Completion Dr. M. Nast llustrates the fracture operational sequences during the fracturing treatment. redo Press runing Sep) aa reware e je Figure (3-13): illustrates the field operation during a fracture treatment @ Sand-Out May Stop Treatment Prematurely: ‘The width of the fracture is related to the ‘new fracture pressure" (pressure in excess of fracture closure pressure) working against the elasticity of the formation. As sand enters the fracture and is deposited, more fluid pressure Is required to create greater stress against the fracture face to Increase the frac width. If the required fluid pressure cannot be applied due to ‘equipment or casing limitations, fluid injection rate slows, sand drops out of the fluid at a more rapid rate, and a sand-out in the fracture occurs. Providing sufficient fracture length and width has been generated, a sand- ‘out within the fracture Is desirable from the standpoint of well productivity. ‘A sand-out in the casing can occur due to the fact that insufficient fracture width has been generated to accept the size sand carried in the fluid~or due to drop out of sand inside the casing closing off the perforated section. Sand-out in the casing usually occurs early in the treatment and is obviously undesirable. 3.15Hydraulic Fracture Geometry Analysis Hydraulic stimulation has proven to be a dominant factor in the success of marginal wells in low-permeability, low-porosity, dense rocks. Twenty Part-3: Hyraulic Fureating, aaapercent or more of the total well cost can be involved in fracturing; proper treatment design is a must if low-production wells are ever to reach payout. The treatment design is critical. Too small a fracture treatment may result in such Inadequate drainage of the reservoir that the well remains unprofitable. Conversely, too large a treatment can be an unnecessary waste of completion funds and render the well unprofitable; worse, the fracture may migrate into a nearby aquifer. 3.16 Design and Implementati A cost effective fracture stimulation treatment must consider: reservoir rock deliverability, fracture mechanics of the productive zone and the boundary zones, frac fluld characteristics, proppant and proppant transport, operational constraints, the surface and downhole well flow system, and the resulting frac job cost and producing economics. Frac job design and Implementation involves many compromises and must deal with many factors that are at best approximations. This not withstanding, tremendous progress has been made in the last twenty years in quantifying design and implementation procedures. 3.17 Fracture Geometry Models: ‘The prediction of fracture geometry is one of the central issues in the engineering design of the stimulation treatment. Over the years, various models have been developed to determine the relationship between Injection rate, fluid leak off behavior, fracture dimensions (width and length), and total volume of fluid pumped into the formation. 3.18 Fracture Height: When pressure is Increased in the borehole, rupture occurs in the plane that Is perpendicular to the direction of least compressive stress (OX or °Y), The pressure required to induce this fracture Is called the initial or breakdown pressure. Once a fracture has been initiated, the pressure necessary to hold the fracture open (in the case of a vertical fracture) will bbe equal to the minimum total horizontal stress. This stress is often referred to.as closure stress. In tectonically relaxed areas, the least principal stress Part-3: Hydraulic Furcating 3-45‘Advanced Topic In Well Completion rt as is generally horizontal. Fracturing should therefore occur along vertical planes, Hydraulic fracture design depends on two sets of variables: the distribution ‘and magnitude of in-situ minimum horizontal stress in the producing and ‘surrounding formations, and the flow behavior of the fracturing fluid. These variables determine: + The direction and geometry (height, length and width) of the created fracture, ‘+ Whether multiple zones should be fractured one at a time, in groups or simultaneously, + Design parameters of hydraulic fracturing, such as horsepower, pumping pressure and proppant transport, and + The fracturing fluid flow behavior and efficiency. 3.19 Hydraulic Fracture Length Model 3.20One Dimensional Fracture Length Model Fracture Area In 1957, Howard and Fast presented a mathematical formula for determining the surface area of a newly-opened fracture on the basis of treating conditions. During the fracturing process, the fracture fluid is Injected at the well head at a constant rate q. In the fracture this injection rate Is split up into two components as show in figure (8.10). Part of liquid, (@\), enters the formation as a result of differential pressure (p-pz) between the fracture and the external boundary, and the reminder, Qh: increases the fracture area, I. e., it increases the volume of the fracture. ‘An expression for the fracture area at any time may be derived by using this basic concept and the following assumptions: 1, The fracture is of uniform width 21 The flow of fracture fluld into the formation is linear and the direction of flow is perpendicular to the fracture face (Figure 8.10). 3, The velocity of flow into the formation at any point on the fracture face is @ function of the time of exposure of the point to flow. 4, The velocity function v = f(t) is the same for every point in the formation, but the zero time for any point is defined as the instant that the fracturing fluid first reaches it. Port-3: Hydrauile Furcating 346.‘Advanced Topics in Well Completion Na 5. The pressure in the fracture is equal to the sandface injection pressure, which Is constant. WellBore a1 Figure (3-14): Fracture dimensions in Carter and Howard and Fast model ‘The basis of fracture geometry prediction is a material balance expression, which is first presented by Cater (1957) and modified by Geertsma and de Klerk (1969) to include the effect of fracturing fluid spurt loss into the formation and also the effect of different fracture geometries, and the representing equation is: eee 7 57) acy = 2 J at( 28158) act, aac oe J “ane? | od (8.29) Where Part-3: Hydraulic Fureating 347‘Advanced Topics in Well Completion MNase A(t) Is the area, in square feet, of one face of the fracture at time t, gis the injection rate in cubic feet per minute, W is the width of the fracture in feet, t is the injection time in minutes, C Is the fracturing-fluid coefficient in feet per square root of minutes, and erfc (x) designates the complementary error function of (x), defined as (8.30) The values of the complementary error function have been calculated and are presented in Table (8.1). This table may be compared with logarithm tables which have been worked out also from series expressions such 2s 900° | S074 bxad Soc Boca "| A(t) = Total area of one face of the fracture, (ft), oe Constant injection rate, (f®/min), t= Total pumping time, (min), w Constant fracture width, (ft), Fluid-loss coefficient, (ft/min), and, erfc(x) = Complementary error function of X (Table 3-3). where Yj = total fluid volume injected ve fracture volume Vi = fluid loss volume constant injection rate during extension, fe/min, velocity of flow perpendicular to the fracture plane ts) =velocity of fluid flowing into the formation ata given point, ft/min t total pumping time, min. 8 time required for the fluid to reach a gen point, min (€-8) = time interval during which the fluid has leaked from ‘any points, min, Port-3: Hydraulic Fureating, 3-48‘Advanced Topics in Well Completion br. M. Nast A= _areaof one face ofthe fracture at any time during injection, ft w average fracture width, ft. c leak off coefficient, whichis diferent for each mechanism. a volume rate of fluid loss to the formation. = Volume rate of fluid loss to the formation y= Velocity of flow perpendicular to the fracture plane ‘A. = Area of the fracture face Carter Fracture Model: ‘The total area of one fracture face at the end of the fracture treatment (note in Carter model the fracture has only two faces) Is: Aejeeje fey nel ml] a Were, 2Cfit Ww [A() Is the area of one face of the fracture rd (1.12) or —— 2he (1.13) ‘The area of the created one face of the fracture according to the Carter model is: A= Dxrhy (3-85) Where; Part-3: Hydraulic Furcating, 3-49‘Advanced Tops n Well Completion eM Nase *1 __ Fracture half length (wing length) (from wellbore to ~ the fracture tip), and, "= Fracture height. ‘Then, Carter fracture length model is ‘The following equation which Is Carter's solution to the above mass conservation equation is used to determine the created fracture half length (x), assuming that the fracture width is constant and there is no spurt loss. ee where; x= the fracture half length (from wellbore to the fracture tip), Fractures normally have two wings, one on either side of the well, which are assumed to be roughly equal in length and geometry (the length of one wing is termed (xf)). The fracture wing length (xf) as a function of time in Carter’s model is then obtained by dividing the area by the fracture height. ‘The pad volume does the work of opening up the fracture tip and creating fracture width; and of sealing the fracture face to control fluid loss. Figure (3-18) illustrates the fracture shape with the pad volume inside the fracture; Por-3: Hydraulic Fureating. 3-50ced Topics in Well 7 or. Nast Figure (3-15): Showing fracture dimensions including pad volume 221 Two Dimensional Fracture Length Model: Geertsma and de Klerk realized thatthe shape of the fracture is of elliptical shape propagating in the horizontal cross section and spurt loss volume Is always accompanied with the fracturing treatment, and therefore the assumptions of constant fracture with and zero spurt loss in Carter's model are no longer valid. In order to consider the fracture not to be constant, they expressed the equation in terms of maximum fracture width which Is occurs In the well bore region (wa). For an eliptcal shape fracture, the maximum fracture width relates to the average width according to the following equation: aa 3-87) Geertsma and de Klerk has extended or modified the Carter's fracture length model to represent the KGD fracture length model by approximating the rectangular fracture volume shape of the Carter's model to the fracture volume shape of KGD madel which is an elliptical shape. Part-3: Hydraulic Fureating, 351‘Advanced Topics in Well Completion. rat. Nase The fracture length of the Carter fracture rectangular model can be ‘modified to represent the fracture length of the KGD elliptical shape fracture ‘model as follows: we gtte 1.15) 2c jet ey From Carter mode!, 4 (1.16) ‘The KGD model 7m (1.17) Corter fracture length model with no spurt loss is Bc ancahy oy Gott Say ee ie | (18) = width in Carter fracture model W = Equivalent width in KGD model (elliptical shape) Part-3: Hydraulic Fureating, 352‘Advanced Topics inWellCompletion De ase Usually, In a fluid-loss test, a certain amount of fluid is forced through the filter paper at the instant the differential pressure Is applied, j.e., before any filter cake has begun to form. This loss Is called the spurt loss (Vip) and Is measured in cubic centimeters. If a spurt loss is included in the equation below, becomes Vemit Ve myt + Voy ‘When this equation is differentiated, Vso will drop out, thus having no effect ‘on the fracturing fluid coefficient. However, the spurt loss does affect the calculation of the fracture area, Eq. (8.28). Consider a fracture of area Ar with 3 spurt loss Ve. ‘The volume of fracture is A/*W where W is the true fracture width. Since the spurt loss was not considered in Eq. (8.29), the volume of the fracture, 2s calculated from this equation, is greater than Ar*W by 2Vsp. If we define ‘2 quantity W" such that the product AW’ Is equal to the volume of the fracture without a spurt loss, then NW -A,Ws 2p (1.19) or, a (4.20) From Eq, (1.15) wo ghe fe (1.21) ve = vy eu (1.22) ‘The fracture length in KGD elliptical shape model including the spurt loss becomes Ww in the above length equation should be replaced by Ww equation, Part-3: Hydraulic Fureating, 353