Aviation Technical Training

Aviation Technical Training
Training Manual Fundamentals M6

Materials and Hardware V1.3
CAT B1
An EASA Part-147 Approved Training Organisation Approval No UK.147.0046
expert solutions, adding value

For training purposes and internal use only.
Not subject to amendment.
Copyright by LRTT Ltd. LRTT Ltd is part of Resource Group. All

rights reserved. No parts of this training manual may be sold or
reproduced in any form without permission of:
Resource Group - Aviation Technical Training

Hangar K4
Cotswold Airport
Cirencester
Gloucestershire
GL7 6BA
U.K.
Tel. +44 (0) 01285 772 669 Fax +44 (0) 1285 772 670
expert solutions, adding value

M6 MATERIALS AND HARDWARE
MATERIALS PART-66 M6 CAT B1
GENERAL
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
© LRTT Ltd. Trading as Resource Group

For Training Purposes Only Page: C expert solutions, adding value
GENERAL
Materials
General
Abbreviations
AA Aluminium Association of America H Strain hardened
AISI American Institute of Steel and Iron H2O Water
AL Aluminium NA3ALF3 Cryolite
ALF3 Aluminium Fluoride NI Nickel
Al2O3 Aluminium Oxide MG Magnesium
ALCOA Aluminium Corporation of America MN Manganese
CAF2 Fluorspar MO Molybdenum
Clad Cladding O Annealed
CO2 Carbon Dioxide PSI Pounds per Square Inch
CR Chromium SAE Society of Automotive Engineers
CRES Corrosion Resistant Steel SI Silicon
CU Copper T Heat treated
DC Direct Chill VA Vanadium
F As fabricated ZN Zinc
Conversions
Fahrenheit to Centigrade Conversion
°C = (°F-32) x 0.555
Centigrade to Fahrenheit Conversion
°F = °C x 1.8 + 32

For Training Purposes Only Page: 1 expert solutions, adding value
INTRODUCTION
Introduction Fatigue
When a metal is subjected to cyclic loadings, it will (after sufficient repetitions)
Materials Properties start to crack. This type of failure is known as fatigue and it affects all metals.
Materials possess many inherent qualities that the designer takes into account Fatigue usually starts at a stress concentrator such as a scratch or sharp
when selecting the best material to meet his requirements. These qualities are indentation and can rapidly increase.
described below along with some definitions that will allow you to understand the
properties of a material. Elasticity
A body is said to be perfectly elastic if, after it has been deformed by external
When you are required to repair structural materials, it is important to remember
forces, it returns completely to its original shape when the forces are removed.
that the properties of the original material were chosen because they met the
Although there are no perfectly elastic materials, steel and some other structural
design requirements for the aircraft. When selecting repair materials you should
materials may be so considered in certain ranges of loading and deformation
only use ones that are authorised for the specific repair you are doing. The
(see elastic limit). Partially elastic materials are those that do not completely
correct material will be detailed for you in the relevant Structural Repair Manual,
resume their original shape when the external forces are released, some of the
Service Bulletin or repair drawing.
energy of deformation having been lost in the form of heat.
Definitions Unit Stress
Strength of Materials Stress is defined as the force per unit area. For SI units it is measured in Newtons
per square metre (N/m2) or Pascals (Pa), both of which have equal value. In
Strength of materials deals with:
Imperial systems, stress is measured in pounds per square inch (psi). The more
• The relations between external forces applied to an elastic body and the stress that a material can withstand before suffering plastic deformation or failure,
deformations and internal stresses resulting from those applied forces the stronger the material is said to be.
• The use of the principles of strength of materials to meet functional • If the stress is the result of forces tending to stretch or lengthen the material,
requirements it is called a tensile stress
Certain of the formulae that are used in strength of materials calculations are • If to compress or shorten the material a compressive stress
based solely on mathematical analyses; others (empirical formulae) are the • If to shear the material, a shearing stress
result of experiment, test and observation. Whether of the former or the latter
type, most of these formulae make use of certain concepts and experimentally Combined Stress
determined physical properties of materials such as tensile strength, modulus of When the stress on a given area is a combination of tensile and shearing stresses,
elasticity etc. The meaning of some of these terms is explained in the following or, compressive and shearing stresses, the resulting stress on the area is called
paragraphs. a combined stress.
Density Simple Stress
The density of an object is a measure of mass per unit volume and is measured When a tensile, compressive or shearing stress alone is considered to act, a
in kg/m3. Generally, for a given volume, the more dense an object is, the heavier body is said to be subject to a simple stress.
it will be. It is considered preferable to use the lightest possible materials when
designing aircraft, but ensuring that the chosen material has the required Unit Strain
properties. For this reason, aluminium is preferred to steel as it is less dense.
The amount of deformation of a dimension of a body resulting from the application
of a load divided by the original dimension of the body.

DEFINITIONS
Tension
Compression
Shear
Figure 1: Stresses

PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Poisson‘s Ratio
The negative ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal unit strain for a given material
subjected to uniform longitudinal stress within the proportional limit.
• For steel, it equals 0.30
• For wrought iron, 0.28
• For cast iron, 0.27
• For brass, 0.34
Properties of Materials
Hardness Conductivity
Enables a material to resist penetration, wear or cutting action. The characteristic of a material which makes it possible for it to transmit heat or
electricity.
Strength
Durability
The ability of a material to withstand forces which tend to deform the metal in any
direction, or the ability of a material to resist stress without breaking. The property of metal that enables it to withstand force over a period of time.
Elasticity
The ability of an object or material to be stretched and recover its size and shape
after deformation.
Plasticity
The property of a metal which allows it to be reshaped.
Ductility
The property which allows metal to be drawn into thinner sections without
breaking.
Malleability
That characteristic of material that allows it to be stretched or shaped by beating
with a hammer or passing through rollers without breaking.
Toughness
The property of a metal which allows it to be deformed without breaking.
Brittleness
The property of a metal to break when deformed or hammered. It is the resistance
to change in the relative position of the molecules within the material.

PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

MATERIALS OVERVIEW
Materials Overview
Metallic Materials
Having the nature of metal or containing metal.
Non-Metallic Materials
Containing no metal.
Ferrous Materials
Iron, or any alloy containing iron.
Non-Ferrous Materials
A metal which contains little or no iron.
Elastic Properties
Elastic Limit (1)
The maximum stress to which a material may be subjected and still return to
its original shape upon release of the load. The elastic limit for steel is, for all
purposes, the same as its proportional limit.
Proportional Limit (2)

That stress beyond which stress is no longer proportional to the strain.
Yield Strength (3)

The maximum stress that can be applied to a material without permanent
deformation of the material.
(Ultimate) Tensile Strength (4)

Tensile strength is the maximum value of tensile stress that a material can
withstand without breaking, and is calculated at the maximum tensile force
divided by the original cross-sectional area. It is the stress at which a material in
tension, compression or shear will fracture.
Breaking Point of Sample (5)

Modulus of Elasticity: The ratio of stress to strain within the proportional limit of a
material in tension or compression.

PHASE DIAGRAMS METALS
Phase Diagrams Metals

1600°C
liquid
γ
temperature
γ + cementite Fe3C
cementite
α + cementite
0% weight % carbon 7%
The phase diagram above is typical for carbon steel, but the principals used in its
construction are the same as for any metal alloy.
The axes of the diagram are always temperature (x-axis) and percentage of
alloying element in relation to the base metal (y-axis).
The lines that divide the diagram up represent the boundaries where phase
transitions occur.

METAL GENERAL
Metal General
Metal consists of basic chemical elements which have different characteristics
and properties:
• Strength, heat-treatable or cold-workable
• Crystal structure
• Heat and electrical conductivity
• Light impenetrability
• Metallic gloss by light-reflection
• Dissolvability in acids under formation of salts
There are 70 metals (chemical elements) which are used in different applications
in technical fields combined in several variants of alloys and unalloyed conditions.
For airframe constructions, mainly lightweight metals are used, i.e. metals with a
density less than 5 kg/m3.
The three most important lightweight metals in aircraft structure are:
• Aluminium and aluminium alloys (density 2.7 kg/m3)
• Titanium and titanium alloys (density 4.5 kg/m3)
• Magnesium and magnesium alloys (density 1.74 kg/m3)
On aircraft structure where high weights or higher strengths are needed,
heavyweight metals and their alloys are applicable (density between 7.85 kg/m3
and 9.5 kg/m3).

METALS OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURE
Metals of Aircraft Structure
Material Elements Density kg/m3 Melting Point Intended Use

Magnesium Mg 1.74 650°C Seldom used, mainly as alloy
with Al, Zn or Mn
Silicon Si 2.33 1420°C As alloy ingredient only
Aluminium Al 2.70 658°C Most commonly used material
as pure aluminium and
aluminium alloy
Titanium Ti 4.50 1727°C As pure titanium or titanium
alloy
Zinc Zn 7.14 419°C As alloy ingredient only
Manganese Mn 7.30 1250°C As alloy ingredient only
Iron Fe 7.86 1539°C Not in pure form, steel with
carbon and alloy ingredients
Copper Cu 8.93 1083°C For electrical wire and alloy
ingredient

CRYSTAL AND CELLS
Crystal and Cells

Structural metals in solid state form as crystals. A crystal is a rigid body in which
the constituent particles are arranged in a repeating pattern. The basic building
block of the crystal is known as a unit cell. The crystal is built from the repetition
of these identical unit cells.
The body centred cubic (BCC) has a total of nine atoms. One is at each corner
of the cube and one in the centre (see Cube 1 opposite).
The face centred cubic (FCC) unit cells consists of 14 atoms. One atom is at
each cube corner and one is in the centre of each face. Aluminium, copper, gold,
nickel, silver and iron are examples of metals that have the FCC form. These are
ductile metals (see Cube 2 opposite).
Cobalt, magnesium, titanium and zinc have the hexagonal close packed (HCP)
arrangement. There are 17 atoms in HCP unit cells (see Cube 3 opposite).

CRYSTAL AND CELLS
Cube
Figure 2: Crystals and Cells

MATERIAL DEVELOPMENT
Material Development
General
The selection of materials should be the best compromise between the quality
of the material to fulfil the requested function and all costs (material prices,
processing time and effort, maintenance and repair of structure, etc.) at the time
of the aircraft development.
A change of material in existing programmes is difficult and expensive (a new
airworthiness certification is necessary, changes in all programme documentation
drawings).
Nevertheless, airframe manufacturers spend time and effort finding new solutions
to raise the quality of the aircraft or to reduce manufacturing costs. Material
specialists do this, for all existing programmes and for new developments in their
specific field.

Figure 3: Material Development

AIRCRAFT MATERIALS – FERROUS PART-66 M6 CAT B1
Aircraft Materials – Ferrous

Steel Applications
General
The base material iron is a chemical element which, in its pure form, is a very
soft, malleable and ductile metal which is easy to form and shape. It readily
combines with oxygen to form iron oxide (rust), and so is alloyed, primarily with
carbon, but also with other elements. When molten iron is alloyed with more than
2% carbon and poured into a mould, cast iron is formed. Cast iron has limited
uses in the aviation industry due to low strength to weight ratio and brittleness.
Iron is extracted from iron ore by mixing it with coke and limestone and heating it
in a furnace. The process extracts the oxygen from the ore, and allows the iron to
sink to the bottom of the furnace. The limestone reacts with any impurities in the
molten iron and floats to the surface to form a slag.
To make steel, the pure iron is remelted in a special furnace where carbon
is introduced along with other alloying elements to achieve the desired
characteristics.
Description
Steel is an excellent engineering material with many applications. For aircraft
use, however, it does have some significant problems. The main restrictions
are its high density (approximately three times the density of aluminium) and its
susceptability to corrosion. The corrosion of steel can be reduced by the addition
of certain alloying elements, but this can have significant effects on properties
and costs.
Between 9 and 16% (Airbus A320: 9% , Boeing B777: 11%) of an aircraft’s
structure is alloy steel and stainless steel. The high strength and high modulus
of elasticity are the primary advantages of the high-strength steels. This is useful
for designs with space limitations such as with some landing gear components.
Alloy selection considerations include service temperature, strength, stiffness
fatigue properties and fabricability.

STEEL APPLICATIONS PART-66 M6 CAT B1
Blast Furnace
1 Hot blast from Cowper stoves
2 Melting zone (bosh)
3 Reduction zone of ferrous oxide (barrel)
4 Reduction zone of ferric oxide (stack)
5 Pre-heating zone (throat)
6 Feed of ore, limestone, and coke
7 Exhaust gases
8 Column of ore, coke and limestone
9 Removal of slag
10 Tapping of molten pig iron
11 Collection of waste gases

Figure 4: Steel Application


ALLOYING INGREDIENTS
Alloying Ingredients
The main alloying agents of steel are:
• Carbon has a major effect on steel properties. Carbon is the primary hardening • Vanadium increases the yield strength and the tensile strength of carbon
element in steel and allows heat treatment of steel to occur. Hardness and steel. The addition of small amounts of vanadium can significantly increase
tensile strength increases as carbon content increases up to about 0.85% the strength of steels.
carbon. Low carbon steel contains 0.1 to 0.3% carbon. Low carbon steels are • Titanium is used to improve toughness.
used for the manufacture of safety wire and secondary structures. Medium
carbon steel contains 0.3 to 0.5% carbon. These steels are employed where
machining processes are required or where surface hardness is desireable.
High carbon steels contain 0.5 to 1.05% carbon. These steels are used where
extreme hardness is required, typical applications include springs, files and
cutting tools.
• Sulphur decreases ductility and weldability with increasing content. Sulphur
levels are normally controlled to low levels. The only exception is free
-machining steels, where sulfur is added to improve machinability.
• Manganese contributes to strength and hardness, but less than carbon.
The increase in strength is dependent upon the carbon content. Increasing the
manganese content decreases ductility and weldability, but less than carbon.
Manganese has a significant effect on the hardenability of steel.
• Silicon is one of the principal de-oxidisers used in steelmaking. Silicon is less
effective than manganese in increasing as rolled strength and hardness. In
low-carbon steels, silicon is generally detrimental to surface quality.
• Phosphorous increases strength and hardness and corrosion resistance but
decreases ductility.
• Nickel increases the hardenability and impact strength of steels.
• Chromium is commonly added to steel to increase corrosion resistance Iron Ore Pellets for Steel Production
and oxidation resistance, to increase hardenability, or to improve high-
temperature strength. As a hardening element, chromium is frequently used
with a toughening element such as nickel to produce superior mechanical
properties. At higher temperatures, chromium contributes increased strength.
• Molybdenum increases the hardenability of steel. Molybdenum may produce
secondary hardening during the tempering of quenched steels. It enhances
the creep strength of low-alloy steels at elevated temperatures.

ALLOYING INGREDIENTS
Figure 5: Alloying Elements

MATERIAL DESIGNATIONS
Material Designations
Designations given to most low alloy steels are based upon an AISI (American
Iron and Steel Institute) system that refers to the chemical composition of the
alloy.
The first two digits refer to the specific primary alloying elements, the last two
digits (or the last three in a five-digit number) refer to the percentage of carbon
contained in the alloy.
• 10XX – refers to plain carbon steels (contain only carbon and manganese)
• 41XX – refers to chromium and molybdenum alloy steels
• 43XX – refers to nickel, chromium and molybdenum alloy steels
• 52100 – refers to a chromium alloy with 1% carbon
• 93XX – refers to a nickel, chromium and molybdenum alloy steel (with a
different ratio between these elements than is contained in the 43XX alloys).
For example, 4340 refers to a nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloy containing
40% carbon.
9Ni – 4Co.30C is a specific trade name assigned to a nickel-cobalt alloy with
30% carbon. The 9 and 4 refer to the nominal percentages of nickel and cobalt in
the alloy. The normally-used low alloy steels and their applicable strength ranges
are shown. Use of these alloys is limited to the strength ranges shown.
The European designations are slightly different. For further information refer to
the ’Metallic Material List’ in the Structural Repair Manual (SRM) of the specific
aircraft manufacturer.

MATERIAL DESIGNATIONS
Figure 6: Material Designations

HEAT TREATMENT OF STEEL
Heat Treatment of Steel

Tempering Hardening
A fully hardened carbon steel will be relatively brittle and will have internal stresses Pure iron, wrought iron, and extremely low-carbon steels cannot be hardened
due to the rapid quenching process that it has undergone. This condition is not by heat treatment since they contain no hardening element. Cast iron on the
suitable for structural applications and only appropriate where extreme hardness other hand, can be hardened but the heat treatment used is limited and the
is a requirement. Metals that have been fully hardened can releive these stresses iron remains brittle. Carbon steel can be hardened readily, but the maximum
by being subjected to a tempering process where the steel is reheated to between hardness depends entirely on the carbon content in the steel. The more carbon,
200-6000°C and then allowed to cool slowly. The temperature that the steel is the greater the hardness. However, the carbon content can only be increased to
reheated to during tempering will effect how hard and also how brittle the steel is. 0.85 percent. To harden steel, it is heated above its critical temperature so carbon
The lower the temperature the harder and brittler the material will be. As a result can disperse uniformly in the iron matrix. Once this occurs, the alloy is cooled
of this accurate temperature control during the tempering process is essential if rapidly by quenching it in water, oil, or brine (salt water). The speed of the quench
material properties are to be replicated consistently. There are several methods is determined by the quenching medium. Oil provides the slowest quench, and
of measuring the temperature of the tempering process, the most accurate being brine the most rapid. If the quench is too quick, the resultant structure is known as
pyrometers or thermocouple controlled ovens. Another slightly less accurate martensite, a super-saturated solid solution of carbon in an iron matrix. Although
method is by observing the colour of the metal during the heating process. This this metal is the hardest possible alloy, it is far too hard and too brittle for most
technique is only applicable to high carbon steels and the table below indicates uses.
the colour changes you would expect to see for a given temperature.
Annealing
Temperature in °C Colour Typical Uses
Annealing softens steels and releives internal stresses. The annealing process
220 Pale yellow Hack saw blades
entails heating a steel to 50 degrees Fahrenheit above its upper critical limit and
230 Straw Razor blades soaking it at this temperature. When the required soak time has been met, the
240 Dark straw Drills steel is cooled very slowly; either in the furnace or in a bath of hot sand.
250 Light brown Woodworking tools The resultant steel will be very soft and ductile.
260 Purplish brown Reamers
Normalising
270 Purple Axes
When a steel is forged, welded or machined, it will have residual stresses that
280 Deep purple Cold chisels are contained within the material. Such stresses can lead to structural failure
290 Bright blue Screwdrivers occuring. The process of releiving these stresses is known as normalising.
300 Darker blue Woodsaws The normalizing process involves heating steel to 100 degrees Fahrenheit above
its upper critical limit and soaking it for a prescribed time. After soaking, the steel
is allowed to cool at room temperature. This allows the particles of carbon to
precipitate out of the austentitic structure, and so relieves internal stresses.
One area of particular importance is normalising of welded components that
have been subjected to stresses through the application of heat.

Phase Diagram for Carbon Steel

The phase diagram for plain carbon steel comprises two axes that display %
carbon content and temperature.
The remaining lines on the diagram delineate steel into its different forms. A
metal that can exist in more than one different form at the same temperature is
called a eutectoid. Steel is a eutectoid that has the following states:
• Ferrite is the name given to „pure“ iron. It has a body centred cubic lattice that
will absorb up to .02% carbon.
• Austenite (y), is a face centred cubic form of iron, which can absorb a lot
more carbon into solid solution (up to approximately 2%) than ferrite.
• Cementite is a chemical compound made up of iron and carbon. It is a very
hard compound that is also known as iron carbide. The higher the carbon
content, the more cementite will be present and the harder but more brittle the
alloy will be. This is why cast iron (>2%) is hard and brittle.
• Pearlite is a two-phased, lamellar (or layered) structure composed of alternating
layers of alpha-ferrite (88%) and cementite (12%) that occurs in some steels
and cast irons. It forms by a eutectoid reaction as austenite is slowly cooled
below 727°C. The eutectoid composition of austenite is approximately 0.8%
carbon; steel with less carbon content will contain a corresponding proportion
of relatively pure ferrite crystallites that do not participate in the eutectoid
reaction and cannot transform into pearlite.
Steel is hardened by raising its temperature to above the upper critical
temperature. For carbon content of less than 0.8% the steel will change into
austenite that absorbs all the carbon into solid solution. If the steel is then
quenched, the carbon is trappped in solution and distorts the lattice at the grain
boundaries. It is the distortion of the lattice that gives steel its hardness.
It can be seen that the important factors in the heat treatment of carbon steel are
carbon content, temperature and time taken to cool.
Quenching
The rate that steel will cool down when quenched is governed by the medium in
which the metal is quenched water is the fastest quenching medium, followed by
oil, still air and a warm oven.

Figure 7: Phase Diagram for Plain Carbon Steel

Figure 8: Properties of Steel Alloys

CORROSION-RESISTANT (STAINLESS) STEEL
Corrosion-Resistant (Stainless) Steel Ferritic

Ferritic steels contain no carbon; they do not respond to heat treatment. They
General contain a substantial amount of chromium and many have a small amount of
Since the 1940s the term ’stainless steel’, also designated corrosion-resistant aluminium. They are always magnetic.
steel (CRES), has become a household word because of its many applications They contain 15-30% chromium, no nickel and are not heat-treatable. They have
in consumer items as well as in aircraft construction. a relatively low strength and are annealed.
The development of stainless steel has made possible many of the outstanding Typical usage on the aircraft is limited to piping and tubing.
advances in aircraft, gas-turbine engines and rockets. The most important They have excellent corrosion resistance at high temperature ranges and under
characteristics of stainless steels are corrosion resistance, strength, toughness sulphide corrosion.
and resistance to high temperatures.
These steels do not normally use the SAE classification, but they are identified Martensitic
by a three-digit system. The 200 and 300 series of stainless steel are known as Martensitic steels are straight chromium alloys that harden intensely if they are
’austenitic’ and the 400 series is known as ’martensitic’. allowed to cool rapidly from high temperatures. They differ from the two preceding
The most widely-used stainless steels for general use are those in the 300 groups because they can be hardened by heat treatment.
series, called 18-8 because they contain approximately 18% chromium and 8% They contain 12-18% chromium and no nickel and are heat-treatable by quench
nickel. Stainless steels can be divided into three general groups based on their and temper. The maximum tensile strength attainable ranges from 230 to 285 ksi.
structures: austenitic, ferritic and martensitic. These steel alloys are used in turbine blades applications.
They have the lowest corrosion resistance of the stainless steels because of
Austenitic their relatively low chromium contents and no nickel. They should be used in mild
The austenitic steels are chromium-nickel and chromium-nickel-manganese environments only. They will rust in moderate to severe corrosion conditions.
alloys. They can be hardened only by cold-working, and heat treatment only
anneals them. They are non-magnetic in the annealed condition, although some Advantages / Disadvantages
may be slightly magnetic after cold-working.
Athough stainless steels have many advantages, there are certain disadvantages
Austenitic steels are formed by heating the steel mixture above the critical range that must be faced by the fabricator and designer.
and holding to form a structure called austenite. A controlled period of partial
cooling is allowed, followed by a rapid quench just above the critical range. • They are more difficult to cut and form than many materials
• They have a much greater expansion coefficient than other steels, and
They contain 18% or more chromium and 3.5-22% nickel. 321 and 347 stainless
they conduct heat at a lower rate, making welding more difficult. In welding
steels contain titanium and columbium respectively as stabilising alloys to reduce
CRES, inert-gas arc welding is preferred, because this process causes less
the susceptibility to intergranular corrosion resulting from heat sensitisation. Low
deformation due to heat expansion of the metal and it prevents oxidisation.
carbon content also reduces the susceptibility to sensitisation. These alloys are
non heat treatable. • Many of the stainless steels lose their corrosion resistance under high
temperatures.
Limited usage in the aircraft industry. They can be used in sea-water applications.
• Because of its toughness, stainless steel is more difficult to cut, form, shear,
They are resistant to most corrosives and sea-water. These alloys are non-
machine or drill than ordinary steel. For this reason, the technician, who is to
magnetic unless cold worked.
work with this material successfully, must be experienced in the necessary
processes or must be directed by an experienced technician.

CORROSION-RESISTANT (STAINLESS) STEEL
Figure 9: Steel Components (Landing Gear)

PRECIPITATION-HARDENED STAINLESS STEELS
Precipitation-Hardened Stainless Steels

Contain very little carbon, 15-17% chromium, 4-7% nickel and other minor
alloying elements. These alloys are solution heat-treated and can be hardened
to very high strengths.
Typical usage in the aircraft industry for airframe applications where high
strength and excellent corrosion resistance are required. Also used in elevated
temperature locations.
Very good corrosion resistance in marine environment.
High-Strength Low-Alloy Steels

Principally, iron base alloys that can be hardened to very high strengths. The
common steel alloy for use in the 180-200 ksi range is the 4130 alloy.
4340 steel has a strength range of 200 ksi up to 280 ksi and is commonly used
in the 260-280 ksi range.
An even higher strength alloy is 300M, most commonly used for aircraft landing
gear components. It can be hardened to the 240-290 ksi range.

HIGH-STRENGTH LOW-ALLOY STEELS
Low Alloy Steels and their Applicable Strength Ranges
ALLOY S T R E N G T H R A N G E (KSI)
125-145 150-170 160-180 180-200 220 MIN 275-300
4340 X X X X
4330M X X X
9Ni-4Co-.30C X
4340M X

PRIMARY STEELS USED IN MODERN AIRPLANES
Primary Steels used in Modern Airplanes

The most widely-used high-strength steels are 4330M heat-treated to 220 -240
ksi and 4340M heat-treated to 275-300 ksi. These modified steels are also known
as vacuum remelt steels because of the manufacturing process used to obtain
their superior properties.
This process results in increased ductility, fatigue and fracture toughness
properties.
For elevated temperature applications up to 900°F, such as aft engine mounts,
9Ni-4Co-0.30C steel heat treated to 220-240 ksi is used. The successful use
of high-strength steel is attributed to careful design and stringent material and
process controls.
For bar and forging applications at strength levels of 200 ksi or lower, 15-5PH
precipitation hardened stainless steel is currently being used in place of alloy
steel. Manufacturing costs are reduced and improved corrosion resistance is
obtained by using 15-5PH steel.
NOTE FOR APPLICATIONS REQUIRING SHEET, 15-5PH IS RECOMMEND-

ED FOR THICKNESSES OF 0.063 INCH AND OVER BECAUSE
ROLLING OF 15-5PH IN THICKNESSES UNDER 0.063 INCH IS NOT
PRACTICAL.
For repair applications, it is acceptable to use 17-7 PH CRES sheet up to 0.090
inch thick when heat treated to 150-170 ksi , and up to 0.063 inch thick when heat
treated to 180-200 ksi. These thicknesses in each heat treatment range must not
be exceeded to avoid affecting the mechanical properties of the material.
The 300 series austenitic stainless steel sheet materials are used for lower
strength applications where corrosion or hygiene concerns dictate material
needs. 4130 and 4340 alloy steel sheet material is rarely used in new aircraft
construction.

PRIMARY STEELS USED IN MODERN AIRPLANES
Figure 10: Primary Steels used in Modern Airplanes

HYDROGEN EMBRITTLEMENT POTENTIAL
Hydrogen Embrittlement Potential

Hydrogen embrittlement is a phenomenon that occurs in various metal systems,
particularly ferrous and titanium alloys, under sustained loads at stresses far
below the actual ultimate tensile strength.
Aluminium, 300 series stainless steels and precipitation hardenable steels (15-5
PH etc.) are not affected.
In ferrous alloys, hydrogen embrittlement occurs when an alloy steel or a
400-series stainless component containing small amounts of hydrogen is
subjected to a sustained load.
CAUTION FRACTURE OF THE PART CAN OCCUR UNDER LOADS AS

LOW AS 30% OF THE YIELD STRENGTH AFTER ONLY A FEW
THOUSAND SERVICE HOURS.
The hydrogen will migrate to an area such as the grain boundaries or voids in the
metal. At high temperatures, hydrogen concentrations react with carbon to form
methane which causes a build up of pressure that can initiate and propagate
cracks.
The hydrogen can be introduced into the component during processes such
pickling and welding. For this reason special hydrogen free electrodes should
be used when welding steels. Certain solvents and plating processes can also
introduce hydrogen into the surface of the part.
Since only a very thin surface layer will be affected, the hydrogen can easily
be removed (as long as cracking has not been initiated) by a bake operation
at 375°F (190°C) as long as the part is bare (unplated) or plated with a porous
plating such as titanium-cadmium plating.
The stresses required for an embrittlement failure may be caused by improper
processing or installation-induced residual stresses rather than service induced.
The susceptibility of steel parts to hydrogen embrittlement increases as the
hardness and strength increase.
NOTE STEEL PARTS HEAT-TREATED TO 200 KSI AND ABOVE ARE HIGH-
LY SUSCEPTIBLE WHEREAS PARTS HEAT-TREATED TO 180-200
KSI ARE ONLY SUSCEPTIBLE IF THEY ARE SUBJECTED TO HIGH
SUSTAINED STRESSES.

HYDROGEN EMBRITTLEMENT POTENTIAL
Figure 11: Hydrogen Embrittlement

STEEL ALLOY REWORK PRECAUTIONS
Steel Alloy Rework Precautions

The following precautions must be observed when doing rework operations on
steel parts.
• Stress Concentrations
Since most steel parts are highly-stressed, localised stress concentrations
are undesirable and should always be removed.
• Hydrogen Embrittlement
Do not introduce hydrogen into the part. If any question exists as to its
introduction the part must be baked at 375°F (190°C) for at least three
hours. This temperature, incidentally, will not harm either paint or shot
peening.
• Untempered Martensite
Caution must be exercised while reworking the low alloy carbon steels so
as to prevent the formation of untempered martensite or the generation of
undesirable residual tensile stresses.
NOTE ANY METAL REMOVAL SHOULD BE DONE BY HAND OR WITH

SLOW-SPEED HAND-HELD POWER TOOLS.
Process Controls
The processing of steel parts is very critical and must be done in the correct
sequence. The engineer must spell out exactly what work is to be done including
temperature and time limits.

STEEL ALLOY REWORK PRECAUTIONS
Figure 12: Rework Precautions: Stress Concentrations

SURFACE PROTECTION
Surface Protection
Protective Treatments
Stainless steels do not normally require any protective treatment. Only when in
contact with Iightweight alloys are stainless steels treated as follows:
• Cadmium plating, zinc spraying or chromate passivating, to avoid galvanic
corrosion of the light alloys.
Non-stainless steels receive the following protective treatments:
• Cadmium plating plus a paint finish
• Phosphating plus a paint finish
• Aluminium spraying
• Hard chromium plating
• Chemical nickel plating
• Silver plating (not in contact with aluminium)

SURFACE PROTECTION
Figure 13: Dissimilar Metals Classification

CASE HARDENING OF STEEL
Case Hardening of Steel

Case Hardening
Some steel components on aircraft require a hard durable surface that is suitable
for load bearing, whilst retaining a tough core. The process that is used for
hardening the surface is called case hardening. Case hardening is best suited
to low carbon steels. If high carbon steels are subjected to case hardening then
they may become brittle.
There are two methods of case hardening that are currently used to surface
harden steels, they are carburising and nitriding.
Case hardening is NOT suitable for non-ferrous metals.
Carburising
Carburising produces a thin layer of high carbon steel on the surface of a
low carbon steel component. There are three methods of carburising a steel
component:
• Pack Carburising involves heating the component up to temperatures of
1700 degrees Fahrenheit whilst it is packed into a carbon rich material such
as charcoal. The carbon penetrates the surface of metal causing it to harden.
• Gas Carburising is similar to pack carburising, but utilises a carbon dioxide
rich atmosphere within the oven instead of a carbon rich solid.
• Liquid Carburising works by heating the metal up in a bath of either sodium
cyanide or barium cyanide. Either liquid will provide the necessary carbon to
surface harden the metal.
Nitriding
Nitriding produces an imporoved final surface finish compared to carburising as
the component is hardened, tempered and ground to its final dimensions prior to Case Hardened Components
surface hardening.
The hardening process involves heating the material to 1000 degrees Fahrenheit
in an ammonia rich environment. The ammonia breaks down allowing the nitrogen
to penetrate the surface.
Special alloys known as nitralloys are used in the manufacture of components
that are going to be used in the nitriding process

CASE HARDENING OF STEEL
Figure 14: Nitriding

TESTING OF AIRCRAFT MATERIALS PART-66 M6 CAT B1
HARDNESS TESTING
Testing of Aircraft Materials

Ferrous & Non-Ferrous
Hardness Testing
Introduction
Hardness testing is a method of determining the results of heat treatment as well list and talc (with an index of 1) at the foot. Any material in the list would scratch
as the state of a metal prior to heat treatment. Since hardness values can be tied any substance below it, and in this way the hardness of any ’unknown’ substance
in with tensile strength values and, in part, with wear resistance, hardness tests could be related to the scale by finding which substance would or would not
are an invaluable check of heat-treatment control and of material properties. scratch it and a hardness index assigned to it.
Practically all hardness testing equipments in service use the resistance to
penetration as a measure of hardness. Included among the better known bench-
type hardness testers are the Brinell and the Rockwell.
Moh’s Scale
Early attempts to evaluate the surface hardness of materials led to the adoption
of Moh’s Scale. This consists of a list of materials arranged in order of hardness,
with diamond, the hardest of all (with a hardness index of 10) at the head of the

HARDNESS TESTING
Material Hardness Index

Diamond 10
Sapphire 9
Topaz 8
Quartz 7
Feldspar 6
Apatite 5
Fluorspar 4
Calcite 3
Gypsum 2
Talc 1
Moh’s Scale of Hardness
Although this method of testing is useful in the classification of minerals rather
than for the determination of hardness of metals, it nevertheless agrees with the
classical meaning of surface hardness if we define hardness as the resistance of
a surface to abrasion. In the Turner Sclerometer, invented early in the century, a
diamond point was drawn across the surface of the test piece and a load on the
point was increased until a just-visible scratch was produced. The load involved
was taken as the hardness index. However, modern methods of hardness testing
really measure the material’s resistance to penetration rather than to abrasion.
They are therefore somewhat of a compromise on the true measuring of hardness
but have the advantage of being easier to determine with accuracy. Johann August Brinell
1849 – 1925
The Brinell Hardness Tester uses a hardened spherical ball, which is forced
into the surface of the metal. The ball is 10 millimetres (0.3937inch) in diameter.
A pressure of 3,000 kilograms (6,600 pounds) is used for ferrous metals and
500 kilograms for non-ferrous metals. Normally, the load should be applied for
30 seconds. In order to produce equilibrium, this period may be increased to
1 minute for extremely hard steels.
The load is applied by means of hydraulic pressure. The hydraulic pressure
is built up by a hand pump or an electric motor, depending on the model of
tester. A pressure gauge indicates the amount of pressure. There is a release
mechanism for relieving the pressure after the test has been made, and a
calibrated microscope is provided for measuring the diameter of the impression
in millimetres.
The machine has various shaped anvils for supporting the specimen and an
elevating screw for bringing the specimen in contact with the ball penetrator.

HARDNESS TESTING
There are attachments for special tests.

To determine the Brinell hardness number for a metal, the diameter of the
impression is first measured, using the calibrated microscope furnished with
the tester. After measuring the diameter of the impression, the measurement is
converted into the Brinell hardness number on the conversion table furnished
with the tester.

HARDNESS TESTING
If the metal is softer than C-20, the B-scale set-up is used.

With this set-up:
• The 1/16-inch ball is used as a penetrator
• The major load is 100 kilograms
Hugh M Rockwell (1890-1957). • The hardness is read on the B-scale
Co-invented the hardness tester with his brother, Stanley. In setting up the Rockwell machine, use the diamond penetrator for testing ma-
The Rockwell Hardness Tester measures the resistance to penetration as does terials that are known to be hard. If in doubt, try the diamond, since the steel
the Brinell tester, but instead of measuring the diameter of the impression, the ball may be deformed if used for testing hard materials. If the metal tests below
Rockwell tester measures the depth, and the hardness is indicated directly on a C-22, then change to the steel ball. Use the steel ball for all soft materials – those
dial attached to the machine. The more shallow the penetration, the higher the testing less than B-100. Should an overlap occur at the top of the B-scale and the
hardness number. bottom of the C-scale, use the C-scale set-up.
Two types of penetrators are used with the Rockwell tester:
• A diamond cone
• A hardened steel ball
The load that forces the penetrator into the metal is called the major load, and is
measured in kilograms. The results of each penetrator and load combination are
reported on separate scales, designated by letters.
The penetrator, the major load, and the scale vary with the kind of metal being
tested. For hardened steels:
• The diamond penetrator is used
• The major load is 150 kilograms
• The hardness is read on the C-scale
When this reading is recorded, the letter C must precede the number indicated
by the pointer. The C-scale set-up is used for testing metals ranging in hardness
from C-20 to the hardest steel (usually about C-70).

HARDNESS TESTING
Barcol Tester
The Barcol hardness tester is a portable unit designed for testing aluminium
alloys, copper, brass and other relatively soft materials. Approximate range of the
tester is 25 to 100 Brinell.
The unit can be used in any position and in any space that will allow for the
operator’s hand. The hardness is indicated on a dial conveniently divided in 100
graduations.
The method is most often used for composite materials such as re-inforced
thermosetting resins or to determine how much a resin or plastic has cured.
The test complements the measurement of glass transition temperature, as an
indirect measure of the degree of cure of a composite. It is inexpensive and
quick, and provides information on the cure throughout a part.
The original Barcol Impressor was invented by Walter Colman (who founded
Barber-Colman) to assist the US Army Air Corps in avoiding sabotage in World
War II.
There was concern that aircraft rivets could be substituted for lead or wooden
ones, which would subsequently fail in flight.

HARDNESS TESTING
Riehle Tester
The Riehle hardness tester is a portable unit that is designed for making Rockwell
tests comparable to the bench-type machine. The instrument is quite universal in
its application, being readily adjustable to a wide range of sizes and shapes that
would be difficult, or impossible, to test on a bench-type tester.
It may be noted that the adjusting screws and the penetration indicator are
set back some distance from the penetrator end of the clamps. This makes it
practicable to use the tester on either the outside or inside surface of tubing, as
well as on many other applications where the clearance above the penetrator
or below the anvil is limited. The indicator brackets are arranged so that it is
possible to turn the indicators to any angle for greater convenience in a specific
application, or to facilitate its use by a left-handed operator. Adjustment of the
lower clamp is made by the small knurled knob below the clamp. The larger
diameter knob, extending through the slot in the side of the clamp, is used for
actual clamping.
Each Riehle tester is supplied with a diamond penetrator and a 1/16-inch ball
penetrator. The ball penetrator should not be used on materials harder than
B-100 nor on a load heavier than 100 kilograms. This is to avoid the danger of
flattening the ball. The diamond penetrator, when used with a 150-kilogram load,
may be used on materials from the hardest down to those giving a reading of
C-20.
When the expected hardness of a material is completely unknown to the operator,
it is advisable to take a preliminary reading on the A-scale as a guide in selecting
the proper scale to be used.

HARDNESS TESTING
Ernst Tester
The Ernst tester is a small versatile tool that requires access to only one side
of the material being tested. There are two models of the tester; one for testing
hardened steels and hard alloys and one for testing unhardened steels and most
non-ferrous metals.
It has a diamond point penetrator, and it is read directly from the Rockwell A or B
or the Brinell scales, depending on the model used.
The correct procedures for using the Ernst tester are as follows:
1. Solidly support the metal being tested by placing a bucking bar behind the
metal. This will minimise flexing of the metal and yield a more accurate
reading of hardness.
2. The handgrip must be pressed down with a steady, even force to ensure
accurate readings.
3. Press down until the fluid column has stopped moving.
The hardness value is given at the point where the fluid column has stopped
moving on the scale. As with other portable testers of similar type, the material
must be smooth and backed up so there will be no tendency to sag under the
load applied on the tester. The test block supplied with each tester should be
used frequently to check its performance.

HARDNESS TESTING
Vickers Hardness
Vickers hardness is determined similarly to Brinell hardness. It is classified as a
microhardness determination method and is the more common.
It is measured by forcing an indenter into the surface of the sample. It differs in
that it uses a 136 square pyramid indenter, which produces a square indentation
in the specimen, rather than a spherical or conical indenter, which Rockwell and
Brinnell hardness techniques use. The square indenter is advantageous over the
round indentations as the square indentations are easier to measure than the
round impressions from spherical and conical indenters.
Measuring Vickers Hardness

The Vickers hardness tester is equipped with an adjustable height stage, which is
wound up to close to the indenter prior to the test. The test is executed with a lever
or button, with all the rest of the test parameters being controlled automatically.
Indenter loads vary between 1 and 120kg. The indentation is then measured with
a microscope across the diagonals of the square indentation.
Calculating Vickers Hardness

The hardness is calculated by dividing the load by the surface area of the
indentation, such that Vickers hardness is determined using the following formula:
Hv = (F ÷ A)
where Hv = Vickers hardness (in MPa) F = load, and
A = surface area of the impression
Similarly, tables are often available to convert load and impression measurements
to Vickers hardness values.
Advantages of the Vickers Hardness System

This test also leaves only tiny indentations that are usually not a problem for
production items, making it suitable for quality control. The other advantage of Measuring screen showing magnified
the Vickers system other than the increased degree of accuracy, is that it does image of impression
not have a number of different scales and indenters, as does the Rockwell and
Brinnell scales.

HARDNESS TESTING
)
Vickers Ltd. (Aviation Department) was formed in 1911 and produced one of the
first aircraft designed to carry a machine gun, the FB5 (fighting biplane) Gun Bus.
During World War I, Vickers produced the Valentia and Viking flying boat and
the Vimy heavy bomber. An example of the latter (a converted Royal Air Force
bomber) became the first aircraft to cross the Atlantic Ocean non-stop.
Limited merged into Vickers-Armstrongs in 1927.
Figure 15: Vickers History

) PART-66 M6 CAT B1
HARDNESS TESTING

TENSILE STRENGTH
Tensile Strength
Tensile strength is an important concept in engineering, especially in the fields of column of water is pulled upwards from the top by capillary action, and this force
material science, mechanical engineering and structural engineering. is transmitted down the column by its tensile strength. Air pressure from below
also plays a small part in a tree’s ability to draw up water, but this alone would
The tensile strength of a material is the maximum amount of tensile stress that only be sufficient to push the column of water to a height of about ten metres, and
can be applied to it before it ceases to be elastic. If more force is applied, the trees can grow much higher than that.
material will become plastic or even break. Past the elastic limit, the material will
not relax to its initial shape after the force is removed. Yield Ultimate
The tensile strength where the material becomes plastic is called yield tensile Strength Strength
Material (MPa) (MPa)
strength. This is the point where the deformation (strain) of the material
is unrecovered, and the work produced by external forces is not stored as Structural Steel ASTM-A36 250 400
elastic energy, but will lead to contraction, cracks and ultimately failure of the Steel High Strength Alloy ASTM A-514 690 760
construction. Clearly, this is a remarkable point for the engineering properties of
the material since here the construction may lose its loading capacity or undergo Stainless Steel AISI 302 Cold-Rolled 520 860
large deformations. On the stress-strain curve opposite this point is in between Cast Iron 4.5%C, ASTM A-48 - 170
the elastic and the plastic region. Aluminium Alloy 2014 -T6 400 455
The ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of a material is the limit stress at which Copper 99.9% Cu 70 220
the material actually breaks, with sudden release of the stored elastic energy
(released as noise and/or heat and/or more cracks e.g. for brittle materials). Titanium Alloy (6% Al, 4% V) 830 900
This point is the fracture marked X on the curve. Nylon Type 6/6 45 75
For steel, the elastic limit is at about 0,2% and the breaking point is at 25% Rubber - 15
of the total (relative) extension. In steel constructions, the maximum allowable Marble - 15
tensile stress at any point in the construction is 2/3 of the yield strength (or 0,2%
deformation stress in metals or alloys without clearly defined yield stress). This Typical tensile strengths of some materials
comes down to a safety factor of 1.5.
Tensile strength is measured in units of force per unit area. In the SI system, the
unit is newton per square metre (N/m or Pa – Pascal). The U.S. customary unit
is pounds per square inch (or PSI).
The breaking strength of a rope is specified in units of force, such as newtons,
without specifying the cross-sectional area of the rope. This is often loosely called
tensile strength, but this is not a strictly correct use of the term.
In brittle materials such as rock, concrete, cast iron, glass or soil, tensile strength
is negligible compared to the compressive strength and it is assumed zero for
most engineering applications.
Tensile strength can be measured for liquids as well as solids. For example,
when a tree draws water from its roots to its upper leaves by transpiration, the

TENSILE STRENGTH
Figure 16: Stress/Strain Graph

TENSILE TESTING
Tensile Testing
Introduction
The tensile strength of a material is the stress required to cause fracture of a test This makes it almost impossible to assess the yield stress of such an alloy, and,
piece in tension. in cases like this, yield stress is replaced by a value known as proof stress. Thus
the 0-1 proof stress of an alloy is that stress which will produce a permanent
A test piece of known cross-sectional area is gripped in the jaws of a testing
extension of 0.1% in the gauge length of the test piece. This is very roughly
machine, and is subjected to a tensile force which is increased by suitable
equivalent to the permanent extension remaining in a normalised steel at its yield
increments. For each increment of force, the amount by which the length of a
point.
known ’gauge length’ on the test piece increases is measured using a suitable
extensometer. When the test piece begins to stretch rapidly, the extensometer is
removed. Rapid extension is a sign that fracture is imminent, and failure to remove
the extensometer from the test piece would probably lead to the destruction of
the extensometer. The maximum force applied to the test piece before fracture
is measured.
A force/extension diagram can then be plotted (see opposite).
At first, the amount of extension is very small, compared with the increase in
force. Such extension as there is is directly proportional to the force; that is, OA
is a straight line. If the force is released at any point before A is reached, the test
piece will return to its original length.
If the test piece is stressed past the point A (known as the elastic limit or limit of
proportionality), the material suddenly ’gives’; that is, it suffers a sudden extension
for very little increase in force. This is called the yield point (Y), and, if the force
is now removed, a small permanent extension will remain in the material. Any
extension which occurs past the point A is of a plastic nature.
As the force is increased further, the material stretches rapidly first uniformly
along its entire length, and then locally to form a ’neck’. This ’necking’ occurs just The determination of 0.1% proof stress
after the maximum force has been reached, at M, and since the cross-section The 0.1% proof stress of a material is derived as shown above. The relevant part
decreases rapidly at the neck, the force at B required to break the specimen is of the force/extension diagram is plotted as described earlier. A distance OA,
much less than the maximum load at M. equal to 0.1% of the gauge length, is marked along the horizontal axis. A line
is then drawn from A, parallel to the straight-line portion of the force/extension
Proof Stress
diagram. The line from A intersects the diagram at B, and this indicates the proof
The force/extension diagram is typical of a low-carbon steel in the normalised force which would produce a permanent extension of 0.1% in the gauge length of
condition. Unfortunately, force/extension diagrams for heat-treated steels, and the specimen. From this value of force, the 0.1% proof stress can be calculated:
for most other alloys, do not often show a well-defined yield point, and the ’elastic
0.1% proof stress = proof force
portion’ of the graph merges gradually into the ’plastic section’, as shown in the
examples (opposite right). original cross-sectional area of test-piece

TENSILE TESTING
Figure 17: Force-Extension Diagrams

TENSILE TESTING
Elongation Test Pieces

In addition to determining the tensile strength and the 0.1% proof stress (or, Test pieces must be as representative as is possible of the material under test.
alternatively, the yield stress), the percentage elongation of the test piece at This applies to test pieces in general and not only those used in a tensile test.
fracture is also derived. This is a measure of the ductility of the material. The Many materials are far from homogeneous. Thus the segregation of impurities
two halves of the broken test piece are fitted together, and the extended gauge and variations in grain size in castings will generally mean that tensile test pieces
length is measured. should be taken from more than one position in a casting.
Quite often test pieces are made from ’runners’ and ’risers’ of a casting and
will generally give an adequate overall guide to quality. In wrought materials
impurities will be more evenly distributed and the grain size more uniform but
there will inevitably be a directionality of properties caused by the formation of
’fibres’ of impurity in the direction of working. The net result on the strength of a
metal is similar to that of grain direction in wood. Thus wood is much stronger in
the direction of the grain than it is across the grain.
In a similar way, wrought metals are stronger in the direction of rolling (or extrusion)
than they are at right angles to the direction of rolling. Consequently, tensile test
pieces should, where possible, be made from material along the fibre direction
and also at right angles to the fibre direction. For narrow strip material this is not
possible, though test pieces of rectangular cross-section are commonly used.
General methods for tensile testing of metals are covered in BS 18: Methods of
Tensile Testing of Metals; whilst the procedures for specific alloys are covered in
the appropriate BS specifications for those alloys.
Tensile Testing Machines

Tensile-testing machines vary both in design and capacity. Large machines
applying forces of up to 1 MN or more are in use; whilst, at the other end of the
scale, the miniature Hounsfield tensometer, with a capacity of 20 kN, is a portable
The two test pieces in (a) are of similar material and of equal diameters.
bench instrument in which the tensile force is applied by means of a spring beam.
Consequently, the dimensions and shape of both ’necked’ portions will also This method has the particular advantage that, when necking of the specimen
be similar, that is the increase in length will be the same in each test piece. begins, the force applied by the spring beam is automatically reduced, and this
However, since different gauge lengths have been used it follows that elongation enables the operator to plot the complete force/extension diagram. This is not
reported on gauge length would be different for each. Therefore, in order that possible with many large machines in which there is no provision for reducing the
values of elongation shall be comparable, it is obvious that test pieces should force once necking begins. With the Hounsfield tensometer, a force/extension
be geometrically similar; that is, there must be a standard relationship or diagram is plotted on special graph paper attached to a rotating drum which is
ratio between cross sectional area and gauge length. Test pieces which are geared to the actual extension of the test piece. The operator follows the level of
geometrically similar and fulfil these conditions are known as proportional test the mercury column (which records the force on the spring beam) by using the
pieces. They are generally circular in cross-section. cursor. At appropriate intervals, he ’pricks’ the graph paper with the stylus, so that
a force/extension diagram is traced out as a series of pin-pricks.

TENSILE TESTING
Figure 18: Tensile Test-Pieces

IMPACT TESTING
Impact Testing
Introduction Specimens for Charpy and Izod Testing
During the first part of the 20th century, a metallurgist named Izod invented an While still used, pendulum impact testing has inherent weaknesses. In notched
impact test for determining the suitability of various metals to be used as cutting Izod testing, samples are mounted in a vice fixture with the notch facing a
tools. The test involved a pendulum with a known weight at the end of its arm pendulum. A weighted pendulum, fixed at a point directly above the sample vice,
swinging down and striking the specimen as it stood clamped in a vertical position. is swung up and held stationary. This height and thus the speed of the pendulum
at impact is a constant for this test. When released, the pendulum swings through
Some years later, another metallurgist named Charpy modified the test slightly the path where the sample is fixed. As the sample breaks, energy is absorbed
by orienting the specimen in a horizontal fashion. These pendulum impact test by the sample. The height the pendulum attains after impact is measured by an
methods proved to be very useful, providing reliable, qualitative impact data indicator on a fixed scale which reads in joules (ft-lb). The impact strength is the
throughout WWII up until the early 70’s. It then became apparent that higher loss of momentum in the pendulum while breaking the sample off at the notch.
velocities and impact energies could be achieved with vertical style drop towers
and thus the trend began to shift. The Izod pendulum test configuration served as the standard in impact testing
in the plastics and metals industry for many years. The problems with the Izod
Pendulum machines remained popular with those testing to Izod and Charpy pendulum test involve several parameters which can drastically alter the results
while more high speed, product oriented impact applications became the if not strictly controlled.
dominion of the drop tower.
First the radius of the notch is critical. It is meant to simulate conditions which
might exist in applications where the features such as internal corner on an
enclosure will act as a stress concentrator upon impact. In a pendulum test, the
radius cannot be varied. The notch radius has a significant effect on the ability of
a sample to absorb impact. Most polymers, especially polycarbonate and nylon
have critical notch radii below which their impact strength falls off dramatically. In
a fixed radius test, the data can give a false impression about the relative impact
resistance of different polymers.
In addition, the creation of the notch in the sample has been a problem. Notch
consistency has been difficult so comparison between testing labs is difficult.
Notching blades can overheat polymers and degrade the material around the
(a) notch thus resulting in inaccurate test results. Industry round robin studies have
(b)
shown that test results among participants were impossible to correlate because
Impact Loading of the tremendous variations in notches.
A Charpy pendulum impact test is a variation of Izod. In a Charpy test, a sample
is laid horizontally on two supports against an anvil. The sample is notched in
the centre and the notch side is positioned away from the pendulum. When the
pendulum swings through the gap in the anvil, it impacts the centre of the sample
with a radiused hammer. The energy to break is measured and reported in the
same way as with an Izod test.

IMPACT TESTING
Figure 19: Standard Impact Test-Pieces

IMPACT TESTING
The Avery-Denison Universal Impact-Testing Machine

This machine can be used for either Charpy or Izod impact tests.
For Izod tests, the pendulum is released from the lower position to give a striking
energy of 170 J.
For Charpy tests, the pendulum is released from the upper position, to give a
striking energy of 300 J.
The scale carries a set of graduations for each test.
The machine can also be used for impact-tension tests.
Figure 20: Avery-Denison Universal Impact-Testing Machine

FATIGUE TESTING
Fatigue Testing
Introduction
The German engineer Wohler produced the well-known fatigue-testing machine
which still bears his name. This is a device whereby alternations of stress can be
produced in a test piece very rapidly, and so reduce to a reasonable period the
time required for a fatigue test. As the test piece turns through 180°, the force
acting at a point on the specimen falls to zero, and then increases to W in the
opposite direction.
To find the fatigue limit, a number of similar specimens of the material are tested
in this way, each at a different value of W, until failure occurs, or, alternatively,
until about 20 million reversals have been endured. It is, of course, not possible
to subject the test piece to the ideal infinite number of reversals. August Wohler
From these results, an S/N curve is plotted; that is, stress (S) against the number 1819-1914
of reversals (N) endured. The curve becomes horizontal at a stress which will
be endured for an infinite number of reversals. This stress is the fatigue limit or
endurance limit. Some non-ferrous materials do not show a well defined fatigue
limit; that is, the S/N curve slopes gradually down to the horizontal axis.
In the Wohler test it is convenient to make use of stresses of a torsional nature, but
in practice fatigue may result from stresses which are either tensile, compressive
or torsional so long as loading is ’live’ and either fluctuates or alternates.
A fatigue fracture has a characteristic type of surface, and consists of two parts.
One is smooth and burnished, and shows ripple-like marks radiating outwards
from the centre of crack formation; whilst the other is coarse and crystalline,
indicating the final fracture of the remainder of the cross-sectional area which
could no longer withstand the load.
Fatigue failure will ultimately occur in any member which is stressed above its
fatigue limit in such a way that the operating stress fluctuates or alternates. Such
failure can be due simply to bad design and lack of understanding of fatigue,
but is much more likely to be due to the presence of unforeseen high-frequency
vibrations in a member which is stressed above the fatigue limit. This is possible
since the fatigue limit is well below the tensile strength for all materials.
Figure 21: Wohler Fatigue Testing Machine

TITANIUM
Aircraft Materials – Ferrous

Titanium Use in Aircraft Construction
The strength of titanium is maintained to temperatures of more than 800°F
(427°C); hence it is useful in the cooler sections of gas-turbine engines, for
cowlings and baffles around engines and for the skin parts of aircraft which may
be subjected to elevated temperatures that would be damaging to aluminium
alloys.
General
Titanium and its alloys are used widely in the aerospace industry because of its
high strength, light weight, temperature resistance and corrosion resistance. The
weight of titanium is approximately 56% of the weight of steel, but its strength is
equal to that of steel.
Aluminium CRES 18-8 Titanium

Density 2.7 7.75 4.5
Corrosion-
Resistant Low Good Very good
Heat
Conductivity Very good Low Very low
Heat-Resistant Low Good Good

TITANIUM
Figure 22: Application of Titanium Alloy

PROPERTIES – TITANIUM
Properties – Titanium
Corrosion
One of the most outstanding properties of titanium is its resistance to corrosive
substances, including some of the most troublesome industrial chemicals. It also
has excellent resistance to oxidising acids such as nitric or chromic acids. Strong
reducing acids such as sulphuric or hydrochloric acid will however attack titanium
as will chlorinated cleaning solutions.
The resistance of titanium to corrosion by natural environmental substances
is unequaled by other structural metals. It is completely inert when exposed to
stagnant water, urban atmosphere, marine atmosphere, salt-water spray and
sea-water.
Extreme Heat
When titanium is exposed to high temperatures (1000°F (583°C) and above),
it must be protected from the atmosphere, because at these temperatures it
combines rapidly with oxygen. The usual method of protection is to heat the
metal in an atmosphere of argon or helium gas. One of the most satisfactory
methods for welding titanium is inert-gas welding.
Titanium has excellent properties in its pure form and also with the addition of
various alloying elements. The pure form may have small amounts of carbon and
nitrogen with maximums of 0.10 and 0.05% respectively. These maximums are
also a requirement for alloyed types.
The pure material may have a tensile strength of 50,000 to 90,000 PSI, and
the addition of manganese brings this up to as high as 139,000 PSI. Aluminium
in amounts of 3-7% is commonly used as an alloying element. Other alloying
elements include molybdenum, tin, iron, chromium and vanadium. Alloying and
heat treating have made it possible to develop titanium products with more than
180,000 PSI tensile strength.

Figure 23: Application Of Titanium Alloy

General
Titanium may be worked by many of the methods employed for steel and stainless The basic machining properties of titanium metal cannot be altered. However,
(corrosion-resistant) steel. It can be sheared, drawn, pressed, machined, routed, their affects can be greatly minimised by decreasing temperatures generated at
sawed and nibbled. The operator handling titanium must be familiar with its the tool face and cutting edge.
peculiarities and special characteristics in order to obtain good results. The Economical production techniques have been developed through application of
cutting dies and shear blades used in cutting titanium must be of good quality these basic rules in machining titanium:
steel and must be kept very sharp.
• Use low cutting speeds. Tool-tip temperatures are affected more by cutting
When titanium is being cut or ground in any appreciable quantity, it is necessary speed than by any other single variable. A change from 20 surface feet
to have fire-extinguishing equipment to hand. Hot sparks from a grinding wheel per minute to 150 surface feet per minute with carbide tools will result in a
can ignite an accumulation of titanium dust and swarf to produce an extremely temperature change from 800°F to 1,700°F.
hot fire. It is recommended that liquid coolant of the correct type (such as water
based soluble oil) be used during grinding to avoid the possibility of such a fire. • Maintain high feed rates. Temperature is not affected by feed rate so much as
by speed, and the highest feed rates consistent with good machining practice
should be used.
Hints for Machining Titanium
• Use plenty of cutting fluid. Coolant carries away heat, washes away swarf and
Titanium is sometimes classified as difficult to machine. In part, this can be
reduces cutting forces.
explained by the physical properties of titanium metal.
• Use sharp tools and replace them at the first sign of wear. Tool wear not linear
• Titanium is a poor conductor of heat. Heat, generated by the cutting action,
when cutting titanium and complete tool failure occurs rather quickly after a
does not dissipate quickly. Therefore, most of the heat is concentrated on the
small initial amount of wear takes place.
cutting edge and the tool face.
• Never stop feeding while tool and work are in moving contact. Allowing a tool
• Titanium has a strong alloying tendency or chemical reactivity with materials
to dwell in moving action causes work hardening and promotes smearing,
in cutting tools at tool-operating temperatures. This causes galling, welding
galling, seizing and total tool breakdown.
and smearing and rapid destruction of the cutting tool.
• Titanium has a relatively low modulus. Work will have a tendency to move Precautions for Working Titanium
away from the cutting tool unless heavy cuts are maintained or proper back
-up is employed. CAUTION: TWO PRECAUTIONS MUST BE OBSERVED WHILE
WORKING WITH TITANIUM. BOTH OF THESE ARE NECESSARY BECAUSE
Two other factors influence machining operations. OF THE STRONG AFFINITY WHICH TITANIUM HAS FOR OXYGEN AND
• Because of the lack of a stationary mass of metal (built-up edge) ahead of OTHER ELEMENTS AT HIGH TEMPERATURES.
the cutting tool, a high shearing angle is formed. This causes a thin chip to
contact a relatively small area on the cutting tool face and results in high 1. AT ABOUT 1,950°F (1,065°C), TITANIUM WILL IGNITE IN THE PRESENCE
bearing loads per unit area. OF OXYGEN AND BURN WITH AN INCANDESCENT FLAME.
The high bearing force, combined with the friction developed by the chip as
it rushes over the bearing area, results in a great increase in heat on a very 2. ITS AFFINITY FOR NITROGEN IS EVEN MORE PRONOUNCED,
localised portion of the cutting tool. BECAUSE IT WILL IGNITE AT ABOUT 1,500°F (815°C) WITH NITROGEN.
• Further, the combination of high bearing forces and heat produces cratering
action close to the cutting edge, resulting in rapid tool breakdown.

Figure 24: Lockheed SR- 71 Blackbird: 85% Titanium

ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
Aluminium Alloys
General
Pure (99.0%) cast aluminium is highly corrosion resistant due to a non-porous
oxide coating that forms on its surface. It is also extremely malleable which makes
it unsuitable for aircraft structures because it is too soft. However, because of its
light weight it is, when alloyed with other metals or elements, an ideal structural
material that is nearly as strong as steel but only one third of its weight, whilst still
possessing excellent corrosion resistant characteristics.
Alloyed aluminium is produced in cast or wrought form. Cast aluminium has a
grain structure that is very coarse, thus the metal is brittle. Cast aluminium is
used in construction of aircraft wheels and engine crankcases.
When aluminium is wrought, its grain structure is compressed and tightened as
it is forced into shapes of plates, rods, extrusions or skins. Wrought aluminium
(used extensively in aircraft construction) is either non-heat-treated or heat-
treated. Most structural aircraft parts are made of heat-treated aluminium alloys.
Alloying is mixing aluminium with other metals to make it stronger. Wrought and
cast aluminium alloys are identified by a four-digit number, designated by the
Aluminium Association of America (AA-Number), the first digit of which generally
identifies the major alloying element.
The second digit indicates alloy modification. If the second digit is zero, it indicates
the original alloy; digits 1 through 9, which are assigned consecutively, indicate
alloy modifications.
The last two digits have no special significance, serving only to identify the
different alloys in the group. For casting alloys, the fourth digit is separated from
the first three digits by a decimal point, and indicates the form, that is to say
casting or ingot.

ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
Figure 25: Aluminium Base Materials

PROPERTIES OF ALUMINIUM
Properties of Aluminium
Aluminium is three times lighter than steel but, when alloyed, can attain steel’s
high strength characteristics. It is also corrosion-resistant, making it hygienic and
long-lasting.
One pound of aluminium has more than twice the electrical conductivity of an
equal weight of copper.
Polished aluminium is highly reflective and is utilised for light and heat reflectors.
Since the chemical composition of aluminium remains unchanged during re-
melting, it is easily and efficiently recycled. Remelting of aluminium scrap requires
only five per cent of the energy needed to produce primary aluminium.
Figure 26: Properties of Aluminium

SURFACE PROTECTION / CLADDING OF ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
Surface Protection / Cladding

of Aluminium Alloys
Several aluminium alloys (for example 2024 and 7075) are very susceptible to
corrosion. Sheets of such material are clad with a thin layer of pure aluminium
with 1% zinc on both sides as a means of corrosion protection.
These layers are permanently welded to the base material in a rolling process at
high temperature. Other than electroplated stock, clad material can be formed.
The thickness of the clad layers is about 3-5% of the material thickness. An ink
print on US sheet metal that reads ALclad, Clad or ALC indicates that such sheet
is clad.
Figure 27: Cladding of Aluminium Alloys

ALUMINIUM ALLOY DESIGNATIONS
Aluminium Alloy Designations

The aluminium industry uses a four-digit index system for the designation of its Basic Designation for Wrought and Cast Aluminium alloys (AA- Numbering
wrought and cast aluminium alloys. System)
As outlined below, the first digit indicates the alloy group according to the major
alloying elements. Wrought Alloys
The second digit indicates alloy modification. If the second digit is zero, it indicates Alloy Number Major Identifying Elements
the original alloy; digits 1 through 9, which are assigned consecutively, indicate
1XXX 99.00% minimum aluminium
alloy modifications. The last two digits have no special significance, serving only
to identify the different alloys in the group. *2XXX Copper
3XXX Manganese
4XXX Silicon
5XXX Magnesium
*6XXX Magnesium and Silicon
*7XXX Zinc
8XXX Other elements
9XXX Unused series
Cast Alloys
Alloy Number Major Identifying Elements
1XXX 99.00 % minimum aluminium
2XXX Copper
3XXX Silicon with added copper and/or magnesium
4XXX Silicon
5XXX Magnesium
6XXX Unused series
7XXX Zinc
8XXX Tin
9XXX Other elements
* indicates alloy is suitable for heat treatment processes

ALUMINIUM ALLOY DESIGNATIONS
Figure 28: Aluminium Association Numbering System

NON-HEAT TREATABLE ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
Non-Heat Treatable Aluminium Alloys Heat Treatable Aluminium Alloys

1100 Aluminium 2011 Aluminium
This grade is commercially pure aluminium. It is soft and ductile and has excellent 2011 is the most free-machining of the common aluminium alloys. It also has
workability. It is ideal for applications involving intricate forming because it work excellent mechanical properties. Thus, it is widely used for automatic screw
-hardens more slowly than other alloys. It is the most weldable of aluminium machine products in parts requiring extensive machining.
alloys, by any method. It is non-heat treatable. It may be machined at high speeds with relatively heavy feeds. It may be
It has excellent resistance to corrosion, and is widely used in the chemical and resistance welded. Its corrosion resistance is good, and hardness and strength
food processing industries. It responds well to decorative finishes, which makes excellent.
it suitable for giftware and applications where eye appeal is a factor.
2017 Aluminium
It has the highest thermal conductivity of any aluminium alloy.
2017 combines excellent machinability and high strength with the result that
3003 Aluminium is one of the most widely used alloys for automatic screw machine work. Its
This is the most widely used of aluminium alloys. It is essentially commercially strength is slightly less than that of 2014. It is a tough, ductile alloy suitable for
pure aluminium with the addition of manganese, which increases the strength heavy-duty structural parts.
some 20% over 1100. Thus, it has all the excellent characteristics of 1100 with It has good formability, and may be joined by arc or resistance welding. Brazing
higher strength. It has excellent corrosion resistance and workability, and it may or gas welding is not recommended. Its corrosion resistance is fair.
be deep drawn or spun, welded, or brazed. This alloy is non-heat treatable.
2024 Aluminium
5052 Aluminium This is one of the best known of high strength aluminium alloys. With its high
This is the highest strength alloy of the more common non-heat treatable grades. strength and excellent fatigue resistance, it is used to advantage on aircraft
Fatigue strength is higher than most aluminium alloys. In addition, this grade has structure and parts where a good strength-to-weight ratio is desired. It is readily
particularly good resistance to marine atmosphere and salt water corrosion. machined to a high finish. 2024 in the annealed condition is easily formed and may
It has excellent workability. It may be drawn or formed into intricate shapes, be subsequently heat-treated. Arc or gas welding is generally not recommended,
and its slightly greater strength in the annealed condition minimises tearing that although this alloy may be spot, seam, or flash welded. The corrosion resistance
occurs in 1100 or 3003. The resistance welding characteristics are equal to those is relatively low. 2024 is commonly used with an anodised finish or in clad form
of 1100 or 3003. It has excellent finishing characteristics, and anodic coatings are (“ALclad”), with a thin surface layer of high purity aluminium.
bright and clear.

HEAT TREATABLE ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
Figure 29: Alloying Elements of Aluminium

Solution Heat Treatment

In this process aluminum alloys are heated in either a molten sodium or
potassium nitrate bath or in a hot-air furnace. The temperature is then held at 495°C
within plus or minus 5°C long enough for the copper is taken into solid solution with the
aluminium matrix. Once the metal has been heat soaked sufficiently, it is removed from
the furnace and cooled or quenched (rapid cooling).
It is extremely important that no more than about ten seconds elapse between
removal of an alloy from the furnace and the quench. The reason for this is that when
metal leaves the furnace and starts to cool, its alloying metals begin to precipitate
out of the base metal. If this process is not stopped, large grains of alloying elements
become suspended in the aluminum and weaken the alloy and increase the possibility
of intergranular corrosion.
After quenching, the copper is frozen in solution with the aluminium, this leaves the
alloy in a soft and malleable condition.
The alloy is then hardened by one of three processes:
1. Cold working will cause the copper to precipitate at grain boundaries and
harden the alloy.
2. Natural age hardening will occur at room temperature and is the process
by which the copper precipitates at the grain boundaries, this hardens the
aluminium to full strength over a period of several days.
3. Artificial ageing or precipitation hardening is a process whereby
the temperature is raised to approximately 1200°C, this increases the
precipitation hardening process and also raises the final strength of the alloy
Age hardening can also be slowed down by freezing the alloy immediately
after the quenching process has occured.

Figure 30: Methods of Heat-Treatment

NATURAL AGEING
Natural Ageing Artificial Ageing or Precipitation Hardening

The heat-treated aluminium alloys are extensively used in aircraft structures. Aluminium alloys containing zinc, magnesium, silicon, or copper are given
Commonly used heat-treatable alloys naturally age hardened are 2117, 2017 a precipitation heat-treatment after natural heat-treatment is completed. For
and 2024. example, the alloy 7075 is given a normal heat-treatment at 495°C (870°F) and
For example, the aluminium alloy 2024-F is heated to a temperature of 495°C quenched in cold water. After it is precipitation heat-treated at 120°C (250°F) for
(920°F) and held at that temperature until all parts are equally heated. After being 24 hours, it becomes 7075-T6. Alloys are precipitation heat-treated by heating
heated, the metal is quickly transferred to a quenching tank. The quenching them in an oven; time and temperatures vary (see table).
operation must be performed as quickly as possible in order to reduce the This treatment has effect of locking together particles in the grain of the metal, thus
possibility of intergranular corrosion. After quenching, the aluminium alloy is increasing strength, stability, and resistance to corrosion. Natural heat-treatment
kept at room temperature for 16 to 24 hours to ensure that the metal has age begins the grain-binding process; precipitation heat-treatment completes it.
hardened. Age hardening, the final step in the heat-treatment process, makes In addition, artificially aged alloys are generally over-aged to increase their
the metal naturally hard. resistance to corrosion, especially if, like 2024, they are subject to inter-granular
The designation of metal so treated changes from -F, as fabricated, to -T4, heat- corrosion.
treated and age hardened. If the metal is further hardened by cold-working (that Metals which are given precipitation heat-treatment usually lose some malleability
is, mechanically) its designation is -T3. and ductility, and their mechanical properties are so changed as to reduce
Heat treatable aluminium alloys commonly used in the construction of modern their ability to be reshaped cold without cracking. The most commonly used
aircraft are 2117-T4, 2017-T4 and 2024-T4 or T3. The alloy 2117-T4 is precipitation heat-treated alloys are those containing zinc.
manufactured only as rivet stock. It is the most widely used rivet alloy in the The alloy 7075-T6 has high impact resistance and therefore is used where great
aviation industry. The 2117 -T4 rivet is driven in the condition received from the strength is required. The 7079-T6 aluminium alloys are excellent for making
manufacturer without any further treatment. forgings for heavy channels that carry landing gears or flaps of large aircraft. The
ALCOA, a big aluminium manufacturer, reworked the alloy 2017-T4 by slightly alloy 7178 is used where compression loads are the greatest, for example in the
reducing the amount of magnesium and adding small amount of iron and silicon. superstructure of wide-body jets.
The crack-free 2017-T4 rivet material can be driven in the condition received. It The alloy 7075-T73 is the newest aluminium alloy. It was developed in 1979 by
is used in the construction of the Boeing 757 and 737 series aircraft. ALCOA and the US Air Force. A combination of aluminium, zinc, and magnesium,
The alloy 2024-T3 is widely used for skin covering and internal parts of all types it is primarily used as a solid-shank rivet. The 7050-T73 is the strongest of any
of aircraft. It has exceptional resistance to fatigue loads, it is highly resistant rivet alloy in use today. It has a high resistance to stress corrosion and is much
to cracks, it can withstand heavy load limits, and it retains high strength after stronger than the alloy 2024-T31, which it has replaced on some modern jetliners.
damage.

ARTIFICIAL AGEING OR PRECIPITATION HARDENING
Figure 31: Temperature Schedule of Heat-Treatment

SYSTEM FOR HEAT TREATABLE ALLOYS
System For Heat Treatable Alloys

The temper designation system for wrought and cast products that are Additional digits are used to designate stress relieving.
strengthened by heat-treatment employs the W and T designation described TX51 Stress relieved by stretching
in the section on basic temper designations. The W designation denoted an
TX510 For extrusions, products that receive no further straightening after
unstable temper, whereas the T designation denotes a stable temper other than
stress-relieving by stretching.
F, O or H. The T is followed by a number from 1 to 10; each number indicates a
specific sequence of basic treatments, as follows: TX511 For extrusions, products that receive minor straightening after
stress-relieving by stretching.
Basic Temper Designation
TX52 Stress relieving by compressing
F As fabricated
O Annealed
H Strain hardened (non-heat-treatable products only)
W Solution heat-treated
T Heat-treated to produce stable tempers other than F, O, or H
Temper Designation for Heat-Treatment

T1 Cooled from an elevated temperature shaping process and naturally
aged to a substantially stable condition
T2 Annealed
T3 Solution heat-treated and cold worked.
T4 Solution heat-treated and naturally aged
T42 Solution heat-treated from 0 temper to demonstrate response to heat-
treatment by the user, and naturally aged to a substantially stable
condition
T5 Cooled from an elevated temperature shaping process and artificially
aged
T6 Solution heat-treated and artificially aged.
T62 Solution heat-treated from 0°F temper to demonstrate response to
heat-treatment by the user, and artificially aged
T7 Solution heat-treated and stabilised
T8 Solution heat-treated, cold worked, and artificially aged
T9 Solution heat-treated, artificially aged, and cold worked
T10 Cooled from an elevated temperature shaping process, cold worked,
and artificially aged
SYSTEM FOR HEAT TREATABLE ALLOYS
Figure 32: Hardening of Aluminium Alloys

MAGNESIUM ALLOYS
Magnesium Alloys
General
Magnesium is lighter than aluminium and was once used extensively in CAUTION: THE AFFINITY OF MAGNESIUM FOR OXYGEN IS SO GREAT
the aircraft industry until it became apparent that it had three detrimental THAT IT WILL BURN IN AN ATMOSPHERE OF CARBON DIOX-
properties. IDE. MAGNESIUM MAY ALSO BURN IN AN ATMOSPHERE OF
NITROGEN TO FORM MAGNESIUM NITRIDE. FOR THESE REA-
• It is highly susceptible to corrosion. Corrosion is a problem and can be SONS, THE COMMON EXTINGUISHING METHODS WHICH DE-
overcome by chemically treating the magnesium alloy surface in such a PEND ON WATER, WATER SOLUTIONS, OR INERT GAS ARE
way as to form an oxide film. This film excludes oxygen from coming into NOT EFFECTIVE ON MAGNESIUM CHIP FIRES. HALOGEN
contact with the surface of the alloy and so prevents corrosion from taking CONTAINING EXTINGUISHING AGENTS (THE HALONS) RE-
place. Corrosion can be minimised further by ensuring that fasteners are of a ACT VIOLENTLY WITH BURNING MAGNESIUM BECAUSE THE
compatible material. CHLORINE OR OTHER HALOGEN COMBINES WITH THE MAG-
• It is difficult to work with. Magnesium alloy displays a tendency to crack, which NESIUM. HOWEVER, FLOODING WITH NOBLE GASES (E.G.,
makes it difficult to form and limits its use in thin sheet metal components. HELIUM OR ARGON) WILL EXTINGUISH BURNING MAGNESI-
• It is highly flammable. Magnesium is a pyrophoric metal and as such combusts UM.
easily, especially in powder or other small particle form. For this reason care
should be taken when grinding or machining magnesium. In the event of a
fire water based, inert gas or CO2 extinguishers are NOT to be used as they
will cause the fire’s intensity to increase. Instead smothering with dry sand or
some other dry material that excludes air from the fire should be used.
Pure magnesium must be alloyed with other elements to make it suitable
for the construction of aircraft parts. Its advantageous properties for
designers are:
• It has a high strength to weight ratio, (it is only 2/3 the weight of aluminium).
• It is non-magnetic, which makes it ideal for manufacturing instrument casings.
Identification of Magnesium Alloys

No classification system for magnesium alloys has international acceptance.
That of the American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) is the most widely
used. In this system, the first two letters indicate the principal alloying elements
as shown in the table below. The letter corresponding to the element present in
the greatest quantity is used first; if they are equal, they are listed alphabetically.
The letters are followed by numbers which represent the nominal compositions
of the principal alloying elements in weight (%) rounded to the nearest whole
number; thus AZ91 means the alloy Mg-9Al-1Zn.

MAGNESIUM ALLOYS
Figure 33: Magnesium Alloy Element Identification

HEAT TREATMENT OF MAGNESIUM ALLOYS
Heat Treatment of Magnesium Alloys

Like aluminium alloy, magnesium alloys can be subjected to the same range Heat Treatment of Magnesium Alloys has the following Codes:
of heat treatments in order to improve the alloy’s properties of stength, TEMPER TEMPER CONDITION
ductility and brittleness. The methods used are:
F F – AS FABRICATED
• Solution treatment. Magnesium alloy castings are solution heat treated to
improve tensile strength, ductility, and shock resistance. This heat treatment O O – ANNEALED
condition is indicated by using the symbol -T4 following the alloy designation. H24 H24 – STRAIN HARDENED AND PARTIALLY
Solution heat treatment plus artificial ageing is designated -T6. Artificial ANNEALED
ageing is necessary to develop the full properties of the metal. Solution heat T4 T4 – SOLUTION HEAT TREATED
treatment temperatures for magnesium alloy castings range from 730°F to
780°F, the exact range depending upon the type of alloy. The soaking time T5 T5 – ARTIFICIALLY AGED ONLY
ranges from 10 to 18 hours, the exact time depending upon the type of alloy T6 T6 – SOLUTION HEAT TREATED AND
as well as the thickness of the part. Soaking periods longer than 18 hours may ARTIFICIALLY AGED
be necessary for castings over 2 inches in thickness. Magnesium alloys must
NEVER be heated in a salt bath as this may result in an explosion.
• Precipitation hardening. After solution treatment, magnesium alloys may be
given an ageing treatment to increase hardness and yield strength. Generally,
the ageing treatments are used merely to relieve stress and stabilise the
alloys in order to prevent dimensional changes later, especially during or
after machining. Both yield strength and hardness are improved somewhat
by this treatment at the expense of a slight amount of ductility. The corrosion
resistance is also improved, making it closer to an ”as cast” alloy. Precipitation
heat treatment temperatures are considerably lower than solution heat
treatment temperatures and range from 325°F to 500°F, time ranges from 4
to 18 hours.
• Annealing is used to soften an alloy and releive internal stresses. Magnesium
alloys in various conditions of hardening or temper can be annealed by being
heated at 290°C to 455°C (550 to 850°F), depending on alloy, for one or more
hours.

HEAT TREATMENT OF MAGNESIUM ALLOYS

GLARE (FIBRE METAL LAMINATES)
Glare (Fibre Metal Laminates) Grade Sub-grade Metal sheet thickness Prepreg orientation* Main characteristics
Glare (GLAss REinforced Laminate) is a member of a family of materials called [mm] and alloy in each fibre layer**
Fibre Metal Laminates (FMLs). FMLs are materials consisting of thin layers of Fatigue, strength,
Yield stress
metal sheet and uni-directional fibre layers embedded in an adhesive system. Glare 1 0.3 – 0.4 7475-T761 0/0
Glare is an optimised FML for aircraft and consists of alternating layers of 2A 0.2 – 0.5 2024-T3 0/0 Fatigue, strength
aluminium and glass fibre pregreg layers. Glare 2 2B 0.2 – 0.5 2024-T3 90 / 90 Fatigue, strength
A laminate is produced in an autoclave curing cycle. The different layers of the
Glare 3 0.2 – 0.5 2024-T3 0 / 90 Fatigue, impact
laminate are stacked before curing by hand lay-up, or by automated machines.
Because of the layered structure of the material it is possible to tailor the material Fatigue, strength in
for a particular application. Both the number of layers as well as the direction of Glare 4 4A 0.2 – 0.5 2024-T3 0 / 90 / 0 90° direction
the fibre layers can be varied depending on the application of the structural part. Fatigue, strength in
From the early seventies a lot of work has been performed on the development 0° direction
4B 0.2 – 0.5 2024-T3 90 / 0 / 90
of FMLs in order to create a material with improved fatigue properties and high Glare 5 0.2 – 0.5 2024-T3 0 / 90 / 90 / 0 Impact
damage tolerance capabilities.
Shear, off-axis
Up to now six standard Glare grades have been developed. The number of Glare 6 6A 0.2 – 0.5 2024-T3 +45 / -45
properties
prepreg layers and their orientation determines the Glare grade. All grades
Shear, off-axis
are based on uni-directional glass fibres embedded in Cytec FM 94 structural properties
adhesive. The thickness of the aluminium layers in the Glare laminates ranges 6B 0.2 – 0.5 2024-T3 -45 / +45
from 0.2 to 0.5 mm. * All aluminium rolling directions in standard laminates are in the same orientation; the
rolling direction is defined as 0°, the transverse direction is defined as 90°.
A laminate coding system is used to comprehensively define laminates from the
table above. ** The number of orientations in this column is equal to the number of prepregs (each about
0.125mm) in each fibre layer.
An example is: Glare 4B-4/3-0.4. This indicates:
• A Glare laminate with fibre orientation according to the Glare 4B definition in
the table opposite
• 4 layers of aluminium and 3 fibre layers
• An aluminium layer thickness of 0.4mm
The most important applications of Glare are: fuselage skin structures of the
Airbus A380, aircraft cargo bay floors and liners, aircraft cargo explosive resistant
containers.

GLARE (FIBRE METAL LAMINATES)
Figure 34: GLARE (GLAss REinforced Laminate)

GLARE PROPERTIES
Glare Properties Blast-Resistant Container

FML materials have a unique set of properties. The alternating structure of fibre Glare is used to produce specialised airline cargo containers. Its high impact
layers and metals ensures the potential for tailoring the material to its application. strength prevents severe handling damage. This results in less repairs and re-
FML has the following advantageous properties: duced life cycle costs.
• High strength Glare’s low weight and corrosion resistance provides for additional advantages.
Because of the positive strain rate effect and Glare resistance against flame
• Fatigue resistant
penetration it is the material used in the manufacture of the only airline cargo
• Damage tolerant container meeting the blast mitigation requirements of the FAA’s Draft Appendix
• Impact and blast resistant A of ISO 6517. It is the ECOS3 Secure Luggage Container (LD-3 configuration).
• Fire resistant The ECOS3 is constructed of panels of Glare, which are jointed to an aluminium
• Thermal isolation frame system. FAA testing has shown that the container is able to withstand the
effects of an explosion and protects the aircraft in which the container is placed.
Applications A big advantage of the use of Glare is that the additional weight compared to a
Leading Edges conventional container is kept to a minimum. It is only about 100 lbs heavier than
a conventional LD-3 container.
The application of Glare as fuselage skin material for the Airbus A380 is widely
known. In 2003, a major breakthrough was achieved with the application of Glare
Cargo Floors and Liners
in the leading edge of the vertical and horizontal tailplane of the Airbus A380.
With this new application the first structural application of Glare outside aircraft Improved properties in aircraft structures are of no interest if the improvements
fuselages was found. cannot be translated to either improved passenger safety, weight savings or
reduced operating costs. In the case of the application of Glare in cargo bay
The leading edge of a wing or tailplane mainly has two functions. The first is to
floors and liners, the primary incentive for airlines is life cycle cost savings.
maintain the right aerodynamic shape of the wing as a whole and secondly it has
to protect the wing from any in-flight impact damages. Several airlines have performed trials with flat sheet Glare 3 and Glare 5 as
the cargo bay floor: United Airlines (B757), US Airways (B737), Qantas (B737,
During take off and landing, debris can be moved and impact the wing or
B747) and Midway Express (MD-80 & 88). After a service period of 2 years and
empennage. Further, in flight one of the major threats for the wing leading edges
8 months, no through-penetrations were encountered as a result of the good
is impact by birds. A bird impact will cause severe damage to the wing with a
impact properties of Glare.
possible loss of control for the aircraft in case of damage of the major structure
of the wing. Bird impact is therefore one of the main design drivers for a leading A simple substitution of Glare 5 for standard aluminium sheets used in Boeing
edge. floors will provide significant extension of the service life of the floors, reduce
maintenance costs, reduce weight and provide superior protection against flame
It is known that Glare has good impact properties, which are governed by the so-
burn-through compared to sheet aluminium. Potential damage from corrosion is
called strain-rate behaviour of the glass fibres in the laminate. This phenomenon
also significantly reduced or eliminated.
results in a higher strength of the fibres at higher loading rates. One can image
that a bird impact during flight is the source for very high strain rates. Glare can be used either as sheet material or as a part of a sandwich construction
as cargo bay floor or liner. In the latter case the material is bonded to balsa wood
Glare displays very good bird impact behaviour. In comparison to aluminium this
or honeycomb cores.
results either in better protection of the structure (less damage) or in a lighter
design.

APPLICATIONS
Figure 35: GLARE: Potential Aerospace Applications

AIRCRAFT MATERIALS – COMPOSITE AND NON-METALLIC PART-66 M6 CAT B1
ABBREVIATIONS
Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic

Abbreviations
AFRP Aramid Fibre Reinforced Plastic
CFRP Carbon Fibre Reinforced Plastic
GFRP Glass Fibre Reinforced Plastic
QFRP Quartz Fibre Reinforced Plastic
HOBE Honeycomb before Expansion
MSDS Material Safety Data Sheet
NDT Non Destructive Testing
NTM Non Destructive Testing Manual
Prepeg Pre-impregnated Fabric
SRM Structural Repair Manual
Conversions
Fahrenheit to Centigrade Conversion
°C = (°F - 32) x 0.555
Centigrade to Fahrenheit Conversion
°F = °C x 1.8 + 32

GENERAL
General
The term ’composite’ is used to describe two or more materials that are combined
to form a much stronger structure than either material by itself.
The most simple composite is composed of two elements:
• A matrix which serves as a bonding substance (adhesives or resins), and
• A re-inforcing material (fabric)
Prior to combination, the matrix is generally in liquid form and the re-inforcing
material is a solid. When the substances are combined and cured, the part is
stronger than the fabric is by itself, and stronger than the resin is by itself.
Many times a third component is added in the form of a core material.
All of these materials are combined to make a part that is stronger than each was
originally.
Modern composites are advanced to the point that they are strong enough to
be used in primary airframe components like rudders and floor beams. In some
cases, the whole airframe is designed of advanced composite materials.
Adavantages / Disadvantages
Hondajet: All-Composite Business Jet
Advantages
Composite materials are used mainly to reduce weight. If weight can be saved,
more cargo, fuel or passengers can be carried.
More advantages are:
• High strength-to-weight ratio
• Reduction of parts and fasteners
• Reduction of wear
• Corrosion resistance
Disadvantages
Disadvantages are:
• Generally expensive
• Not easy to repair; you need well-trained staff, tools, equipment and facilities
to repair composite components.

ADAVANTAGES / DISADVANTAGES
Figure 36: Boeing 787: World’s First All-Composite Passenger Aircraft

Figure 37: Advanced Composite Applications: Primary Structure

Figure 38: Advanced Composite Applications: Secondary Structure

Figure 39: Advanced Composite Applications: Interiors

Figure 40: Airbus A380 CFRP Applications

Figure 41: Airbus A380 QFRP, CFRP & GFRP Applications

Figure 42: Advanced Composite Applications: Helicopters


RE-INFORCING MATERIALS
Re-inforcing Materials
General Kevlar
When combined with a matrix, the re-inforcing material (fibres) gives the major Kevlar, another DuPont development, is a man-made organic fibre with many
strength to the composite component. There are several types of re-inforcing unique properties such as high tensile strength and flexibility. Kevlar is employed
fibres; the most commonly-used are outlined below. These fibre materials can be in making bulletproof vests, belts for radial tyres, cables and re-inforced
used in combination with one another (e.g. Kevlar/ Graphite), woven in a specific composites for aircraft panels.
pattern, in combination with other materials (e.g. foams or core materials) or Kevlar does also have a few disadvantages. The fibres themselves absorb
simply in combination with matrix materials. moisture, making Kevlar composites more sensitive to the environment. Although
tensile strength and modulus are high, compressive properties are relatively
Fibreglass
poor. Kevlar is also very difficult to cut. Special scissors are needed for cutting
Fibreglass is made from small strands of molten silica glass and than spun dry fabric and special drill bits for drilling cured laminates.
together and woven into cloth. There are many different weaves of fibreglass
available, depending on the application. The wide range of applications Despite its disadvantages, Kevlar’s unique properties have helped it to become
(e.g. cargo bay liners) of the material and its low cost make it one of the most one of the most important man-made organic fibres ever developed.
popular used. Fibreglass weighs more and has less strength than most other Kevlar is Ultra Violet sensitive and its gold colour turns brown as it is effected by
fibre material. There are two types of fibreglass that are commonly used in the sunlight. For this reason, Kevlar cloth should not be exposed to direct sunlight.
aerospace sector:
Nomex
• E-glass highly resistant to electricity
Nomex, again a DuPont development, is an infusible, wholly aromatic* polymer
• S-glass very high tensile strength that is manufactured only as a fibre. It has very high thermal stability and
Aramid temperature- and flame-resistance, hence its use as flame-proof clothing. In
Aramid fibres are general characterised by their yellow colour, light weight and contrast to its chemical isomer Kevlar, its radiation resistance is very good.
excellent tensile strength. Aramid is a registered tradename of the DuPont The fibre is converted into a number of fibre-based forms, including: calendered
Company and is an ideal material for aircraft parts that are subject to high stress and uncalendered papers, pressboards of three different densities and
and vibration (e.g. rotor blades). It is also used in bullet-proof vests. honeycomb. The last is made from Nomex paper coated in a phenolic resin.
The name is a shortened form of “aromatic* polyamide”. * “Aromatic”, as used in this application, does not mean “sweet -smelling”; its other
Damage to Aramid structural components will, in general, be repaired with dictionary definition is “a benzene-related compound”.
fibreglass.
Graphite
Black graphite / carbon fibre is very strong and stiff and is used for its rigid, strong
properties. This material is used to manufacture primary structural components
like ribs and floor beams. Graphite is stronger in compressive strength than
Kevlar, however, it is more brittle than Kevlar. It has the problem of being corrosive
when bonded to aluminium and so a layer of fibreglass must be used to isolate
the two materials.

Figure 43: Nomex Flameproof Clothing

Fabric Orientation
When working with composite materials, it is important to understand the
terminology associated with it, as the design, manufacture and repair of composite
components rely on orientation of the fabric to provide the desired characteristics
of the final product.
Warp
The warp of the threads runs along the length of the fabric as it comes off the roll.
Weft / Fill
The weft fibres run perpendicular to the warp fibres.
Selvage Edge (Selvedge)

The Selvage edge of the fabric is the tightly-woven edge that runs parallel to the
warp threads and is used to prevent the edges unravelling.
Bias
The bias runs at 45° to the warp threads. The bias allows manipulation of the
material to create complex contours. Fabric can often be stretched along the bias
but not along the warp or weft.
Unidirectional Fibre
Unidirectional fibres are ones in which the major fibres run in the direction of the
warp.
Bi-Directional Fibre
Bi-directional fabric calls for the fibres to run in two or more different directions.
Usually, the fabric is woven with the warp threads outnumbering the weft threads,
as this provides more strength in the direction of the warp.
Mats
Mat fabrics consist of chopped fibres that offer little strength compared with
unidirectional or bi-directional threads.
Fabric Weaves
Fabric weaves are more resistant to fibre breakout, delamination and damage
than unidirectional material. Because of the wide variety of uses and strength
requirements, composites come in many different weaves.

Figure 44: Different Styles of Re-inforcing Fabrics

MATRIX MATERIALS
Matrix Materials
General
The matrix is the bonding material that completely surrounds the fibre to give
strength and transfer the stress to the fibre. The newer matrix materials have good
stress-distribution, heat-resistant, chemical-resistant and durability properties.
Most of these newer matrix materials are epoxy resins.
Resins used as a matrix are two-part systems consisting of a resin and a hardener
(catalyst), which acts as a curing agent.
Resins are a type of plastic and are broken down into two categories:
• Thermoplastics
• Thermoset
Thermoplastics
Thermoplastic resins use heat to form the part into a specified shape, and this
shape is not permanent. That means, if we add heat again, it will flow again
to another shape. So, thermoplastics can only be used in areas where the
temperatures do not exceed 750°F. ......................................................................
One example of thermoplastic is Plexiglass / Acrylic.
Thermosets
Thermosets use heat to form and set the shape permanently. The plastic, once
formed, cannot be reformed even if it is heated. Most composite structural
components are made from thermoset resins. An example of thermoset is
bakelite. Matrix Completely Covering Fibres
Epoxy Resins
Epoxy resins are one type of thermosetting plastic resin. They have good
adhesion, strength and resistance to moisture and chemical properties. They
are used to bond non-porous and dissimilar materials, like metal to composite
components.
Prepreg
Prepreg is the abbreviation of pre-impregnated fabrics, and they are fabrics that
have the resin already impregnated into them. Prepreg material comes in large
rolls and needs to be stored in a freezer when not in use to prevent the resin from
curing at room temperature.

MATRIX MATERIALS
Figure 45: Prepreg Production Methods

CORE MATERIAL
Core Material
General
Core material is the central member of the assembly. When the core is bonded
between two thin-face sheets, it provides a rigid, lightweight component. This
type of construction is known as sandwich construction. Typical applications
would include flying control surfaces and helicopter rotor blades.
Foams
There are a lot of different types of foam materials available, depending on the
application.
Honeycomb
This type of core material has the shape of natural honeycomb and has an
excellent strength-to-weight ratio. Honeycomb materials can be constructed of
aluminium, Kevlar, carbon, fibreglass, Nomex (trade name of DuPont) or steel.
Nomex is a paper that has been impregnated with aramid and is very often used
on so-called advanced composites.
Honeycomb Fabrication
There are two methods of honeycomb fabrication:
1. Corrugation process: Material which can be converted using this process
include metals, plastics, plastic re-inforced glass and paper.
2. Expansion process: In this process, all bonds are made simultaneously
(the corrugation process is essentially a one-layer-at-a-time operation).
Honeycomb Cores
Honeycomb core materials consist of six-sided shapes like a natural honeycomb
which provide cores with a very high strength-to-weight ratio. The ribbon direction
of the core is the direction in which the honeycomb can be pulled apart. When
the honeycomb is pulled perpendicular to the ribbon direction it separates it. If
the pull is parallel to the ribbon direction, then it will be impossible to separate
the honeycomb.
Other Core Materials

Styrofoam, urethane, wood and several other materials are also used as core
materials.

CORE MATERIAL
Figure 46: Core Materials

WORKING WITH COMPOSITE MATERIALS
Working with Composite Materials

Electrical Bonding
There are a lot of different methods used by manufacturers to dissipate the
electrical charge on composite components:
• Flame spray
• Bonding jumpers
• Aluminium wires woven into the top layer
• Thin aluminium foils bonded to the top layer
Painting
After manufacturing / repair, the part or repair area is painted to seal the surface
from moisture.

WORKING WITH COMPOSITE MATERIALS
Lightning Strike Protection: Aluminium Mesh Lightning Strike Protection: No Aluminium Mesh
Figure 47: Lightning Strikes

SAFETY
Safety
When working with composite materials, correct safety precautions must be
observed. Pay attention to the Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS).
On the MSDS you will find the following information:
• Health precautions
• Flammability of the material
• Ventilation requirements
• Information for health professionals in the event of an accident
Safety Precautions
Some of the materials are very dangerous and can cause allergic reactions,
so take care if you are working with these materials and observe the safety
precautions:
• Do not let any of the materials come into contact with your skin or with your
clothes.
• Do not inhale vapours.
• Do not allow the work area to become excessively untidy.
• Do not wash your skin with powerful solvents.
• Do not eat, drink or smoke in work areas.
• Do not machine materials without wearing protective clothing and a dust
mask.

SAFETY
Figure 48: Composite Safety

HOW PLASTICS ARE CREATED
How Plastics are created

In the image opposite are sets of twins, representing a model for the synthesis
of polymers.
Each pair of Mickey Mouses in the row represents a molecule of one of the most
important gaseous hydro-carbons in the manufacture of plastic: ethylene.
In the second row, they have let go of one pair of hands and joined up with their
neighbours to produce a long chain.
In a chemical reaction the Mickey Mouses are monomers and the chain would
be a polymer.
Polymerisation
The polymerisation process has been generally understood since about 1930.
Polymerisation is a chemical reaction, generally carried out in the presence of
a catalyst, which combines small molecules (monomers), containing a double
bond, into long chain molecules.
The double bond is “opened up”, thereby making valency bonds available for
linking with its neighbouring monomer molecule.
No by-products are produced. The monomer molecules may be:
• Ethylene polymerising to polyethylene (PE)
• Styrene polymerising to polystyrene (PS), or
• Vinylchloride polymerising to polyvinyl-chloride (PVC)
Different unsaturated (i.e. with a double bond) components can be polymerised
together (copolymerised), for example:
• Styrene / acrylonitrile copolymer (SAN)
• Acrylonitrile / butadiene / styrene copolymer (ABS)

POLYMERISATION
Figure 49: Plastic Creation: The Polymerisation Process

POLYCONDENSATION
Besides polymerisation, there are two other types of reactions used to make
polymers, or giant molecules.
Polycondensation
Polycondensation was used and partly understood even earlier than 1930. The
most famous product was Bakelite, so named by Baekeland, the Belgian chemist,
who made it commercially soon after 1910.
Polycondensation is a chemical reaction between two similar or dissimilar basic
units which have at least two functional groups. It gives rise to the elimination of
small, low-molecular-weight by-products such as water, hydrochloric acid, etc.
The most important commercial polymers are made in this way, for example:
• Phenol-formaldehyde (Bakelite) resins (typical thermosets)
• Polyamides (nylon) and
• Polyester
Production of polyester and polyamid fibres is also performed by polycondensation.
The polyester fibre or the polyester resin is produced by combining the two
monomers glycol and adipin acid. The fission product will be water (H2O).
There is another way of producing polyester; by polycondensation of glycol and
terephtalic acid. The polyester macromolecule has built-in benzol rings.
Polyaddition
Polyaddition has been used since 1937. Polyaddition is a reaction of two different
types of molecules when reactive groups are brought together. No by-products Leo Hendrik Baekeland
are produced, but hydrogen atoms migrate from their positions in the functional 1863-1944
group leaving combinable free valencies.
Two important types of plastics are made this way:
• Polyurethanes
• Epoxies

POLYADDITION
Figure 50: Resin Applications

ADHESIVE
Adhesive • can provide noise reduction as well as some temperature barrier functions.
An adhesive is a substance used to bond two or more surfaces together. Most • distribute stresses uniformly over the entire bonded area. In contrast to bolts
adhesives form a bond by filling in the minute pits and fissures normally present and rivets, there is a minimal stress concentration..
even in very smooth surfaces. Adhesive bonds are economical; they distribute the • produce invisible joints. This is important in cases where thin decorative
stress at the bonding point, are moisture- and corrosion-resistant and eliminate skins of metal structures are given strength by supporting elements, such as
the need for rivets and bolts. frames, honeycombs and bars.
The effectiveness of an adhesive depends on several factors, including: • are designed to make joints that can bear both a static or dynamic load.
• Resistance to slippage and shrinkage All other adhesives may be classified as non-structural. Non-structural
• Malleability adhesives include most household glues, hot-meld adhesives, rubber and other
thermoplastics.
• Cohesive strength, and
• Surface tension, which determines how far the adhesive penetrates the tiny Contact Adhesives
depressions in the bonding surfaces. Atmospheric pressure will press two solids together if there is no air between the
Adhesives vary with the purpose for which they are intended. Such purposes two plane parallel surfaces. The barometric pressure is 1 bar = 10N/cm. For a
now include the increasing use of adhesives in surgery. contact area of 100cm a tensile force of 1000N is needed to pull the two surfaces
apart. Contact adhesives work the same way by using atmospheric pressure.
Synthetic adhesives, used either alone or as modifiers of natural adhesives,
perform better and have a greater range of application than the natural products. Solvent Adhesives
Most of them form polymers, which are huge molecules incorporating large Solvent adhesives contain plastics or resins dissolved in a solvent. The solvent
numbers of simple molecules to form strong chains and nets that link surfaces has to evaporate to cure the adhesive.
in a firm bond.
Thermosetting adhesives (which are transformed into tough, heat-resistant solids Dispersion Adhesives
by the addition of a catalyst or the application of heat) are used in such structural Dispersion adhesives contain resins dissolved in a water solution, such as wood
functions as bonding metallic parts of aircraft and space vehicles. Thermoplastic glue or wood paste.
resins, which can be softened by heating, are used for bonding wood, glass,
rubber, metal and paper products. Resin Adhesives
Elastomeric adhesives, such as synthetic or natural rubber cements, are also Resin adhesives cure by chemical reaction. They contain two or more components.
used. They
• join dissimilar metals without the hazard of producing galvanic corrosion.
• join metals with less energy than needed to produce bolted, riveted or welded
joints.
• can provide the strength of welded joints without the disadvantages of the
welding process (damage of surface coating, corrosion, energy requirement).
• are the ideal joining material, and often the only one, that can be used for
metal to plastic or metal to GFRP joints.

ADHESIVE

ADHESIVE
Film Adhesives Thixotropic Agents

Film adhesives are similar to prepregs. They are used for bonding metal to metal, Some plastic resins are extremely sensitive to temperature changes. At 15°C
sandwich core to skin and GFRP, AFRP and CFRP. they may be as thick as molasses, while at 30°C they will run like water. Since
Adhesives are available as unsupported and supported films. Supported films heat is used as a curing agent, these resins may tend to run off of any vertical or
contain a woven nylon carrier. near-vertical surface before they have a chance to cure. In order to eliminate this
problem, we can add a thixotropic (thickening) agent.
Film adhesives are supplied on a release paper backing, in rolls with polythene
interleaving to protect the adhesive in storage and when being handled. These There are two agents that are commonly used in aircraft maintenance:
coverings must be removed before the adhesive can be used. • Micro-balloons, and
The film adhesive has to be cured under a curing cycle, in accordance with the • Aerosil
Structural Repair Manual.
The film adhesive has to be stored under refrigeration at -18°C. Micro-Balloons
Micro-balloons are made of hollow phenolic balls with a range of diameters from
Foaming Adhesive Film about 10 to 300 microns. Under the microscope, each micro-balloon is seen to
A foaming adhesive film is an adhesive in sheet form which expands during the be a perfect sphere.
curing cycle to fill gaps and adhere strongly to all parts of the structure with which In applying this agent, epoxy or polyester resins are mixed as directed, and the
it comes into contact. It is mainly used for the repair of honeycomb sandwich micro-balloons are gently folded in, using care not to beat or crush them. A paste
panels as a honeycomb core splice and as an edge-filling. of light consistency is made up and trowelled onto the surface where it cures into
The foaming adhesive is designed for use in conjunction with structural adhesive a hard, light-weight filler. This can be filed or sanded to the required contour.
films and prepregs. Therefore it has to be cured under a curing cycle, in
accordance with the Structural Repair Manual. Aerosil
Foaming adhesive films have a limited shelf life at room temperature, therefore Aerosil is a very light, white powder, which is a product of combustion. Aerosil is
they should be kept under refrigeration at -18°C. used as a thixotropic agent. You can find it in combination with resins, lacquers
and even in toothpaste and sauces.
Plastic Foams
Plastic foams are produced with either ”closed” or ”open” (interconnected) pores
and as either preformed rigid sheets or as fluids for injection into cavities. Most
thermoplastics and some thermoset resins can be foamed, but the materials
commonly used for aircraft components are polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and
polymethacrylimide. Polystyrene was used for some experimental aircraft and
polyurethane is also available.
Consideration of its performance in a fire (in terms of fire resistance and toxicity
of the smoke) will determine the choice of foam.

ADHESIVE
Figure 51: Adhesive Application Example

ADHESIVE
Resin Adhesives Polymer Resins

Resin ensures the cohesion of the composite material. The mechanical properties of plastics (polymers) can be improved drastically
Thermosetting and thermoplastic are the two main types of resin used as a matrix. by adding fibres, but for a composite to perform well the fibres must be bonded
together so that they act as a team. The choice of polymer is important.
The selection of the applicable type of resin to be used for element build-up
or repair execution is based on various parameters. Nevertheless, it must be The main features of a good polymer are:
remembered that most of the mechanical performances of a composite are given • It must have the correct mechanical properties.
by the fibres and their orientation. • It must coat every single fibre and bond well to them.
• It must be fairly easy to use.
Mixing Resins
Polymers are combined with the fibres by melting or by using a liquid polymer
Resins should always be mixed in a wax free container by adding accelerator
(resin) that can be hardened (cured).
to the resin. The measurement of the component parts is always measured by
weight and the mixing process should take between 3-5 minutes. If a resin has Melting is used to produce injection-moulded articles such as bodies for electrical
been stored in a freezer, it must be allowed to reach ambient temperature before equipment or mass-produced components, but expensive machinery and moulds
weighing as it will be heavier when cold. are required.
Adding catalysts to resins will considerably reduce their pot life. The addition of Fibre-reinforced components can be fabricated by using a liquid polymer, usually
too much accelerator will decrease the strength of the final mix and due to the referred to as a resin. They are cured by the addition of a hardener or catalyst, by
extreme exothermic reaction that will take place the resin may spontaneously the application of heat or by a combination of both.
combust. The four most commonly-used resins in fibre reinforced composites are:
• Polyester Resin They are typically used with glass fibre to form a strong
Thermosetting Resins durable material.
When mixed with the specified hardener and cured, the thermosetting resin sets
• Epoxy Resin This is a thermosetting resin that provides excellent adhesive
in a given form. Hardening is irreversible.
strength and can be used for glueing metals together.
Epoxy and phenolic resin are the two main types of resin used for composite
• Vinyl Ester Resin These are tough resins that have a high resistance to
structures.
corrosion even in the presence of fuel. This makes them extremely useful for
Epoxy resins are used for external components due to their good mechanical repairing fuel tank liners.
properties.
• Phenolic Resin Used extensively inside aircraft due to good resistance to
Phenolic resins are used for cabin furnishing due to their fire resistance and low smoke generation in fires.
toxicity.
Epoxy resin accounts for the majority of aircraft repairs.
Thermoplastic Resins WARNING: BECAUSE OF THE EXOTHERMIC REACTION, NEVER MIX RES-
When heated, thermoplastic resin becomes a plastic. After cooling, the resin sets INS BY ADDING RESIN TO THE ACCELERATOR AS THIS CAN
and hardens in a given form. Hardening is reversible. Thermoplastic resins are CAUSE FIRE OR EXPLOSIONS. ALWAYS ADD ACCELERATOR
very seldom used on composite structures. TO THE RESIN.

ADHESIVE
Figure 52: Resin Injection Repairs

ADHESIVE
Epoxy Resins (Epoxide Resins) Resin / Hardener Ratios

Epoxy resins are used in high-tech composites because their mechanical Manufacturers normally state how many grams of hardener have to be added to
properties are superior to those of polyesters. They are, however, much more 100g of resin. This figure is often referred to as phr, or parts per hundred of resin.
expensive. They, too, are viscous liquids but cure by a different process which For instance, the data sheet might say:
requires more accurate mixing.
Recommended resin / hardener ratio = 100:60 by weight
Resins and Hardeners This means that 100g of epoxy resin requires 60g of hardener for complete cure.
If, however, you are measuring out the resin and hardener by volume, the ratio
The amount of hardener added is critical, because using the wrong amount
may change because of the different densities of the two materials. In this case
would result in one of the following:
the ratio may be 100:65 by volume.
• Unreacted resin in the final cured resin
Resin / hardener ratios vary immensely from as low as 10 phr to as high as 150
• Unreacted hardener in the final cured resin phr for normal use. 100 phr means that you mix equal proportions of resin and
Both of these conditions would result in a weak product, and in extreme cases hardener, just like the epoxy adhesives that you buy as a household adhesive.
the epoxy would remain sticky.
Disadvantages of Epoxies
Resin / Hardener Ratios
Toxicity
There are hundreds of epoxy resin systems on the market and each requires a
Some epoxies and dilutents are known to cause dermatitis. Some amina curing
different resin hardener ratio. Some are as low as 10:1 and others as high as
agents are toxic. Good housekeeping is the best preventive measure. Cured
1:1 (e.g. Araldite adhesive). The manufacturer will supply exact details of mixing
epoxies are not deleterious to health.
ratios.
Low Pot and Shelf- Life
Cold and Hot Cure Most two-component adhesive formulations must be mixed shortly before use.
Many epoxy resins will cure at room temperature, but some require a high Some film and tape adhesives must be stored at low temperature for extended
temperature to cure properly. Even room-temperature resins can be heated to life, partially offsetting their advantages of convenience and reliability.
speed up the curing time and to improve the properties of the cured resin.
Moderate to High Cost
Epoxy Hardeners Epoxies are not cheap; however, their cost in a thin bond line is hardly a factor in
Polyesters are cured by a chain reaction. This means that only a small amount of the overall cost of the assembled product in most industrial applications.
catalyst is needed to start the reaction and it will then continue by itself. Therefore The term ”epoxy resin” usually refers to an intermediate molecule which contains
the amount of catalyst needed to cure the resin is not critical. at least two reactive epoxy groups.
Epoxides are cured by linking together the resin molecules and hardener The most common epoxies used in adhesives are derived from bisphenol A and
molecules. This means that exactly the right number of hardener molecules must epichlorohydrin (”bis-epi” resins) and are usually cured with reactive hardener
be present to get the best properties from the cured resin. containing primary and/or secondary amine groups.
The manufacturers always state the correct resin / hardener ratio on the data
sheet for each resin.

ADHESIVE
Figure 53: Typical Edge Delamination Repair

ADHESIVE
Epoxy Resins Characteristics

Adhesion Low Shrinkage
Epoxies have high adhesion to metals, glass and ceramics. They can be Epoxies cure with only a fraction of the shrinkage of vinyl-type adhesives such
formulated to give mixes of low viscosity with improved wetting, spreading and as polyesters and acrylics; consequently, less strain is build into the glue line
penetrating action. The variety of functional groups also provides good affinity and the bond is stronger. Also, epoxy does not pull away from the glass fibres as
between metals and plastics. For example, epoxies are in use for bonding of polyesters do. The shrinkage can be reduced to a fraction of 1% by incorporating
copper to phenolic laminate in printed circuits. silica, aluminium or other inorganic fillers.
Cohesion Resistance to Moisture and Solvents

When the resin is properly cured, the cohesive strength within the glue line is Epoxies are insensitive to moisture. Their resistance to solvents is also
so great (and adhesion of the epoxy to other materials so good) that failure outstanding and accounts for their rapid advance in the coatings field. They are
under stress often occurs in one of the adherents rather than in the epoxy or effective barriers to heat and electric current.
at the interface. This happens with glass and aluminium as well as with weaker
adherents such as concrete or wood. Can Be Modified
The properties of an epoxy adhesive can be changed by:
100% Solids
• The selection of a base resin and a curing agent
Unlike phenolics and some other resinous adhesives, epoxies cure without
releasing water or other condensation by-products. This makes it possible to • Alloying the epoxy with another resin, or
bond epoxies at contact pressure only, or with no pressure at all. • By compounding with fillers
Also, since there is no water to remove and no volatile solvents, epoxies are
convenient for assembly-line bonding of impervious surfaces such as metal or Can Be Cured at Ambient Temperatures
glass. Adhesives curing within 5 min at room temperature or lower temperatures can be
formulated by the selection of special curing agents.
Resistance to Wide Temperature Range

Epoxies can be formulated for continuous service in high-temperature
environments (in excess of 500oF).

ADHESIVE

SURFACE WETTING AND ABSORBTION
Surface Wetting and Absorbtion

Probably the most important factor for bonding is surface wetting. Factors with
positive effect on surface wetting are:
• Removal of surface contamination
• Viscosity reduction through application of heat
• Viscosity reduction by solvent or diluent addition
• Time
• Pressure
Factors with negative effect on surface wetting are:
• Fingerprints left on adherent surfaces
• Residues not removed from the adherent surfaces
• Glue lines incorrectly aligned
• Working at temperatures that are too low
• Incorrect surface pre-treatment
Two important aspects for a durable adhesive joint are:
• Mechanical hooking and
• Surface wetting
Mechanical hooking (as illustrated opposite) takes into account that the adhesive
must penetrate into cavities before curing, otherwise trapped air will reduce the
strength of the adhesive joint.
The phenomenon of surface wetting is frequently expressed with the contact angle
that is formed between a droplet of a liquid (adhesive) and a solid (substrate).
The smaller the contact angle the more the liquid spreads over the surface, and
vice versa.

SURFACE WETTING AND ABSORBTION

PRE-TREATMENT FOR BONDING
Pre-Treatment for Bonding

Whenever bonding is to be carried out, the condition of the bond surfaces must
be considered. They are likely to be contaminated with material which could
affect the performance of the joint. Surface preparation is essential.
Surfaces are prepared by one of the following pre-treatment procedures listed
below:
• Degrease only
• Degrease, abrade and remove loose particles
• Degrease and chemically pre-treat
Care must be taken to avoid contaminating the surfaces during or after pre-
treatment. Contamination may be caused by:
• Fingerprints
• Cloth which are not perfectly clean
• Contaminated abrasives
• Sub-standard degreasing
• Chemical solutions
• Other work processes taking place in the bonding area
In particular, oil vapours from machinery, paint and mould-release agents from
spraying operations should be excluded. When pre-treatment has been carried
out, it is good practice to bond the surfaces as soon as possible.
Should the bonding operation be delayed, the surface properties may be
preserved by priming the bond surfaces immediately after pre-treatment. For
normal work, the removal of all traces of oil and grease from the surfaces to be
bonded is essential.

Figure 54: Surface Wetting

Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic

General
When damage is discovered on a composite structural part, and before any
further repair work is performed, a complete investigation of the affected area is
to be carried out.
The investigation of damage is done using the related chapters and pages of the
SRM (Structural Repair Manual) in order to determine whether the damage is
repairable or not, and if so, the applicable type of repair.
Damage Detection
Damage may be discovered during scheduled inspections required by the
maintenance programme, or in unscheduled inspections when the part has been
subjected to accidental damage.
Damage Evaluation
A complete inspection of the damaged area or component will give the required
information concerning the extent and the type of damage. Depending on the
type, extent and importance of the affected zone, the damage acceptance level
may be determined.
Acceptance Level
In order to define the applicable repair type and its associated limits (time and
size), it is necessary to initially determine whether the damage is:
• Allowable
• Repairable
• Not repairable
The acceptance level of damage is determined using the graphics and
instructions contained in the affected component-related SRM chapter (52 to 57)
and allowable damage section of the Structural Repair Manual.

Scheduled Unscheduled
Checks Checks
Damage
Discovered
MPD
SRM
Damage
Evaluation
Damage
Acceptance
Level
Figure 55: Composite Damage Evaluation

DAMAGE CLASSIFICATION
Damage Classification importance. For each component the corresponding zones are given in the
related SRM chapter (e.g. spoiler SRM chapter 57) section ‘allowable damage’.
General
Allowable Damage
For composite surfaces (as per the Structural Repair Manual), damage is divided
into two main categories: For each of the defined zones, a graphic is to be used to determine allowable
damage limits, recommended repair types and repair associated limitations.
• Skin not-perforated damage Damage type and dimensions, as well as initial thickness, have to be known in
–– Abrasion order to select and work with these graphics.
–– Scratches Visual inspection is the principal method for damage detection. Delamination
or debonding can be caused by impact, abnormal loading or an undetected
–– Gouges
manufacturing defect.
–– Nicks
NOTE: SUCH DAMAGE IS NOT ALWAYS VISIBLE ON THE SURFACE.
–– Debonding THE COMPRESSION STRENGTH OF THE COMPONENT IS
–– Delamination AFFECTED AND WATER OR FLUID INGRESS IS VERY LIKELY
TO OCCUR.
–– Dents
• Skin perforated damage Scratches / Gouges
–– Lightning strike A scratch is the result of contact with a sharp object and only surface fibres
are affected. While a gouge is wider and deeper than a scratch, several plies
–– Holes
are affected, but the edges of a gouge are generally smooth. For scratches in
–– Impact by foreign object, requiring investigation for delamination moisture general, only surface restoration is necessary to prevent any fluid ingress.
contamination
Gouges affect structural strength and have to be repaired by removing the
Extent of Damage damaged plies and performing a hand lay-up.
Composite materials are prone to impact damage that causes the fabric layers to Abrasion
peel away from each other (delamination). Impact damage frequently leaves the
Abrasion is damage to a surface caused by scuffing, rubbing or scraping of
skin surface looking undamaged, but the underlying layers may be extensively
the component. Fibres are not damaged and mechanical performance is not
delaminated. This phenomenon is known as beyond vision damage (BVD).
affected. Abrasion damage is repaired by restoration of the surface protection, in
Close visual and non-destructive testing methods such as tap-testing, ultrasonic order to avoid any fluid ingress.
and X-rays are used to determine the amount of damage.
For delaminated / debonded area determination, a minimum inspection area is Corrosion
defined. In case of indication, the inspection area must be extended until the Galvanic corrosion may occur when an aluminium alloy part is in direct contact
limits of the affected zone are located. with a carbon fibre surface in the presence of a corrosive environment. In this
case it is the aluminium alloy part (e.g. fitting, lightning strike protection straps)
Surface Zones which corrodes and which needs replacing or repaired if possible.
As damage is not of the same significance in each area of the component, each
composite surface of the aircraft is divided into zones of different structural

Figure 56: Damage Classification

Lightning Strike Damage

Carbon fibre is a conductive material while glass or Aramid fibres are non-
conductive. The effect of a lightning strike will not be the same. For non-
conductive materials (glass, Aramid) a large part of the component, if not
completely protected, may be blown out because both skins are affected and the
core generally vapourised due to the extreme heat.
Damage on carbon fibre structures will usually be less significant (spots, small
holes, or charring).
Erosion
Erosion could affect all the leading edge surfaces, especially when the initial
surface protection system has been damaged. Erosion, when undetected or
unrepaired, may generate composite deterioration. The component may be
completely perforated and fluid ingress likely to occur. Restore the protection of
the area and install additional protection if necessary.

Figure 57: Resistance to Lightning Strike

Water Absorption
Any detected moisture has to be removed to avoid further damage.
During any repair procedure, ensure that repair parts are completely dry, in order
to avoid any material delamination during heat application. Water ingress in
sandwich structures is due to porosity of the skin. It reduces performance and
increases the weight of the affected structure. Water absorption is a phenomenon
of resin properties. The absorption stops once the resin is saturated.
Chemical Degradation
Chemical degradation principally affects the resin and is generally due to
accidental contact with aggressive chemical liquids or products. If chemical
degradation is detected, the whole contaminated area must be repaired.
Dent / Depression
A dent or depression is a deformity in the thickness of an area. It may be caused
by impact. This type of defect requires further NDT (Non Destructive Testing)
to detect delamination or debonding. On sandwich structure, the honeycomb is
generally damaged and requires a repair.

Figure 58: Repair Preparation

NON-DESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION (NDI) TECHNIQUES
Non-Destructive Inspection (NDI) Techniques The method is portable, but no records are produced. The method is also highly
dependent on the inspector’s subjective interpretation of the test response.
General
A variety of NDI techniques are available as inspection tools for documenting
manufacturing and service-related defects in composites. However, as in metallic
structures, no single non-destructive inspection method can locate and isolate all
defects.
Equipment and techniques utilised in the non-destructive inspection of composite
structures ranges in complexity from the use of a coin tap-test to the use of lasers
in holographic equipment:
• Tap testing
• Visual or optical inspection
• Bond tester or resonator
• Thermography
• Holography
• Acoustic emission
• Ultrasonics
• Radiography Visual or Optical Inspection
Visual or optical inspection procedures are used for a quick assessment of the
Of the listed techniques, the most commonly-used methods are ultrasonics
condition of the aircraft surface to look for the presence of flaws or damage. With
(pulse echo or through transmission) and radiography (X-ray).
the paint stripped off the suspect area, a strong light shone through a laminated
Tap-Testing structure and viewed from the other side may reveal delamination, indicated by a
change in colour. Obviously, this method is not suitable for opaque materials, so
Tap-testing is widely used for the quick evaluation of any accessible aircraft
realistically is only valid for glass fibre components.
surfaces to detect presence of debonding or entrapped water. The tap-test
procedure consists of lightly tapping the surface of the part with a coin, light Visual inspection is inexpensive, easy and fast. However, if the inspected material
hammer or other suitable objects. The acoustic response is compared with is not transparent, it is only capable of finding flaws that are evident on the visible
the response of a known good area. A ”flat” or ”dead” response is considered surface.
unacceptable. Internal flaws in composites (such as delaminations, disbonding and matrix
The acoustic response of a good part can vary dramatically with changes in crazing) are not detectable. In addition, tight surface cracks and edge
geometry, in which case a standard of some sort is required. The entire area delaminations may not be detectable.
must be tapped. Visual aids such as mirrors, boroscopes and magnifiers are portable, and may be
The method is limited to finding relatively shallow defects. In a honeycomb used to facilitate detection. Visual inspection results may be recorded in the form
structure, for example, the far side bondline cannot be evaluated. Thus, two- of photographs, if desired. The surface to be inspected should be clean and free
sided access is required for a complete inspection of honeycomb structures. of conditions that may mask or obscure defects.

NON-DESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION (NDI) TECHNIQUES
Skin Delamination
Detection
Ultrasonic
Stringers Debonded Method
Stringer
Honeycomb Taptest
and skin
debonded Detection
Figure 59: NDT Techniques 1

HOLOGRAPHY
Holography
Holography is used for the rapid assessment of flaws in surfaces of composite The surface roughness and the shape or contour of the test specimen will also
structures. affect the wave attenuation.
Optical holography is extremely sensitive in measuring small surface defects. The ultrasound is generally transmitted and received by an ultrasonic transducer
The part to be inspected is stressed by the application of heat, a static load or in a pulse echo or a through-transmission mode. The pulse echo technique
vibration to bring out the effect of the flaw on the surface displacement. can be applied to both immersion and contact test set-ups, while the through-
transmission method generally applies only to immersion and squirter test set-
For internal flaws in composite parts, holograms are taken when the structure ups.
is unstressed and then when the structure is stressed. The applied stress is
carefully set to avoid additional damage to the structure. In the pulse echo mode, the ultrasound is transmitted by a transducer and the
reflected signal is received by the same transducer, after the signal is reflected
The holograms corresponding to the stressed and unstressed states are from the back surface of the composite part. The attenuation of the reflected
reconstructed to form interference fringes. The fringe pattern is then analysed pulse is influenced by the presence of internal defects in the part, while the time
to reveal internal defects. The advantage of this technique is the inspection delay of the reflected pulse is related to the depth of defects in the composite
speed. The disadvantages are the tedious set-up procedures related to the part.
optical components, the caution to be exercised in proper stress application and
the difficulties in converting fringe patterns to a meaningful display (inspection Composite parts suspected of containing defects that are open to the outer
image) of defects. surfaces should be handled with care. In these situations, water may infiltrate
into the part through these defects and make it difficult to detect the flaws. Water
Ultrasonics contamination of a honeycomb core in sandwich constructions may lead to
serious corrosion problems. Reference standards are required to calibrate the
Ultrasonic inspection is widely used for quick and inexpensive evaluation of flaws ultrasonic test equipment, and inspectors should have experience in operating
in composite parts. Portable inspection probes are used for on-site inspection of them.
areas with suspected damage or flaws.
Ultrasonic waves travel through solids and liquids at relatively high speeds, but
are rapidly attenuated in gasses. The density and the elasticity of the medium
may affect the wave speed.
Also, depending on the type of particle movement induced by the ultrasonic
transducer, a longitudinal wave, shear wave or surface wave may be transmitted
in the medium. The refraction of an ultrasonic beam when it passes through the
boundary between two media is comparable to the refraction of light beams in
the same situation.
Ultrasonic NDT techniques are widely used for quality control and flaw detection
in composite laminates. The technique is based on the attenuation of high
frequency (1-30MHz) acoustic waves passing through the composite part. The
attenuation is generally a result of three causes dispersion due to viscoelastic
effects in the resin matrix, geometric dispersion due to the heterogeneity in the
composite material and geometric attenuation due to internal defects such as
delaminations, porosity, fibre and matrix cracks.

ULTRASONICS
High resoultion
high energy (gain)
High resolution transducer with
Probes delay shoe diameter 10mm
frequency 5-10MHz
Painted areas: water, oil, grease
Medium Unpainted areas: water-based only
Figure 60: Ultrasonics

RADIOGRAPHY
Radiography
X-ray inspection technique is widely used for quick and low-cost inspection of
composite structures. X-ray equipment can be adapted to handle small parts up
to relatively large parts.
X-rays are a form of electromagnetic radiation similar to light. They are produced
when electrons, travelling at high speed, collide with matter or change direction.
In X-ray tubes, electrons are accelerated by a difference of potential between the
cathode (source of electrons) and the target.
Gamma rays are similar to X-rays in their characteristics and are emitted from the
disintegrating nuclei of radioactive substances like radium and cobalt 60. Both
X-rays and gamma rays have extremely short wave-lengths that provide them
with the ability to penetrate materials that absorb or reflect ordinary light.
Radiography is a NDT technique that uses X-rays or gamma rays. A radiograph
is a photographic record produced by the passage of these rays through a test
object onto a film.
The radiation proceeds in straight lines to the object; some of the rays pass
through the object and the others are absorbed. The amount transmitted
depends on the nature of the material and its thickness. The presence of a void
in the material, for example, causes more radiation to pass through the section
containing the void than through the surrounding region.
A radiograph is like a shadow picture; the darker regions on the film represent
the more penetrable parts of the test specimen and the lighter regions are more
opaque to the radiation.

RADIOGRAPHY
Figure 61: Radiograph of Laptop Computer

REPAIR TYPES
Repair Types
General
Recommended repairs can be of three types:
• Temporary repairs
• Permanent cosmetic repairs
• Permanent structural repairs
Repair instructions are to be found in the Structural Repair Manual; either in the
related Chapter (52 to 57) or in the general Chapter 51. For damage exceeding
graphic limits the assistance of the aircraft manufacturer should be sought.

REPAIR TYPES
Figure 62: Typical Permitted Repair Process

PREPARATION BEFORE REPAIR
Preparation before Repair

Before any repair action can be performed, it is necessary to ensure that the
surface of the repair area has been correctly prepared. This will ensure the
maximum bonding strength and durability.

PREPARATION BEFORE REPAIR
Surface
protection
removal
Figure 63: Area Preparation

REMOVAL OF SURFACE PROTECTION
Removal of Surface Protection

All the surface protection (including paint and primer) is to be removed using
mechanical methods only. Chemical strippers may cause deterioration of the
resin.
The surface finish of aramid panels is removed typically by using wet and dry
rubbed in a circular motion
WARNING:
DO NOT USE CHEMICAL STRIPPERS DO NOT ERODE
LAMINATES
NOTE: DO NOT APPLY WATER DIRECTLY TO THE SURFACE, WET THE
CLOTH FIRST.

REMOVAL OF SURFACE PROTECTION
Surface Clean
Preparation
Figure 64: Removal of Surface Protection

REMOVAL OF DAMAGED COMPOSITE MATERIALS
Removal of Damaged Composite Materials

In order to remove damaged layers of composite material it is necessary to
remove a layer at a time. The process is known as scarfing and generally it
requires the removal of plies in such a way that each layer reveals 1/2 inch of the
layer below.
Scarfing is a technique that exposes the greatest amount of surface area to form
the bond line and is carried out using mechanical sanding tools.
Removal of Core Material

Where damage has penetrated the core of a honeycomb section the structural
strength will be reduced. In order to restore full strength the damaged honeycomb
should be routed out carefully, to full depth, and replaced by a suitable filler
material, such as honeycomb, balsa wood or micro baloons. Micro baloons are
mixed with resin and are used to keep the repair weight to a minimum.
When using honeycomb as the core material, it should be joined to the repair
with adhesive and be aligned with the same ribbon direction as the original
honeycomb.
Cleaning and Degreasing

The repair surface needs to be cleaned and degreased, in order to ensure
complete bonding of the repair.
NOTE: DO NOT APPLY CLEANING AGENT DIRECTLY ON THE REPAIR
SURFACE, WET THE CLOTH BEFORE.
WARNING: CLEANING AGENTS ARE DANGEROUS!

CLEANING AND DEGREASING
Cleaning
agent
Figure 65: Cleaning and Degreasing

WET LAY-UP
Wet Lay-Up Shelf Life

The shelf life is the time which the product is still good in an unopened container
Wet lay-up consists of applying several layers of fabric material impregnated with
and varies from product to product. If the shelf life is exceeded, the resin or
resin onto the repair surface, in order to restore the damaged skin.
catalyst must be discarded as the cure may not achieve sufficient strength.
Previous to the lay-up operation, the fabric material is hand-impregnated with
resin or adhesive. Repair layers (plies) are applied up to the surface following a Resin Rich
specified sequence and cured at Room Temperature (RT). If too much resin is used, the part is called resin rich. This is undesirable, as it
affects the strength of the composite by making the part brittle and adds extra
Working with Resins and Catalysts weight (negating the reason for using composites in the first place).
It is important to mix the resin system properly. If an improper mixture is used, it
will not provide adequate strength. Resin Starved
Each part of the resin system is weighed before mixing. Always mix resin and If too little resin is used in the lay-up, it is described as being resin starved. This
hardener before adding any fillers. is undesirable as there is insufficient resin to successfuly transfer stresses to the
fibres.
The matrix formula for most advanced composites is very exacting. Mixing
instructions are always included with the resin containers. This information may Working in Resin
also be found in the aircraft Structural Repair Manual.
When working resin into the fibres, take care not to distort the weave of the
A thorough mixing action will help to achieve maximum strength. Mixing should fabric. If the fibres pull apart, the strength characteristic of the fabric will diminish.
be done in a wax-free container.
3-5 minutes is usually required to thoroughly mix components. Resin Kits
Do not mix too quickly; small bubbles may rise into the air, getting into your hair TYPE OF RESIN TYPE OF CATALYST DATE OF MFG.05/04/88
or on your skin, but more importantly will result in a weaker resin mix. Test the
POT LIFE: 30 MIN @ 70oF
viscosity of the resin immediately after mixing by a drop test.
Never add resin to the accelerator as the mixture can react violently and combust. MIX RATIO 100/16 A to B BY WEIGHT CURE TEMP 007 DAYS @ 077oF
Pot Life SHELF LIFE 12 Months @ 40oF FROM DOS

Do not mix large amounts together; this will cause an acceleration of the chemical Pre-packaged resin kits carry a label that gives all pertinent information
reaction. The pot-life (the amount of time you have to work with the resins) will about the mix ratio and proper curing instructions for that particular
also be reduced. Some resin systems have very short pot lives (15 minutes), material.
others have long pot lives (4 hours).
All resins cure by chemical reaction. It is important to consider how long it will
take to use the amount of resin which has been prepared, so as not to exceed
the pot life.

WET LAY-UP
Figure 66: Wet Lay-Up

APPLICABLE WET LAY-UP SEQUENCES
Applicable Wet Lay-Up Sequences

There are two methods to be used for the lay-up operation.
The applicable option will be specified in the repair instructions.
The wet lay up will also specify the alignment direction of each layer of cloth and
two adjacent cloth layers will have the same fibre direction.
By specifying the alignment of the layers in the wet lay-up the optimum design
strength is obtained.

APPLICABLE WET LAY-UP SEQUENCES
Figure 67: Wet Lay-Up Sequence

VACUUM BAGGING
Vacuum Bagging
The technique of vacuum bagging is used in advanced composite repair for
several reasons:
• To use atmospheric pressure to consolidate the layers in the laminated repair
• To remove trapped air and gases produced during curing
• To hold heater blankets, thermocouples and other materials in place during
the curing cycle
• To produce the desired surface finish on the repair
There is no universally-accepted method of vacuum bagging. Aircraft
manufacturers have a variety of methods, but you should be aware of the purpose
of each of the materials used. If you understand why each layer is used you will
not have to remember how to bag up a repair for each type of aircraft.
The material used for bagging is nylon due to its high tensile strength.
Bagging Principles
Two main principles must be obeyed when vacuum bagging a repair:
1. The air and gases inside a vacuum bag must have an easy path to the
vacuum pump over the entire repair surface.
2. The amount of resin lost from the repair plies must be kept to a minimum.
Additionally, it is necessary to ensure that none of the bagging materials
adhere to the repair and that the heater blanket is protected from resin
contamination.
The figure opposite shows a typical vacuum bagging sequence specified by
Boeing.

BAGGING PRINCIPLES
Figure 68: Typical Vacuum Bagging Operation

BAGGING PRINCIPLES
Perforated Parting Film Non-Perforated Parting Film

Perforated parting film is also known as perforated FEP parting film or perforated Also known as solid parting film or release film.
release film. This is placed on top of the bleeder fabric to prevent resin soaking through onto
This is a thin, non-stick film placed directly on the surface of the repair to prevent the other bagging materials and the heater blanket. This film should be larger
the bagging materials sticking to the repair surface. The film is perforated with than the heater blanket but must be smaller than the bleeder fabric, otherwise air
small holes to allow air and gases to escape from the repair piles. The hole sizes will be trapped underneath with no escape path.
vary from pin pricks to about 1mm diameter. Some resin will escape through the
holes so, for repair, it is best to choose a film with pin-pricks to reduce the resin Breather Fabric
loss. Perforated parting film will produce a shiny, resin-rich surface on the repair. Breather fabric is also known as breather cloth or surface breather.
Peel Ply This is a thick, porous, non-woven material and is used over the entire repair
surface to allow the air and gases to escape easily. It must be larger than all the
Peel ply is also known as release fabric. non-porous materials used in the vacuum bag. The breech units must be placed
This is a thin, woven, nylon or polyester fabric which has a non-stick coating. It on the breather fabric so that the air and gases have a free path to the vacuum
can be used instead of, or underneath, a perforated parting film. pump.
Its main effect is on the surface finish of the repair.
Caul Plate
During the curing of the repair, the peel ply becomes lightly bonded to the surface Caul plate is also known as a pressure plate or pressure intensifier.
resin. When it is removed it peels off the surface resin leaving a rough finish. This
produces a surface which can be painted or bonded without further sanding. This is a thin metal plate which is placed between the breather fabric and the
heater blanket. Its purpose is:
There are two potential disadvantages in using a peel ply:
• To help even-out the temperature over the entire repair
• It absorbs some resin, and may lead to a resin-starved repair.
• To help even-out the pressure over the whole repair
• It may contaminate the repair surface with its non-stick coating.
• To improve the flatness of the surface of the repair
Bleeder Cloth Caul plates are suitable for flat or single-curvature panels, but not for complex
Bleeder cloth is also known as surface bleeder or bleeder fabric. shapes, where special tooling should be used instead.
The function of this layer is to provide an easy path for air to escape and to In general, thin caul plates (< 0.016”) work best, as thicker plates tend to trap air
absorb any resin which comes through the holes in the perforated parting film. in the repair.
The bleeder cloth should be larger than the perforated parting film.
A number of types of bleeder material are available, including woven glass fibres,
non-woven cloth and a felt type of material also known as breather fabric.
The bleeder is placed directly on to the thin, perforated parting film and so the
surface texture of the bleeder cloth will be reproduced on the surface of the
repair. This has a major influence on the final surface finish of the repair.

BAGGING PRINCIPLES
Heater Blanket Vacuum Breech Units

Heater blanket is also known as heater mat. Also known as through-bag units, vacuum probes or sniffers.
The heater blanket is a silicone rubber pad which contains an electrical heating These are specially-designed connectors which pass through the vacuum bag
element. It is used to control the temperature of the repair during the warm-up, and form a seal, so that the pipe to the vacuum pump can be connected. There
cure and cool-down stages of the repair. It is flexible and will bend to gentle are several designs.
curves. Heater blankets can be used for cures up to 350°F (175°C). Two breech units are normally used on a repair:
They are available in several power outputs, the most common being 3 and • One to remove the air from the vacuum bag, and
5 watts per square inch. It is important to ensure that the voltage rating of the
blanket matches the power source being used. • One to record the level of vacuum inside the bag
The heater blanket must be at least 2°C (50mm) larger than the repair all the way It is important that the breech units are placed on opposite sides of the repair, are
round to ensure that the whole repair area is at an even temperature. placed directly on to breather fabric and are not placed directly over any wires or
heater blankets.
Insulation
Thermocouples
Insulation in the form of breather fabric or glass cloth is normally placed on top
of the heater blanket to reduce heat loss and to minimise the effects of draughts Also known as T/Cs or temperature probes should be positioned under heating
on the repair. It is often recommended that extra insulation on the outside of the mats in order to accurately monitor the repair temperature.
vacuum bag is used to even out temperature variations on the repair surface. A thermocouple consists of two wires, made from special alloys, which are
welded together at one end. When the welded portion is heated, it produces a
Bagging Film small electrical current. By connecting the thermocouple to a hot bonder they can
This is a nylon film which is sealed over the repair materials so that a vacuum can be used to record and control the temperature of a repair.
be applied. It is available in a variety of temperature / elongation resistant types. Thermocouples come in a variety of types, depending on the alloys used and
The higher temperature-resistant films normally stretch less. are distinguished by letters (J-type, K-type etc.). The most commonly-used
thermocouples for hot bonding are J-type.
Bag Seating Tape
Also known as bagging tape or extruded sealing compound. A number of thermocouples should be placed around the repair to record and
control the temperature accurately during curing. They should be placed near to,
This material is a high temperature mastic type of tape and is used to seal the but not on, the repair. Boeing recommend the use of up to eight thermocouples
vacuum bag to the surface of the item under repair. It is available in a number of for a repair.
temperature ranges.
Bad thermocouple connections are the most common cause of problems during
the cure of a repair.

BAGGING PRINCIPLES
Flash Breaker Tape Control of Variations in Temperature

Also known as flash tape, pressure sensitive tape, high temperature tape, PS In most cases, a repair will be heated by a single heater blanket using a number
tape. of strategically placed thermocouples. Since the whole area of the blanket is
This is a high-temperature tape which can be used for a large number of functions controlled together there is no facility to increase or decrease the heat input to
inside the vacuum bag. It will not be affected by high temperatures. It is the only different areas of the repair.
type of tape which should be used on the surface of the heater blanket. Control of local temperatures can only be achieved by increasing or decreasing
heat loss from the area by addition or removal of insulation. Thus, an accurate map
Thermocouple Mapping of placing the thermocouples in a repair is essential so that when a thermocouple
Each cure cycle contains at least one ramp stage and dwell (soak) stage. The is recording a high or low temperature the exact location can be identified.
temperatures must be carefully controlled during these stages and maintained Always make a point of recording the positions and numbers of the thermocouples
between predefined limits. Most modern hot bonders allow you to define upper in a repair. This can be done on a separate map or on the vacuum bag itself.
and lower tolerance limits for each stage of the cure cycle and will sound an
alarm or shut down, if the limits are exceeded.
In ideal conditions, all points beneath a heater blanket will heat up at the same
rate and maintain the same dwell temperature, but in reality there will be a
variation of temperatures across the component.
A variety of factors can lead to these variations, the most common being:
• Variations in thickness of the component (ribs, bosses etc.)
• External draughts
• Inaccuracy of thermocouples
• Cold or hot areas within the heater blanket
• Leaks within the vacuum bag
• Lack of insulation in some areas of the repair
There is a trend for manufacturers to call for a number of thermocouples to
be placed around the repair to monitor these variations during repair of their
components. Boeing repair documents, for instance, require the continuous
monitoring and control of eight thermocouples during metal-to-metal bonded
repairs.

BAGGING PRINCIPLES

WOODEN STRUCTURES PART-66 M6 CAT B1
WOODEN WING CONSTRUCTION
Wooden Structures
Wooden Wing Construction
Truss-Type Wing Construction
Fabric-covered aircraft wings have a truss-type structure that has changed very
little throughout the evolution of aircraft.
The main lengthwise members in a wing are the spars. Wood spars are usually
made from Sitka spruce and may be either solid or laminated.
Because of the difficulty in getting a single piece of near-perfect wood of the
size needed for wing spars, many manufacturers use laminated spars, in which
strips of wood are glued together with their grain running in the same direction. A
properly laminated spar has essentially the same strength as that of a solid spar,
yet it is considerably less expensive.
The spars are separated by compression members (or compression joints) that
may be either steel tubing or heavy-wall aluminium alloy tubing. Compression
ribs are sometimes used ribs that have been specially strengthened to take
compressive loads.
The truss is held together with high-strength solid steel wires that cross the bays
formed by the compression struts. The wires that extend from the front spar
inboard to the rear spar outboard oppose the forces that tend to drag against the
wing and pull it backwards; these are called drag wires.
The wires that attach to the rear spar inboard and go to the front spar outboard
are called anti-drag wires, since they oppose any force that tends to move the tip
of the wing forward.
A wing truss consisting of spars, compression members and drag and anti-drag
wires, when correctly assembled and rigged, provides the lightweight and strong
foundation needed for a wing.

Figure 69: Truss-Type Wing

Box Spar
An adaptation of the truss-type wing is one using a box spar. This was pioneered
in World War 1 on some of the all-metal Junkers aircraft and the wood and fabric
Fokker triplane.
A box structure built between the spars stiffens the spars so they can carry all of
the bending and torsional loads to which the wing is subjected in flight.
The former ribs in the wing attach to the spars to give the wing the aerodynamic
shape it needs to produce lift when air flows over its fabric covering.
Before the cost of labour became too high, some wing ribs were built up of strips
of Sitka spruce. The strips that form the top and bottom of the rib are called cap
strips, and those between the cap strips are called cross members. Since end
grain glue joints have very little strength, each intersection of a cap strip and
a cross member has a gusset of thin mahogany plywood glued to the strips of
wood to carry the stresses from one strip to the other.
A built-up box spar accepts torsional as well as bending loads.

A built-up wing rib constructed from wood.

Figure 70: Spars for Fabric-Covered Truss-Type Wings

INSPECTION OF WOODEN STRUCTURES
Inspection of Wooden Structures

Introduction
This section gives guidance on the inspection of wooden aircraft structures for Thus, two major members in an aircraft structure, secured to each other by
evidence of deterioration of the timber and glued joints. It should be read in glue, are unlikely to have identical characteristics and differential loads will,
conjunction with the relevant aircraft manuals, approved Maintenance Schedules therefore, be transmitted across the glue film with changes of humidity. This will
and manufacturers’ instructions, from which details of particular structures may impose stresses in the glued joint which, in temperate zones, can normally be
be obtained. accommodated when the aircraft is new and for some years afterwards. However,
with age the glue tends to deteriorate, even when the aircraft is maintained under
Glued Structures ideal conditions and stresses at the glued joint, due to changes in atmospheric
Provided that protective varnish was applied to all exposed wood surfaces after conditions, may cause failure of the joint.
gluing and satisfactorily maintained during the life of an aircraft, rapid deterioration In most wooden aircraft of monoplane construction the main spars are of box
of timber and glued joints would be unlikely. However, access to internal structure formation consisting of long top and bottom transverse members (i.e. spar booms)
is often difficult or even impossible and deterioration takes place for a variety of joined by plywood webs. The spar booms may be built up from laminations glued
reasons. together and at intervals vertical wooden blocks are positioned between the two
Some of the main factors which may cause deterioration are: booms to add support to the plywood sides.
• Chemical reactions of the glue itself due to ageing or moisture, to extremes of The main spars carry most of the loads in flight and are, at times, subject to
temperature or to a combination of these factors flexing. The glued joints should, therefore, be free from deterioration but, unless
the spar is dismantled or holes cut in the webs, internal inspection may be
• Mechanical forces due mainly to timber shrinkage
virtually impossible.
• Development of microbiological growths (i.e. fungus)
• Oil percolating from the engine installation
• Fuel contamination due to system leaks or spillage in the tank bays
• Blockage of water drainage holes
Aircraft which are exposed to large cyclic changes of temperature and humidity are
especially prone to timber shrinkage, which in turn may lead to glue deterioration.
The amount of movement of timber members due to these changes varies with
the volume of each member, the rate of growth of the tree from which the timber
was cut and the way in which the timber was converted.

Figure 71: Wood Construction Methods

Preservation
Long exposure to inclement weather or strong sunlight will tend to destroy the
weather-proofing qualities of fabric coverings and of surface finishes generally.
If fabric-covered ply structures are neglected under these conditions, the surface
finish will crack, allowing moisture to penetrate to the wooden structure and
resulting in considerable deterioration through water soakage.
Survey of Structure
Before commencing a detailed examination of an aircraft structure, the aircraft
should be inspected externally for signs of gross deformation, such as warped
wing structures, tail surfaces out of alignment or evidence of obvious structural
failure. In some cases of advanced deterioration this assessment may be sufficient
to pronounce the aircraft beyond economical repair and thus avoid further work.
Whenever possible, the aircraft should be housed in a dry, well ventilated hangar
and all inspection panels, covers and hatches removed before continuing with
the survey. The aircraft should be thoroughly dried out before examining glued
joints or carrying out repairs.
Immediately after opening the inspection panels etc., each component should be
checked for smell. A musty smell indicates fungoid growth or dampness and, if
present, necessitates further examination to establish which areas are affected.
Where the wings, fuselage or tail unit are designed as integral stressed structures,
such as inner and outer ply skins glued and screwed to structural members
(figure below) no appreciable departure from the original contour or shape is
acceptable.
Double Skin Structure

Survey of Structure – Single Skin Inspection of Timber and Glued Joints

Where single skin plywood structures are concerned, some slight sectional Assessment of the integrity of glued joints in aircraft structures presents
undulation or panting between panels may be permissible provided the timber considerable difficulties since there is no positive non-destructive method of
and glue is sound. However, where such conditions exist, a careful check must examination which will give a clear indication of the condition of the glue and
be made of the attachment of the ply to its supporting structure and moderate timber inside a joint. The position is made more difficult by the lack of accessibility
pressure with the hand, to push the ply from the structure, should be used. for visual inspection.
A typical example of a distorted single skin structure is illustrated opposite. The The inspection of a complete aircraft for glue or wood deterioration will necessitate
contours and alignment of leading and trailing edges are of particular importance checks on remote parts of the structure which may be known, or suspected
and a careful check should be made for deformities. Any distortion of these light trouble spots and, in many instances, are boxed in or otherwise inaccessible. In
ply and spruce structures indicates deterioration and a careful internal inspection such instances, considerable dismantling is required and it may be necessary
should be made for security of these parts to the main wing structure. If a general to cut access holes in ply structures to facilitate the inspection; such work must
deterioration is found in these components, the main wing structure may also be be done only in accordance with approved drawings or the repair manual for the
affected. aircraft concerned and, after the inspection has been completed, the structure
Where there are access panels or inspection covers on the top surfaces of wings must be made good and protected in an approved manner.
or tail-plane, care is necessary to ensure that water has not entered at these All known or suspected trouble spots must be closely inspected regardless of log
points where it can remain trapped to attack the surrounding structure. book records indicating that the aircraft has been well maintained and properly
Splits in the proofed fabric covering on plywood surfaces should be investigated housed throughout its life.
by removing the defective fabric in order to ascertain whether the ply skin beneath NOTE: Where access is required and no approved scheme exists, a scheme
is serviceable. It is common for a split in the ply skin to be the cause of a similar should be obtained from the aircraft manufacturer or an organisation appropriately
defect in the protective fabric covering. approved by the CAA for such work.
Fabric having age cracks and thick with repeated dopings, may indicate that the
structure underneath has not been critically examined for a considerable time.
Insertion patches in the fabric could also indicate that structural repairs have
been made at that point.
Whilst a preliminary survey of the external structure may be useful in roughly
assessing the general condition of the aircraft, it should be noted that timber
and glue deterioration often takes place inside a structure without any external
indications. Where moisture can enter a structure, it will tend to find the lowest
point, where it will stagnate and promote rapid deterioration.
Single Skin Structure

Access Holes Glue Line

In general, access holes are circular in shape and should be cut with a sharp When checking a glue line (i.e. the edge of the glued joint) for condition, all
trepanning tool to avoid jagged edges. It is essential to avoid applying undue protective coatings of paint should be removed by careful scraping; it is important
pressure to the tool, especially towards the end of the cut, otherwise damage to ensure that the wood is not damaged during the scraping operation and
may be caused to the inner face of the panel by stripping off the edge fibres or scraping should cease immediately the wood is revealed in its natural state and
the ply laminations. the glue line is clearly discernible.
Where rectangular access holes are prescribed care is necessary to ensure that The inspection of the glue line is often facilitated by the use of a magnifying
they are correctly located and that corner radii are in accordance with drawing glass. Where the glue line tends to part or where the presence of glue cannot
requirements. be detected or is suspect, then, providing the wood is dry, the glue line should
The edges of all access holes must be smoothed with fine glasspaper, preferably be probed with a thin feeler gauge and, if any penetration is possible, the joint
before inspection is commenced, since contact with the rough edges may cause should be regarded as defective.
wood fibres to be pulled away. NOTE: It is important to ensure that the surrounding wood is dry, otherwise a
It is important that the whole of the aircraft structure, including its components, false impression of the glue line would be obtained due to closing of the joint
e.g. tailplane, elevators, etc., is inspected in detail before any decision is reached by swelling. In instances where pressure is exerted on a joint, either by the
regarding general condition. It is possible for the main airframe to be in good surrounding structure or by metal attachment devices such as bolts or screws,
condition but for a marked deterioration to have occurred in, for example, a a false impression of the glue condition could be obtained unless the joint is
control surface. relieved of this pressure before the glue line inspection is carried out.
The choice of feeler gauge thickness will vary with the type of structure, but
a rough guide is that the thinnest possible gauge should be used. The figure
opposite indicates the points where checks with a feeler gauge should be made.

Figure 72: Glue Line Checks

Timber Condition Water Penetration of Top Surfaces

Dry rot and wood decay are not usually difficult to detect. Dry rot is indicated As indicated previously, the condition of the proofed-fabric covering on ply
by small patches of crumbling wood, whilst a dark discolouration of the wood surfaces is of great importance. If any doubt exists regarding its proofing qualities
surface or grey streaks of stain running along the grain are indicative of water or if there are any signs of poor adhesion, cracks, or other damage, it should be
penetration. Where such discolouration cannot be removed by light scraping the peeled back to reveal the ply skin.
part should be rejected, but local staining of the wood by the dye from a synthetic • The condition of the exposed ply surface should be examined and if water
adhesive hardener can, of course, be disregarded. penetration has occurred, this will be shown by dark grey streaks along the
grain and a dark discolouration at ply joints or screw countersunk holes,
Water Penetration of Structure
together with patches of discolouration. If these marks cannot be removed
In some instances where water penetration is suspected, the removal of a few by light scraping or, in the case of advanced deterioration, where there are
screws from the area in question will reveal, by their degree of corrosion, the small surface cracks or separation of the ply laminations, then the ply should
condition of the surrounding joint (see figure opposite). be rejected. Where evidence of water penetration is found, sufficient of the
• Slight corrosion of the screw due to the adhesive will occur following surfaces should be stripped to determine its extent.
the original construction, therefore, the condition of the screw • Providing good care is taken of the protective covering from the beginning,
should be compared with that of a similar screw, removed from much deterioration can be avoided.
another part of the structure known to be free from water soakage.
NOTE: Plain brass screws are normally used for re-inforcing glued wooden
members, although zinc coated brass is sometimes used. Where hard woods
such as mahogany or ash are concerned, steel screws are sometimes used.
Unless otherwise specified by the aircraft constructor, it is usual to replace
screws with new screws of identical length but one size larger.
• Another means of ascertaining if water penetration has taken place is to
remove the bolts holding fittings at spar root-end joints, aileron hinge brackets,
etc. (see previous figure). Primary joints may have bushed holes and the
bushes should also be withdrawn. Corrosion on the surface of these bolts and
bushes and timber discolouration, will provide a useful indication of any water
penetration which has taken place. Bolts and bushes should be smeared with an
approved protective treatment before being refitted through wooden members.
NOTE: When refitting bolts it is important to ensure that the same number of
shrinkage washers are fitted as were fitted originally.
• Experience of a particular aircraft will indicate those portions of the structure
most prone to water penetration and moisture entrapment (e.g. at window
rails or the bottom lower structure of entry doors), but it must be borne in mind
that this is not necessarily indicative of the condition of the complete aircraft.
• Where drain holes have become blocked, water soakage will invariably be
found. Drain holes should be cleared during routine maintenance.

Figure 73: Check for Water Penetration

Miscellaneous Defects • Previous Repairs: When examining a structure for signs of the defects
During the inspection of the aircraft, the structure should be examined for other mentioned above, particular attention should be paid to the integrity of repairs
defects of a more mechanical nature. Guidance on such defects is given in the which may have been carried out previously.
following paragraphs.
Joint Failure
• Shrinkage: Shrinkage of timber, as well as inducing stresses in glued joints,
A glued joint may fail in service as a result of an accident or due to excessive
can cause looseness of metal fittings or bolts and, if fluctuating loads are
mechanical loads having been imposed upon it, either in tension or in shear. It
present, can result in damage to the wood fibres at the edges of the fittings
is often difficult to decide the nature of the load which caused the failure, but it
or around the bolt holes. Shrinkage can be detected by removing any paint or
should be borne in mind that glued joints are generally designed to take shear
varnish and attempting to insert a thin feeler gauge between the timber and
loads.
the fitting or bolt head.
If a joint is designed to take tension loads, it will be secured by a number of bolts
• Elongated Bolt Holes: Where bolts secure fittings which take load-carrying
or screws (or both) fairly closely pitched in the area of tension loading. If a failure
members, or where the bolts are subject to landing or shear loads, the bolt
occurs in this area, it is usually very difficult to form an opinion of the actual
holes should be examined for elongation or surface crushing of the wood
reasons for it, due to the considerable break-up of the timber occurring in close
fibres. The bolts should be removed to facilitate the examination and, in some
proximity with the bolts.
cases, the bolt itself may be found to be strained. Rectification of elongated
bolt holes must be carried out in accordance with the approved Repair Manual, In all cases of glued joint failure, whatever the direction of loading, there should
the usual method being to open out the holes and fit steel bushes. be a fine layer of wood fibres adhering to the glue, whether or not the glue has
come away completely from one section of the wood member. If there is no
• Bruising and Crushing: A check should be made for evidence of damage
evidence of fibre adhesion, this may indicate glue deterioration, but if the imprint
such as bruises or crushing of structural members, which can be caused,
of wood grain is visible in the glue this is generally due to ’case hardening’ of
for example, by overtightening bolts. Repair schemes for such damage are
the glue during construction of the joint and the joint has always been below
governed by the extent and depth of the defect.
strength. If the glue exhibits a certain amount of crazing or star shaped patterns,
• Compression Failures: Compression failures, sometimes referred to this indicates too rapid setting, or the pot life of the glue having been exceeded. In
as compression ’shakes’, are due to rupture across the wood fibres. This these cases, the other glued joints in the aircraft should be considered suspect.
is a serious defect which at times is difficult to detect and special care is
NOTE: The use of a magnifying glass will facilitate the above inspections.
necessary when inspecting any wooden member which has been subjected
to the abnormal bending or compression loads which may occur during Damage caused by a heavy landing may be found some distance away from
a heavy landing. In the case of a member having been subjected to an the landing gear attachment points. Secondary damage can be introduced by
excessive bending load, the failure will appear on the surface which has been transmission of shock from one end of a strut or bracing to its opposite end,
compressed, usually at a position of concentrated stress such as at the end of causing damage well away from the point of impact. A thorough inspection of the
a hardwood packing block; the surface subjected to tension will normally show existing paint or varnish at suspected primary or secondary impact points may
no defects. In the case of a member taking an excessive direct compression reveal, by cracks or flaking, whether damage has actually occurred.
load, the failure will usually be apparent on all surfaces. Where a compression
failure is suspected, a hand torch shone along the member, with the beam of
light running parallel to the grain, will assist in revealing this type of failure.


TIMBER CONVERSION – SPRUCE
Timber Conversion – Spruce

Introduction
A good basic knowledge combined with many years’ experience in the handling
of timber is essential for the accurate assessment of the characteristics and
defects which make it either suitable or unsuitable for aircraft parts.
This section is not intended to give guidance on how to select timber; it outlines
the United Kingdom Civil Aviation Authority’s recommended method of converting
it into aircraft parts and mentions common defects which may be encountered
during conversion.
Seasoning
Timber which has been cut from selected trees is stacked, prior to shipment,
for approximately 60 days. During this time, the timber loses much of its free
moisture and it is in this condition that it should be transported.
Timber is usually seasoned in air-drying sheds for periods ranging from one to
three years, or longer. If it is required for immediate use, it may be artificially
seasoned (i.e., kiln-dried).
The process of seasoning reduces the moisture content of timber to a point
where it is in equilibrium with the surrounding atmosphere and enables protective
treatments to be applied more effectively.

Figure 74: Timber Conversion

Characteristics
After the timber has been properly seasoned, samples should be cut and tested
to determine its suitability for use on aircraft. Before taking the samples from a
plank of timber, approximately 6 inches should be cut from the end and discarded
as this piece may be drier than the remainder.
• Moisture Content: The moisture-content of the sample should be determined
by weighing it and then drying it in an oven at a temperature of 100-105˚C
(212-221˚F) until two successive weighings yield the same result. Care should
be taken to ensure that when the sample is split up, no material is lost and
that the weighing is done promptly so as to avoid false results. The moisture
content should be calculated from the following formula:
where W1 = the weight of the sample prior to drying and

W2 = the weight of the sample after drying
• A quicker method of determining the moisture-content of timber is by the use of
the Marconi Moisture Meter. This instrument will record the moisture-content
in a few seconds, whereas the method of weighing, drying and calculating
takes much longer. The meter should however, be checked periodically to
ascertain that it remains accurate. For general guidance, the correct moisture-
content should be 15% with a tolerance of +/-2.
• Density: The density should be determined by weighing and
measuring the volume of a sample cut from the plank. A practical
method of doing this is to cut the sample 96mm (3.8 inches) long,
by 25mm (1 inch) square, and determine its weight in grammes.
The figure for the weight of the sample in grammes is equal to the figure
for the density in kilograms per cubic metre (pounds per cubic foot).
The weight of spruce generally varies between 320kg and 577kg per cubic
metre (20Ib. and 36Ib. per cubic foot). For Grade A spruce, the density should
not be less than 10.89kg (24Ib.) when the moisture-content is 15.

Figure 75: Movement in Wood Once Dried

Characteristics Conversion
• Brittleness: A notched test piece, the sides of which are cut radially and After the bulk timber has been tested and graded, it may be converted into
tangentially, of the dimensions 133mm (5 1/4 inches) long by 22mm (7/8 structural members for use on aircraft. This conversion should be done with
inch) square, should be broken in an impact test machine of the Izod type, every possible care, for much depends on the way in which timber is sawn.
the blow being applied tangentially; the test piece should absorb not less • Rift Sawing: The process of cutting timber along the radius of the annular
than .69 metre-kilograms (5 foot-pounds). Care should be taken that the blow rings is known as rift-sawing. Rift-sawing and near-quarter sawing are very
is applied in the right direction, if broken the opposite way a false reading much the same.
will be obtained. A tolerance of .07 metre-kilograms (0.5 foot-pounds) is
generally allowed, provided the fracture shows a satisfactory amount of fibre. • Tangential Sawing: The process of cutting at a tangent to the annular rings
The weight-dropping machine provides an alternative method of testing is known as tangential-sawing. Tangential-sawing (slashing) produces what is
timber for brittleness. A plain test piece, 305mm (12 inches) long by 25mm commonly known as a ”flower-face”.
(1 inch) square, should be cut radially and tangentially, and parallel to the • General: Before a piece of bulk timber is converted, the end section of the
grain. When placed in the testing machine, the test piece should withstand plank should be noted, particularly the direction of the annular rings. It will be
one blow of 1.80 metre-kilograms (13 foot-pounds) without showing signs seen from this whether the plank is tangential-sawn, rift-sawn or quarter-sawn.
of tension failure on the vertical sides. Where doubt exists, a further blow of The main advantage of rift-sawn timber is that it shrinks chiefly in one direction
0.90 metre-kilograms (6.5 foot-pounds) may be applied and there should be only, and does not warp very much.
no sign of failure. The opening out of a few fibres should not be interpreted
as a failure.
• Splitting Test: The object of this test is to determine the inclination of the
grain. The sample should be split with a very blunt chisel so that the wood will
be split and not cut. The split surfaces give the true direction of the grain. The
split should be made some distance from the edge of the sample, otherwise
a misleading result may be obtained.
• Rate of Growth: The number of annular rings per 25mm (1 inch) varies to
some extent. Timber with a rate of growth of less than 6 rings per 25mm
(1 inch) should be rejected.
• Recording of Tests: The results of the above-mentioned tests should be
recorded and related to the plank of timber to which they refer. The actual test
pieces should also be kept for a period of not less than two years.

Figure 76: Cutting Timber

Defects • Knots: There are several kinds of knots which may be encountered when
After timber has been converted it should be examined for defects. Some of the examining converted timber; these are the dead-knot, the bud-knot and the
more common defects are outlined in the following paragraphs. pin-knot. The presence of any of these knots can have a detrimental effect.
Generally they should not be more than a quarter of an inch in diameter but no
• Dote Disease: This is the worst of all defects and does much damage to the hard and fast rules can be specified; each case must be decided on its merits.
wood. It is an inherent disease which only occurs at the base of the living tree. Timber with ”clusters” of pin-knots in it should be rejected.
When the tree is felled it is cut at a point ten feet or more above the ground
as a precaution against the possibility of dote. Converted pieces of timber • Pitch Holes: There are two kinds of pitch holes, one being the horizontal type
should be examined not only on the sides but also on the ends; dote will be which usually appears at the base of a knot, and the other the vertical type
recognised by the presence of brownish yellow patches, somewhat similar to which is sometimes referred to as a gum pocket. Gum pockets may either
thin mineral oil spots. Dote is contagious and any infected wood should be be ”alive” (the gum-seam has not dried out) or ”dead”, and in the case of the
burnt. latter, the timber should be rejected. Tests on ”live” gum pockets have shown
that the timber in the region of the gum pocket usually gives a better result
• Decay or Rot: A defect similar to dote disease can develop after a tree has than the remainder of the timber.
been felled if the timber is exposed to excessive soaking and partial drying.
Dry-rot fungus requires a certain amount of moisture to thrive on but once • Blue Stain: This defect only occurs in sapwood which should not be used in
the disease is established it thrives on the moisture already in the wood. The aircraft parts.
decayed wood is brown in colour and appears as though it had been charred;
the timber is rendered soft and dry, and will flake off easily.
• Incorrect Grain Inclination: The limit of grain inclination for spruce is 1 in
15 for grade A, and 1 in 12 for grade B. The inclination should be checked
to ensure that the above limits are not exceeded. The most usual method of
determining the inclination of the grain is by examining the flower-face of the
timber to find the resin ducts. It will readily be seen whether they are straight
or inclined. If the inclination exceeds the limits specified, the timber should be
classified in a lower grade.
• Heart-Shake: This defect usually follows the course of a sap duct longitudinally,
and is usually visible on the tangential surface. The use of a small size feeler
gauge will assist in finding the depth of the shake. The defect should be cut
out of the timber.
• Ring-Shake: This defect is indicated by a parting of the annular rings.
Ring-shakes are usually caused by frost, particularly after a heavy rainfall.
The defect should also be cut out of the timber.
• Compression-Shake: This defect appears on a cross -section and usually
takes the form of a thin wavy line. Compression-shakes are most dangerous
as they are a partial fracture of the timber and any future loads may cause the
fracture to be completed.

Figure 77: Wood Defects

REPAIR MATERIALS
Repair Materials
Species of Wood Strength Properties Compared Max Permissable Remarks
to Spruce Grain Deviation
(Slope of Grain)
Spruce 100% 1:15 Excellent for all uses. Considered as standard for this table.
Douglas Fir Exceeds spruce 1:15 May be used as substitute for spruce in same or slightly reduced sizes providing
reductions are substantiated. Difficult to work with hand tools. Some tendency to
split and splinter during fabrication. Large solid pieces should be avoided due to
inspection difficulties. Gluing satisfactory.
Noble Fir Slightly exceeds spruce except 1:15 Satisfactory characteristics with respect to workability, warping and splitting. May be
8% deficient in shear used as direct substitute for spruce in same sizes providing shear does not become
critical. Hardness somewhat less than spruce. Gluing satisfactory.
Western Hemlock Slightly exceeds spruce 1:15 Less uniform in texture than spruce. May be used as direct substitute for spruce.
Gluing satisfactory.
Pine, Northern 85-96% those of spruce 1:15 Excellent working qualities and uniform in properties but somewhat low in hardness
White and shock-resisting capacity. Cannot be used as substitute for spruce without
increase in sizes to compensate for lesser strength. Gluing satisfactory.
White Cedar, Port Exceeds spruce 1:15 May be used as substitute for spruce in same or in slightly reduced sizes providing
Orford reductions are substantiated. Easy to work with hand tools. Gluing difficult but
satisfactory joints can be obtained if suitable precautions are taken.
Poplar, Yellow Slightly less than spruce except 1:15 Excellent working qualities. Should not be used as a direct substitute for spruce
in compression (crushing) and without carefully accounting for slightly reduced strength properties. Somewhat low
shear in shock-resisting capacity. Gluing satisfactory.

REPAIR MATERIALS
Figure 78: Sitka Spruce

SYNTHETIC RESIN ADHESIVES
Synthetic Resin Adhesives this is specifically permitted by the manufacturer.
Condition Temperature
Introduction
70°F 80°F 90°F
This section provides guidance and advice on the gluing of wooden structures
(21°C) (27°C) (32°C)
and on the adhesives which can be used for this purpose.
Mixture Pot Life (hours) 4-5 2.5-3.5 1-2
• Synthetic resin adhesives are used extensively for joints in wooden structures
to avoid the localised stresses and strains which may be set up by the use of Maximum Assembly Time
mechanical methods of attachment; the strength of such structures depends Open (minutes) 15 10 5
largely on the effectiveness of the glued joints and cannot be verified by Closed (minutes) 25 15 8
means other than the destruction of the joints. Acceptance has therefore, to
be governed by adequate inspection at various stages throughout the gluing Pressure Period (hours) 14 8 5
process and by assessment of the results obtained from representative test Assembly must be maintained at a temperature of 70°F or above to assure a
pieces. satisfactory cure of the glue line.
• Synthetic resin adhesives used for gluing aircraft structural assemblies must Powder Resin Glue Working Timetable
comply with the requirements prescribed in an acceptable Specification • Liquid Resins: When resins are supplied in liquid form, they are ready for
(usually British Standard 1204 Part I) for Weather and Boil Proof (WBP) or immediate use in conjunction with the hardener. Liquid resin should not be
Moisture Resistant (MR) adhesives. diluted unless this is permitted by the manufacturer.
• The terminology used in this Leaflet is that given in BS 1204, entitled ”Synthetic • Hardeners: When mixing the hardener with the resin, the proportions should
Resin (Phenolic and Aminoplastic) Adhesives for Constructional Work in be in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions. Hardeners should not
Wood”. For those not familiar with the terminology, a glossary of terms not be permitted to come into contact with the resin except when the adhesive
explained in the text, is given at the end of this section. is mixed just prior to use, or, as is necessary with some adhesives, when the
joint is assembled by coating one face with resin and the other with hardener.
General
When the latter method is employed, the surface to which each is applied
Synthetic resin adhesives usually consist of two separate parts, the resin and should be in accordance with drawing requirements.
the hardener. The resin develops its adhesive properties only as a result of a
chemical reaction between it and the hardener, and will not harden without it. • Mixed Adhesives: In many instances, manufacturers specify a definite
With some adhesives, an inert filler may be added to increase viscosity and to period of time which must elapse between the mixing and the application of
improve gap-filling properties. the adhesive and during this period the adhesive should be kept covered to
prevent contamination.
Preparation of Adhesives • Utensils: The utensils used for hardener should not subsequently be used for
Synthetic resins can be obtained in either liquid or powder form. In general, resin, and vice versa. These utensils and those used for the mixed adhesive
powder resins have the longer storage life, since they are less susceptible to should be acid-proof and should be kept scrupulously clean. After use and
deterioration which can result from high ambient temperatures. before the adhesive has had time to set, they should be cleaned with warm
water containing 5 sodium carbonate (washing soda).
• Powder Resins: Powder resins should be mixed with water in accordance
with the manufacturer’s instructions before they can be used in conjunction
with a hardener and to obtain satisfactory results it is essential that they
should be properly mixed. Once mixed, the resin should not be diluted unless

Figure 79: Observations When Gluing Wood

Preparation of Surfaces Conditions for Gluing

• Plywood Surfaces: All areas of plywood surfaces to be glued should first Synthetic resin adhesives are very sensitive to variations in temperature and the
be ’sanded’ in order to remove surface glazing and loose fibres. Sanding usable (pot) life of the adhesive, choice and proportion of hardener and clamping
should be done lightly and uniformly either in the direction of the grain or times, all depend largely on the ambient temperature at the time of gluing; it
diagonally across it, using a medium grade of glasspaper; local scratching is, therefore, important to ensure that the manufacturer’s instructions regarding
or roughening, use of too coarse a paper and undue pressure, should be these factors are followed.
avoided. The sanding should not be excessive otherwise the fit of the joint • The timber to be glued should be allowed sufficient time to attain the
may be affected. temperature of the room in which the gluing is to take place; it should not be
• Timber Surfaces: Timber surfaces should be suitably roughened so as to overheated or raised too quickly from a low temperature, since this affects
form a firm key for the adhesive and a medium grade of glasspaper or a the surfaces of the timber and reduces the efficiency of most synthetic resin
wood scraper is suitable for this purpose. To form a strong efficient joint, it adhesives. It is important, therefore, that timber should be kept clear of
is essential that the mating surfaces should be a good fit. This is particularly radiators and other sources of heat prior to gluing.
important in the case of blind joints, the members of which may be chalked
on their gluing surfaces before being assembled dry as a check on the fit; the
chalk should be completely removed before application of the adhesive.
• Moisture Content: It is important that the parts to be joined should have
approximately the same moisture content, since variations may cause
stresses to be set up as a result of swelling or shrinkage and thus lead to
the failure of the joint. The moisture content should, additionally, be within
the specification limits for the particular timber. A safe range would be 8 to
16, but with resorcinols this could be extended to 20 from a gluing viewpoint;
however, this would not be satisfactory for aircraft components as joints would
be likely to shrink after manufacture.
• General: The surfaces to be joined should be clean and free from grease,
oil, wax, crayon, paint and varnish; it is advisable not to handle the joint faces
once they have been prepared. Where old timber is to be re-used, all traces
of the previous adhesive should be removed and the timber beneath cleaned;
local staining of the wood by previous hardener or casein cement may be
disregarded. Where any painting operations are to be carried out, all surfaces
which are to be glued should be adequately masked.

Figure 80: Wing Rib Repairs

Application of Adhesive
With certain exceptions, adhesives are used in the mixed form and the
recommendations given in this paragraph apply only to the use of such adhesives.
• It is generally desirable to apply adhesive to both surfaces of a joint. This
applies particularly where plywood is to be glued to a fairly robust member,
where the glue line is likely to be variable or when it is not possible to apply
uniform pressure to the joint after gluing.
• Ordinary glue spreaders are satisfactory for the application of synthetic resin
adhesives, but those having slightly grooved rubber rollers give the best
results. Brushes may also be used provided they are perfectly clean.
• The amount of adhesive required depends largely on the type of timber and
the accuracy of machining; dense timbers require less adhesive than soft
or porous types. Side-grained surfaces may be satisfactorily glued with thin
spreads, and while end-grain joints have virtually no structural value, generous
spreads may be applied for gap filling and sealing purposes. The general rule
is that the adhesive should completely cover the surfaces to be glued and
should be tacky when pressure is applied to the joint.
• Difficult gluing conditions may sometimes occur when a soft timber is to be
glued to one which is much denser, because the adhesive tends to flow into
the more porous timber. In such instances, unless otherwise specified by
the manufacturer of the adhesive, pre-coating and partial drying of the softer
surface, prior to normal spreading, is recommended.

Figure 81: Repair to the Trailing Edge of a Wood Wing Rib

Assembly Setting Times and Temperatures

Care should be taken before the adhesive is applied to ensure that the surfaces The setting time depends on the temperature at which the jointing operation
make good contact and that the joint will be correctly positioned, since once is carried out; an increase in temperature results in a decrease in the setting
contact is made after the adhesive is applied, the joint will be below strength time. Conversely, a decrease in temperature causes a considerable increase
if further movement is necessary. The interval between the application of the in the setting time and with some adhesives a temperature below 15°C (60°F)
adhesive and assembly of the joint under pressure should, unless otherwise is not recommended. It is, therefore, generally advantageous to apply kiheat
permitted, be kept as short as possible. Pressure should be applied quickly and during pressing whenever possible so as to effect reasonably quick and strong
should be even. All devices used to bring the glued surfaces together should adhesion.
be checked (this applies particularly to clamps) to ensure that the pressure is Heat may be applied by means of an electrically or steam-heated platen such
uniformly applied over the entire area; uneven pressure may cause uneven as would be used for special presswork. Local warmth may be applied with
contact and a gaping joint. electrically heated blankets, electric fires, a battery of electric bulbs, or drying
NOTE: Some adhesives contain solvents which should be allowed to evaporate kilns. The temperature may generally be raised to approximately 80°C (176°F) for
before the joint is made. If this is not done, bubbles may be created and a very rapid setting; intense surface heating should be avoided as this may scorch
weakness caused. For adhesives of this type the manufacturer will specify a the timber and cause the glue to bubble, the latter resulting in the production of
time interval which should elapse before the joint is closed. a very weak joint.
• High clamping pressures are neither essential nor desirable provided that It must be remembered that it is the temperature of the glue line which determines
good contact between surfaces being joined is obtained. For parts which are cure rate and not the surface or ambient temperature. The warming of a cold
flat and unstressed it is not always necessary to maintain the pressure until assembly may cause the exuded glue to harden quickly, giving a false impression
the full joint strength is developed, but for work which is shaped by pressure that the complete joint has cured.
longer times may be required to guard against opening stresses. The tightness • Full joint strength and resistance to moisture will only develop after
of clamps should be checked approximately 10 minutes after assembly. conditioning for a period of at least two days, depending on the temperature
• If the parts are thin and the pressure is uniformly distributed, only a slight and the type of hardener used. However, when repairs are made on aircraft,
pressure is required and small pins or screws will generally provide this; care the joint should be of sufficient strength after one day. When it is necessary
should be taken not to pump the adhesive out of the joint when hammering to ensure maximum resistance to moisture it is generally recommended that
pins through closing strips. the assembled structures should be kept at room temperature of 21°-24°C
• When pressure is applied, a small even quantity of glue should be expressed (70°-75°F) for 2 to 3 weeks so that complete chemical reaction can take place.
from the joint and this should be wiped off before it dries. The pressure should • Further assembly work can be carried out immediately the clamps have been
be maintained and the joint should not be disturbed during the full setting removed provided the joint is not subjected to additional stress, otherwise
time; this is important as the adhesive will not re-unite if disturbed before it is the conditioning period recommended by the manufacturer is necessary. The
fully set. degree of setting of the adhesive which has squeezed from the glue line is not
• When large ’glue-face’ areas are to be joined, e.g. when joining two ply necessarily an indication of the strength of the joint, and precautions should
surfaces, the drawing usually specifies the drilling of small vent holes at regular be taken to ensure that the joints are handled with due care until they have
intervals to prevent air being trapped between the two surfaces. After the joint attained full strength.
has been made, these holes should be checked to ensure that adhesive has • After the joint has been conditioned and all work completed, all unprotected
exuded from them. parts should be treated in accordance with drawing requirements.

Figure 82: Repair of a Longitudinal Split in a Wood Wing Spar

Testing
Frequent tests should be made to ensure that joining techniques are satisfactory.
Wherever possible, tests should be carried out on off-cuts of actual components
from each batch. Where off-cuts are not available tests should be carried out
on representative test pieces glued up with each batch of mixed adhesive. In
addition, the glue strength of component rejected for faults other than gluing
should be checked periodically.
• Test Samples: The test samples should be cut from the timber used for the
component and should not be less than 50mm (2 in) long and 25mm (1 in)
wide with one member overhanging the other by 12 to 18mm (1/2 to ¾ in).
The glued test sample should, when conditioned, be put in a vice and the
joint should be broken by leverage exerted on the overhanging member.
The fractured glue faces should show at least 75 of wood fibres, evenly
distributed over the fractured glue surfaces.
• Wet Tests: When specified, wet tests should be made for the purpose of
testing the efficiency of the adhesive after immersing the test samples in water
at different temperatures and for different times. Such tests are prescribed in Broken testpiece
British Standard 1204, but the results are only valid if BS 1204 test pieces are
used. However, testing joints after immersion in cold water (15°-25°C (60°-
77°F)) for 24 hours, will give a good indication of whether they are cured.
Such tests should only be carried out on joints which have been conditioned
for 2 to 3 weeks.

Figure 83: Repair of Edge Damage to a Solid Wood Wing Spar

Failure of Glued Joints Storage

Glued joints are designed to provide their maximum strength under shear loading. Apart from the very limited pot-life of the mixed adhesive, the resin itself will not
If a glued joint is known to have failed in tension, it is difficult to assess the quality keep indefinitely, even under ideal storage conditions. Under no circumstances
of the joint, as these joints may often show an apparent lack of adhesion. should the shelf life specified by the manufacturer be exceeded. Furthermore,
Tension failures often appear to strip the glue from one surface leaving the bare resins in powder form which show signs of caking or corrosion of the container
wood; in such cases, the glue should be examined with a magnifying glass, which and liquid resins which show signs of ’gelling’ or have become excessively
should reveal a fine layer of wood fibres on the glued surface, the presence of viscous, should be rejected even if the shelf life has not been exceeded. During
which will indicate that the joint itself was not at fault. If examination of the glue storage, a temperature of 21°C (70°F) should not be exceeded.
under magnification does not reveal any wood fibres but shows an imprint of
the wood grain, this could be the result of either precure of the glue prior to the
application of pressure during the manufacture of the joint, or the use of surface
-hardened timber.
This latter condition is particularly common with plywood and with other timbers
which have been worked by high speed machinery and have not been correctly
prepared. If the glue exhibits an irregular appearance with star-shaped patterns,
this may be an indication that the pot-life of the glue had expired before the joint
was made or that pressure had been incorrectly applied or maintained. In all
such instances, other joints in the aircraft known to have been made at the same
time should be considered to be suspect.
Aircraft Repairs
Where repairs are to be carried out on old aircraft in which the wooden structure
is joined with a casein glue, all traces of the casein should be removed from
the joint, since this material is alkaline and is liable to affect the setting of a
synthetic resin adhesive; local staining of the wood by the casein can however
be disregarded.
Where urea formaldehyde (UF) glues are to be used, the surface should be
wiped with a solution of 10 w/w acetic acid in water, and allowed to dry before
applying.
NOTE: This process must only be used with urea formaldehyde (UF) glues.
If used prior to the application of, for example, resorcinol formaldehyde (RF)
glues, the joint strength could be seriously impaired.

Figure 84: Splice for a Solid Wood Wing Spar

Glossary of Terms • Synthetic Resin Adhesive: A composition substantially consisting of a

• Cold Setting Adhesive: An adhesive which sets and hardens satisfactorily at synthetic resin of either the phenolic or aminoplastic type, but including any
ordinary room temperature, i.e. 10° to 32°C (50° to 86°F), within a reasonable hardening agent or modifier which may have been added by the manufacturer
period. or which may be required to be added before use, according to manufacturer’s
instructions.
• Close Contact Adhesive: A non-gap-filling adhesive suitable for use only in
those joints where the surfaces to be joined can be brought into close contact
by means of adequate pressure and where glue lines exceeding 0.125mm
(0.005 in) in thickness can be avoided with certainty.
• Closed Assembly Time: The time elapsing between the assembly of the
joints and the application of pressure.
• Double Spread: The spread of adhesive equally divided between the two
surfaces to be joined.
• Gap Filling Adhesive: An adhesive suitable for use in those joints where
the surfaces to be joined may or may not be in close or continuous contact,
owing either to the impossibility of applying adequate pressure or to slight
inaccuracies of machining. Unless otherwise stated by the manufacturer,
such adhesives are not suitable for use where the glue line exceeds 1.25mm
(0.05 in) in thickness.
• Glue Line: The resultant layer of adhesive effecting union between any two
adjacent wood layers in the assembly.
• Hardener: A material used to promote the setting of the glue. It may be
supplied separately in either liquid or powder form, or it may have been
incorporated with the resin by the manufacturer. It is an essential part of the
adhesive, the properties of which depend upon using the resin and hardener
as directed.
• Open Assembly Time: The time elapsing between the application of the
adhesive and the assembly of the joint components.
• Single Spread: The spread of adhesive to one surface only.
• Spread of Adhesive: The amount of adhesive applied in order to join two
surfaces, usually expressed in g/m2 or lb/100 ft2.
• Synthetic Resin: A synthetic resin (phenolic) is derived from the reaction of a
phenol with an aldehyde. A synthetic resin (aminoplastic) is derived from the
reaction of urea, thiourea, melamine or allied compounds with formaldehyde.

Figure 85: Splice for the Web of a Built-Up Wood Box Spar

FABRIC COVERING PART-66 M6 CAT B1
INTRODUCTION
Fabric Covering
• Thread: Linen thread complying with BS F34 is normally used. For hand
Introduction sewing. No. 40 thread (minimum breaking strength 3kg (7lb)) used double,
This section will provide guidance and advice on the covering of aircraft or No. 18 thread (minimum breaking strength 7.25kg (16lb)) used single, are
components with fabric and on the methods employed for repairing and testing suitable. For machine sewing. No. 30 thread (minimum breaking strength
such coverings. Guidance on the application of dope to fabric is given towards 4.5kg (10lb)) or No. 40 thread is used.
the end of this section. • Stringing: Flax cordage complying with BS F35 or braided nylon cord
(coreless) complying with DTD 5620 is normally used.
General
Before the covering of any component is commenced, the structure must be • Eyeleted Fuselage Webbing: On a number of older types of aircraft, cotton
inspected, all foreign matter removed and protective treatments (as prescribed webbing braid with hooks, or lacing eyelets and kite cord, are used for securing
in the relevant drawings) must be applied. Often it is necessary to install flying the fuselage fabric.
control cables, electric cables, fuel tanks and other systems before covering • Storage: All materials used for fabric covering should be stored at a
large components and these should be inspected as necessary and checked for temperature of about 20°C (68°F) in dry, clean conditions and away from
security. direct sunlight.
The most suitable conditions for the application of fabric are a room temperature
of 16°C-21°C (61°F-70°F) and a relative humidity of not more than 70%.
Materials
• Fabrics: Aircraft fabrics are woven from spun threads or ’yarns’; those running
lengthwise are termed the ’warp’; and those running crosswise are termed
the ’weft’. The number of yarns per centimetre (inch) varies with different
weights of fabric and is not necessarily the same in both warp and weft.
The non-fraying edge of the fabric is termed the ’selvedge’.
–– When an unsupported fabric cover is required to carry air loads, unbleached
linen to British Standard (BS) Fl is normally used, but some aircraft have
coverings of cotton fabric complying with BS F8, BS F57, BS F116 or DTD
575A.
–– A light cotton fabric complying with BS F114 (referred to as Madapolam)
• Tapes: Linen tapes complying with BS Fl and cotton tapes complying with
BS F8 are available in various widths for covering leading edges, trailing
edges and ribs, and for repair work. The materials are supplied with serrated
edges, as illustrated in the figure opposite. Cotton tape complying with BS
F47 (referred to as ’Egyptian tape’) is generally used on those members
where chafing may occur between the structure and the fabric and is also
used externally to protect the fabric against damage by the stringing cord.

INTRODUCTION
Figure 86: Types of Machine-Sewn Seams

PREPARATION OF STRUCTURE
Preparation of Structure achieve the proper tautness after doping.
The structure to be covered should be inspected as outlined in the previous • Mainplanes: The envelope is drawn over the wing tip and gradually worked
paragraphs. All comers or edges and any projections such as bolts or screw down over the mainplane, generally keeping the spanwise seam in line
heads likely to chafe the fabric must be covered with tape. Where serious chafing withthe trailing edge. When the cover is located it is secured (by stitching,
may occur and a strong reinforcement is required, a canvas or leather patch may cementing, or retaining strip) to the inboard end of the mainplane, any
be sewn to a fabric patch, then doped into position. necessary openings for cables, struts, tank caps, etc., are cut and stringing is
applied as necessary.
• In order to prevent dope from reacting with any protective treatment and to
prevent fabric from adhering to wooden structure, all aerofoil members which • Fuselage: The fin and fuselage envelopes are often supplied separately and
will be in contact with the fabric are normally covered with adhesive cellulose in some cases the fuselage envelope is open, or partially open, at the bottom,
or aluminium tape, or painted with dope-resistant white paint. to simplify fitting. The fin envelope is usually fitted first, then the fuselage
envelope is stretched forwards over the fuselage and secured in the same
• On some aircraft, which have a tubular metal fuselage frame, the fuselage way as the original fabric. The cover is usually cemented or doped to the
shape is made up with wooden formers attached directly to the main fuselage formers.
framework and to these wooden formers are secured light longitudinal
members onto which the fabric covering is doped. This secondary structure • Control Surfaces: Control surface envelopes are usually left open at the
must be inspected for security and any sharp edges removed with fine glass hinge line, where they are secured by cementing, doping or stitching.
paper. • “Blanket” Method of Covering: With this method a bolt of fabric is used
• Where stringing is likely to be chafed by parts of the structure, protection and covers are made-up on the site. Lengths of fabric, or a number of lengths
should be provided by wrapping such parts with cotton tape. Before the joined side-by-side, being used to cover the aircraft structure.
tape is applied, the structure should be treated with varnish to protect it from • Mainplanes and Tailplanes: The cover is normally made-up from lengths of
corrosion should the tape become wet. fabric machine -stitched together side-by-side. This is laid round the surface,
• Internal controls and cables should be tightened to assume their normal starting and finishing at the trailing edge and joined by hand stitching as
positions and secured at the root rib. Their location should be noted so that shown in the figure opposite. On some aircraft with light alloy structure, hand
stringing pitch can be selected to avoid chafing. stitching is dispensed with, the cover edges being wrapped round the tip and
trailing edge and doped into position. The cover is then attached to the ribs
Covering Methods by stringing.
An aircraft fabric may be fitted with the warp or weft running at 45° to the slip- • Fuselage: A number of different methods are used to attach fabric to the
stream, or in line with the slip-stream. The former (bias) method is generally fuselage. The fabric is not normally attached in one piece, but usually consists
considered to be stronger and more resistant to tearing, but the latter method of several pieces (e.g. sides, top and bottom, which are doped separately
is used on most light aircraft. The two methods used to re-cover an aircraft are onto the frame, or sewn together at their edges. Joins or seams are covered
outlined below, but the method used in a particular instance should follow that of with doped-on tape. Since the air loads on the fuselage are not as great as
the original manufacture unless otherwise approved. on the mainplanes, it is not usual to employ stringing, although it may be
specified in some instances.
• Prefabricated Envelopes: A number of manufacturers produce fabric
envelopes for re-covering various models of aircraft. Separate envelopes are • Control Surfaces: These are covered in a similar way to the mainplanes and
made up from patterns for the mainplanes, fuselage, tailplane, fin and flying usually require stringing. The fabric is normally folded round the hinge line,
control surfaces and greatly simplify the task of re-covering. The envelopes since this is usually straight and sewn together round the remaining contour
are made loose enough to facilitate slipping them over the structure and to of the surface.

Figure 87: Fabric Attachment

Seams, Stitches and Stringing

Seams Hand Sewing
The seams in the fabric covering should be either parallel to the fore-and-aft Apart from the herring-bone (or ’baseball’) stitch and the boot stitch, which
line of the aircraft or on a bias, depending on the covering method used. With are used for repair work, the only other stitches used are the overhand stitch
the exception of trailing edge or leading edge joints (where such action cannot (sometimes referred to as the ’trailing-edge’ stitch) and the lock stitch. The
be avoided) seams should never be made at right angles to the direction of overhand stitch is used for trailing edges, wing tips, wing root ends and wherever
airflow. Two types of machined seams are employed, the balloon seam and the a sudden change of section occurs.
lap seam. • Overhand Stitch: Sufficient excess fabric should be allowed for turning
• The Balloon Seam: The balloon seam, sometimes referred to as the ‘French under before sewing is commenced; a 12mm (0.5 in) turn-under is usually
Fell’, is normally specified for all fabric joints. To make the seam, the edges sufficient. An even gap of about 6mm (0.25 in) (usually) should be allowed
of the fabric are folded back 16mm (0.625 in) and are then fitted into each for pulling up the two edges to obtain the correct fabric tension, but this figure
other as shown, tacked together and then machine sewn with four stitches per can only be determined finally by experience of the work in hand. The sewing
centimetre (nine stitches per inch) in two parallel lines 9mm (0.375 in) apart should follow the contour of the component evenly to ensure a good finish
and 3mm (0.125 in) from either edge. After completion, the seam should be after doping. The number of stitches should be three per centimetre (eight per
examined over a strong electric light (preferably a light-box) to ensure that the inch), a lock stitch being included approximately every 50mm (2 in).
inside edges of the fabric have not been missed during sewing.
• The Lap Seam: The lap seam (illustrated previously) should only be used
when specified by the manufacturer. Unless the selvedges are present, the
edges of the fabric should be serrated with ’pinking’ shears. The edges should
overlap each other by 31mm (1.25 in) and should be machine-sewn with four
stitches per centimetre (nine stitches per inch), the stitch lines being 12mm
(0.5 in) apart and 9mm (0.375 in) from the edges. After stitching, a 75mm
(3 in) wide serrated-edge fabric strip should be doped in position.

Figure 88: Seine Knots

Use of Beeswax Alternate rib and boom stringing is sometimes used on aerofoils of medium
All threads used for hand sewing and all cord used for stringing (when not pre- depth, i.e. 150-300mm (6-12 in).
waxed), should be given a liberal coating of beeswax. This protects the thread, • Stringing Tension: Care must be taken to ensure that all stringing is
facilitates sewing and reduces the likelihood of damaging the fabric or enlarging maintained at a satisfactory tension and that it is not so tight as to cause
the stitch holes. distortion of the ribs.
Stringing • Slipstream Area: For stringing purposes, slip-stream area is considered to

be the diameter of the propeller plus one rib on either side. In the case of
Flax cord complying with BS F35 is normally used for stringing purposes and is multi-engined aircraft, the entire gap between the slip-streams, regardless of
generally applied in single strands as shown opposite. As an alternative, but only its width, is also considered to be slip-stream area.
when approved by the manufacturer, doubled No. 18 thread may be used during
repair work.
• When the fabric covering of the component has been completed, cotton tape
to BS F47 should be stretched centrally over each rib, top and bottom and
stitched into position at the trailing edge.
–– Using a stringing needle and commencing at the top surface, the stringing
cord should be passed through the tape and fabric as close to the rib as
possible, out through the bottom fabric and tape, round the lower rib boom
and back up through both surfaces again. A double knot should be used to
secure the first and last stringing loops and after each 450mm (18 in). In
between, single knots may be used.
–– The stringing pitch is normally 75mm (3 in) but in the slip-stream area, or
on aircraft of more than 910kg (2000lb) weight, the pitch is often reduced
to 37mm (1.5 in). Variations from these pitches will be stipulated in the
relevant aircraft manuals and it may be necessary to vary the pitch in order
to avoid internal structure or control runs.
–– When the stringing has been completed a strip of serrated tape, 37mm
(1.5 in) wide, should be doped over the stringing line on both surfaces,
care being taken to ensure that no air is trapped under the tape and that
the tape is securely attached to the main cover.
NOTE: The knots depicted in the figure opposite are typical, but a different type
of knot may be specified by the manufacturer.
• Boom Stringing: This type of stringing is used on deep aerofoil sections.
The procedure is similar to that described above, except that the cord
is passed round the rib boom instead of round the entire rib. Top and
bottom surfaces are therefore attached separately and the inside of
each boom must be taped to prevent chafing of the stringing cord.

Figure 89: Typical Stringing

MISCELLANEOUS METHODS OF FABRIC ATTACHMENT
Miscellaneous Methods of Fabric Attachment

In addition to the standard methods of fabric attachment previously described, • Attachment of Fabric to Plywood: Dope is generally used for the attachment
other methods are sometimes employed. The most commonly used are outlined of fabric to plywood, but before the fabric is applied, the wood surface should
here. be smoothed with fine glass paper and any cavities, such as those caused
by the countersinking for screwheads, filled and allowed to set. The filler area
• Attachment by Strip: Attachment of the fabric by wrapping it around a light should be reduced to an absolute minimum because of the reduced adhesion
alloy strip or rod which is then secured in a channel or groove is sometimes of the doped fabric in such areas.
used with metal structures (see opposite).
–– The wooden surface should then be treated with one coat of tautening
• Special Stringing: A variation of the method described in the previous dope, followed by a further coat after the first one has dried. After the
paragraph, used for attaching fabric to metal ribs and known as ’special second coat of dope has dried, the fabric should be spread over the wood
stringing’, is shown here. and stretched evenly to avoid wrinkling. A coat of tautening dope should
then be brushed into the fabric sufficiently to ensure good penetration. For
this purpose a fabric pad is useful for rubbing in the dope.
–– After the dope has dried, it should be lightly rubbed down using ’wet and
dry’ rubbing paper Grade 0 or Grade 00 and then the required finishing
scheme applied.
• Attachment of Fabric to Metal Surfaces: Where a light alloy is used as part
of the structure of a mainplane (such as to form the leading edge profile) the
fabric is generally doped into position. Alternatively, a thermoplastic adhesive
may be used and guidance on the use of this material may be obtained from
the relevant aircraft manuals.
–– To ensure satisfactory adhesion of the fabric, the metal surfaces should be
thoroughly cleaned and primed with an etch primer.
• Adhesives: On some small aircraft, where air loads are light, stringing is
dispensed with on the wing and tail surfaces and the fabric is attached to the
structure by means of a proprietary adhesive. This method produces a much
smoother surface on the components and saves time during construction and
repair.

MISCELLANEOUS METHODS OF FABRIC ATTACHMENT
Figure 90: Attachment of Fabric by Strip

DRAINAGE AND VENTILATION
Drainage and Ventilation

Drainage and ventilation holes are necessary in fabric-covered components
to minimise corrosion of the structure, rotting of the fabric etc., and, to ensure
maximum efficiency, it is important that they should be positioned as prescribed
on the relevant drawing.
• Drainage holes are usually positioned in the lower surface of components or
wherever entrapment of moisture is possible, but when holes are used for
ventilating purposes, e.g. to permit the air pressure inside the component
to equalise with the surrounding air at various altitudes, the holes may be
located in sheltered positions regardless of drainage qualities.
• Drainage Eyelets: Drainage eyelets (grommets) are usually oval or circular
in shape and are doped onto the surface of the fabric, but in some cases may
be secured by stitching through pre-pierced holes in the eyelets before the
finishing scheme is applied.
• Shielded Eyelets: Shielded or shrouded eyelets (grommets) are sometimes
used in special positions to improve either drainage or ventilation. On marine
aircraft they are used to prevent the entry of sea spray. These special eyelets
must only be used in specified positions and must not be used as an alternative
to standard eyelets. It is also important that the shroud is facing in the correct
direction, otherwise it will not be fully effective.

DRAINAGE AND VENTILATION
Figure 91: Drainage Eyelets (Grommets)

INSPECTION PANELS
Inspection Panels • Zip Panels: These consist of two zip fasteners sewn into the fabric in the form
of a vee, the open ends of each fastener being at the apex of the vee. This
For inspection and servicing purposes it is essential that access be provided at type of access is suitable for positions where frequent inspection or servicing
specified positions in all fabric coverings. The three methods commonly used are is necessary. Care should be taken to avoid clogging the zip segments when
described here. dope is applied to the fabric.
• Woods Frames: These are light circular or square frames, made from celluloid • Spring Panels: A panel particularly suitable for use on light aircraft, is the
sheet, which are doped onto the fabric cover at the required positions. The spring panel which consists of a circular plastic ring and dished light alloy
fabric is then cut away from inside the frames and a serrated edged fabric cover. The ring is doped into position in the same way as the Woods Frame
patch doped over the hole as shown opposite. The disadvantage of this type and the fabric cut away from the inside. By pressing the centre of the cover
of panel is that a new patch must be doped on after each inspection and the the dish shape is reversed, allowing the clip to be inserted in the hole; when
finishing scheme re-applied. pressure is released the dish reverts to its normal shape and closes round the
plastic ring as shown here.

INSPECTION PANELS
Figure 92: Woods Frame Inspection Panel

REPAIRS TO FABRIC COVERINGS
Repairs to Fabric Coverings

If the fabric has been damaged extensively, it is usually impractical and • Repairs with Woods Frames: On some aircraft, repairs to cuts and tears
uneconomical to make satisfactory repairs by sewing and patching. The extent with jagged edges, which cannot be stitched as described in the previous
and location of damage to the fabric that may be repaired will be detailed in the paragraphs, can be repaired by using the Woods frame method described
repair section of the aircraft manual concerned, but extensive damage is often for inspection panels previously. Repairs of up to 50mm (2 in) square may be
made good by replacing complete fabric panels. However, the replacement of made, provided they are clear of seams or attachments by a distance of not
large fabric panels, particularly on one side of a component, may lead to distortion less than 50mm (2 in). The affected area should be cleaned with thinners or
of the structure and it may be advisable to completely re-cover the component. acetone and repaired in the following manner:
Before attempting any repair to the fabric covering, the cause of the damage –– The Woods frame should be doped into position surrounding the damaged
should be ascertained. The internal structure should be inspected for loose objects fabric and, if the frame is of the square type, the edges should be parallel to
such as stones, remains of birds, insects etc., and any structural damage made the weft and warp of the covering. When the dope has dried, the damaged
good. Using thinners, all dope should be removed from the fabric surrounding the portion of the fabric should be cut out and the aperture covered by a fabric
damaged area before any stitching is carried out, since doped fabric will tear if patch.
any tension is applied to the repair stitches. –– If Woods frames are not readily available they can be made from cellulose
Repair of Cuts and Tears: Cuts and tears in fabric are sometimes caused by sheet 0.8mm (0.030 in) thick with minimum frame width of 25mm (1 in);
stones thrown up by the slip-stream or wheels, but more generally result from in the case of the square type of frame the minimum comer radii should
accidental damage during ground movement or servicing. Damage may also be be 12mm (0.5 in). In some special cases, aircraft manufacturers use
caused by bird strikes. Any damaged structure should be made good and fabric 2mm plywood complying with British Standard V3 for the manufacture of
repairs carried out according to the type of damage, as detailed in the following the frames, in which case it is important to chamfer the outer edges of the
paragraphs. frame to blend with the aerofoil contour.
• HerringBone Stitch: The herring-bone stitch (also known as the ’ladder’ or

’baseball’ stitch) should be used for repairing straight cuts or tears which have
sound edges. The stitches should be made as shown opposite, with a lock
knot every 150mm (6 in).
–– There should be a minimum of two stitches to the centimetre (four stitches
to the inch) and the stitches should be 6mm (0.25 in) from the edge of the
cut or tear.
–– After the stitching has been completed, 25mm (1 in) wide serrated tape
should be doped over the stitching. A square or rectangular fabric patch
should then be doped over the whole repair, ensuring that the edges of the Herring-bone (Baseball) Stitch
patch are parallel to the warp and weft of the fabric covering and that they
overlap the repair by 37mm (1.5 in). The original doping scheme should
then be restored.

Figure 93: Repair of L-Shaped Tear

Repair of Cuts and Tears

• Repair by Darning: Irregular holes or jagged tears in fabric may be repaired
by darning provided the hole is not more than 50mm (2 in) wide at any point.
The stitches should follow the lines of the warp and weft and should be closely
spaced as shown in the adjacent figure. The whole repair should be covered
with a serrated fabric patch in the usual way, with an overlap of 37mm (1.5 in)
from the start of the dam.
• Repair by Insertion: For damage over 100mm (4 in) square, insertion repairs
are generally used, either of the two methods described below being suitable.
–– Normal Insertion Repair: The damaged area of the fabric should be cut
out to form a square or rectangular hole with the edges parallel to the weft
and warp. The comers of the hole should then be cut diagonally, to allow a
12mm (0.5 in) wide edge to be folded under the fabric and this should be
held in position with tacking or hemming stitches.
–– The patch should be made 25mm (1 in) larger than the cut-out area and
its edges should be folded under for 12mm (0.5 in) and tacked in position
in a manner similar to that described in the previous paragraph. In this
condition, the size of the insertion patch should be similar to, or slightly
smaller than, that of the cut-out area.
–– The insertion patch should be held in position inside the cut-out area with a
few tacking stitches and then sewn in position using a herring-bone stitch
of not less than two stitches to the centimetre (four stitches to the inch),
as shown in the figure opposite. A 25mm (1 in) wide tape should then be
doped over the seams.
–– For small repairs a square or rectangular cover patch, with frayed or
serrated edges, should be doped in position ensuring that the patch
overlaps the edge of the tape by 31mm (1.25 in). Where the size of the
insertion patch is more than 225mm (9 in) square, a 75mm (3 in) wide
fabric serrated tape is often used; the tape should be mitred at the corners
and doped in position. The original finish should then be restored.

Figure 94: Normal Insertion Repair

Repair of Cuts and Tears

• Alternative Insertion Repair: An alternative repair is shown opposite. This
consists of cutting away the damaged fabric as described previously but, in
this case, the edges of the aperture as well as the edges of the insertion patch
are turned upwards. The insertion patch is attached to the fabric cover by
stitching along the folded-up edges as near to the contour of the component
as practicable (i.e. about 1mm (0.0625 in) above the surface) using the boot
stitch described previously (Stage 1 of the figure opposite). The edges are
then doped down (Stage 2 of the figure opposite) and the repair covered with
a doped-on fabric patch.
• Boot Stitch: A single, well-waxed No.18 linen thread to BS F34 should be
used for the boot stitch. The stitches should be made as shown in the figure
adjacent and the ends of both threads tied together in a lock knot every
150mm (6 in), and at the end of a seam.

Figure 95: Alternative Insertion Repair

CHECKING OF FABRIC
Checking of Fabric
The fabric covering of an aircraft will deteriorate in service, the rate of deterioration Portable Tester: This consists of a penetrating cone and plunger housed within a
depending, to a large extent, on the type of operation, climate, storage conditions sleeve assembly. When pressed against a surface the cone is forced up through
and the maintenance of a satisfactory surface finish. the sleeve against spring pressure and the plunger projects through
In addition, as a result of water soakage, chafing against structure and local the top of the sleeve in the same way as a tyre pressure gauge. When inspecting
wear, the covering will not deteriorate uniformly. In the case of fabric covered fabric, the tester should be held at 90° to the surface and pressure applied
components on large aircraft, an arbitrary life may be placed on the fabric, but towards the fabric in a rotary motion, until the sleeve flange touches the surface
with light-aircraft coverings the fabric should be checked at the periods specified (see figure opposite). The degree to which the cone has penetrated the fabric is
in the approved Maintenance Schedule and prior to renewal of the Certificate of indicated by the length of plunger showing above the sleeve and this is marked
Airworthiness. either by coloured bands or a graduated scale.
• A visual examination in which particular attention is given to places where • A table is provided with the tester giving the colour or scale reading required
water soakage, local wear, fretting or oil contamination are likely to occur, for a particular type of fabric.
or are known to occur on that particular aircraft type, supplemented by a NOTE: The portable tester described here is of American manufacture and the
knowledge of the aircraft history, will often be sufficient to justify acceptance table supplied refers to fabric complying with American specifications (AMS,
of the covering as a whole, or replacement of some local areas which have TSO and MIL). It can be adapted for use on fabrics complying with DTD and BS
deteriorated. In cases of doubt as to the strength of the fabric, further tests specifications by comparing the strength requirements of the fabrics.
will be necessary. • The test should be repeated at various positions and the lowest reading
• One method of checking the strength of an aircraft covering is by the use obtained, other than in isolated repairable areas, should be considered
of a portable tester such as the one described further on and illustrated representative of the surface as a whole.
opposite. These testers are, generally, only suitable for checking the NOTE: It is important to ensure that the test is not made through double layers of
condition of coverings on which the dope finish has penetrated the fabric, since this would not be representative of the entire surface.
fabric. Finishes such as cellulose acetate butyrate dope do not normally
penetrate the fabric and experience has shown that the absorption • All punctures produced by the tester should be repaired with a 50mm or
of moisture in humid conditions can produce unreliable test results. 75mm (2 in or 3 in) diameter doped fabric patch.
In addition, butyrate dope, even when some penetration of the fabric has
occurred, produces a finish which hardens with age; as a result the conical
point on the tester will not readily penetrate the covering and the test will tend
to indicate that the fabric is stronger than it actually is. Thus, where butyrate
dope has been used, or the dope, irrespective of type, does not penetrate the
fabric, laboratory tests should be carried out. For a laboratory test the dope
should be removed from the fabric, using a suitable solvent where necessary.
Fabric having a strength of at least 70 of the strength of new fabric to the
appropriate specification (as assessed by either test), may be considered
airworthy, but fabric which falls only just within the acceptable range should
be checked more frequently thereafter to ensure continued serviceability.

CHECKING OF FABRIC
Figure 96: Fabric Tester

LABORATORY TESTS
Laboratory Tests
Tensile strength tests are included in laboratory tests specified for new fabric and require the use of six warp and six weft samples, each 62mm x 300 to 400mm (2.5
in x 12 to 16 in). These tests are thus an uneconomical proposition for used fabric coverings on aircraft, since they would necessitate partial re-covering even if the
fabric proved to be serviceable. It is recommended, therefore, that when the portable tester is considered unsatisfactory or inappropriate, samples of fabric should be
sent to a laboratory acceptable to the CAA, for bursting strength tests in accordance with the specification for the particular type of fabric. These tests require the use
of samples approximately 87mm (3.5 in) in diameter.
• Bursting strength tests can be carried out on a machine operating on the principle of applying force to a polished steel ball of 25.40mm (1.00 in) diameter, the ball being
in contact with the test sample, which is clamped between two circular brass plates having coaxial apertures of 44.45mm (1.75 in) diameter. The load should be applied
at a constant rate and the load at break point is the bursting strength of the fabric. An Instron machine, which operates on this principle, is suitable for conducting tests on
used aircraft fabric. As an alternative, a machine operating on hydraulic principles can be used; in such a machine, liquid pressure is applied at a constant rate to a rubber
diaphragm, which is positioned to expand through a clamp aperture of 30.99mm (1.22 in) diameter, exerting force against the fabric sample held between the clamps.
NOTE: The test methods referred to above are in accordance with the American Federal Test Method Standard No. 191, Methods 5120 and 5122 respectively.

LABORATORY TESTS

MAN-MADE FABRICS
Man-Made Fabrics
Natural fabrics, such as cotton or linen, deteriorate in use as a result of the • Glass-Fibre Materials: Glass-fibre fabric is normally fitted to the mainplane
effects of sunlight, mildew or atmospheric pollution and may require replacement and tailplane in a spanwise direction, being attached at the leading and
several times during the life of an aircraft. With a view to lengthening the intervals trailing edges with a 50mm (2 in) doped seam. Fuselages may conveniently
between fabric replacements, several man-made fabrics have been developed be covered using four pieces of material at the top, bottom and sides, doped
and are approved in some countries for use on specific aircraft. The two main seams again being employed. Some glass-fibre material is pre-treated to
types of materials are polyester-fibre and glass-fibre, which are marketed under make it compatible with cellulose acetate butyrate dope and is not suitable for
various trade names. The methods of covering aircraft with these fabrics are use with cellulose nitrate dope.
briefly discussed in the following paragraphs but it is important that the instructions –– The structure should be prepared by removing all sharp edges from the
issued by the manufacturer of the aircraft or fabric should be carefully followed parts which will be in contact with the cover. Wooden parts should be
and only the specified materials used. lightly sanded and metal edges taped to prevent chafing.
• Polyester-Fibre Materials: These materials may be attached to the structure –– Glass-fibre material is only slightly tautened by doping and must be a good
by the method previously described, by use of pre-sewn covering envelopes initial fit, after which glass-fibre stringing should be fitted in the appropriate
or by use of an approved adhesive at the points of contact with die structure. manner.
The materials used for attachment and stringing must be compatible with the –– Repairs within the specified limits may be made by cutting out the damaged
main fabric. area of fabric and doping on a cover patch which overlaps 50mm (2 in) all
–– Before stringing, polyester fibre covers are tautened by the application of round.
heat, the degree of shrinkage being proportional to the heat applied. The
most common method of applying heat is a household iron set at about
120°C (’wool’ setting), and used in an ironing motion. Care is necessary
to prevent the application of excessive heat as this may melt the fibre,
or overtauten the cover and distort the underlying structure. Where non-
tautening dope is used, the cover may be fully tautened prior to doping, but
where tautening dope is used the initial shrinkage should leave the cover
fairly slack, since tautening will continue over a period of months after the
dope has been applied.
–– Repairs within the specified limits may be carried out as described
previously, or patches may be stuck on, using a suitable adhesive. Large
patches should be tautened in the same way as the main cover.

MAN-MADE FABRICS

DOPING
Doping • Dope-Proof Paints: Due to the nature of the solvents used in dope, many
paints will be attacked and softened by it. Dope-proof paint is therefore used
to coat structure which will be in contact with the doped fabric. In the case of
Introduction wooden structure, spar varnish provides a good dope-resistant finish and an
Fabric has been used from the early days of the aeroplane as a covering for epoxy primer is suitable for metal structures.
fuselages and aerofoils. It still continues to provide good service for light aircraft
• Aluminium Dope: To make the fabric lightproof and so prevent damage from
but must be protected from deterioration by the application of a dope film. Natural
ultra-violet radiation, an aluminium dope is used. This is usually supplied
fabrics, such as cotton or linen, deteriorate in use as a result of the effects of
ready mixed but can be prepared by mixing aluminium paste or powder in
sunlight, mildew and atmospheric pollution. Man-made fibres resist some of
clear dope, but it is essential that the materials are obtained from an approved
these agents better than natural fabrics but still require protection. The dope film
supplier and mixed in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions.
then achieves the following functions:
• Thinners: Dopes are formulated in such a way that the solid constituents
• Tautening of natural fabrics
are suspended in the appropriate solvents. It will normally be necessary to
• Waterproofing thin or reduce the dope to make it suitable for spraying. It is important that
• Airproofing only the thinners recommended by the manufacturer of the dope is used. The
amount of thinners is determined from the manufacturer’s recommendations
• Lightproofing
and is modified by experience to take account of the equipment used and the
atmospheric conditions. The viscosity can be measured by using a viscosity
Materials cup which contains a small hole in the bottom. In use, the cup is dipped into
The basic film consists of dope but other materials are used in its application, as the dope and the flow of fluid is timed from when the cup is lifted from the
described in the following paragraphs. container to the first break in the flow. In this way subsequent batches of dope
• Dopes: Dope consists of a number of resins dissolved in a solvent to permit can be mixed to exactly the same viscosity as the first batch. It is important that
application by brush or spray. This formulation is then modified with plasticisers nitrate and butyrate dopes are mixed only with their own specialised thinners.
and pigments to add flexibility and the required colour (see opposite). There A retarder, or anti-blush thinners, is a special type of thinners with slow-
are two types of dope in use, namely, cellulose nitrate and cellulose acetate drying solvents. By drying more slowly, they prevent the temperature drop
butyrate. The former is usually known simply as nitrate dope and the latter as and consequent moisture condensation that cause blushing in a dope finish.
butyrate or CAB dope. The main difference between the two types of dope is In use, the retarder replaces some of the standard thinners and can be used
the film base. In nitrate dope a special cotton is dissolved in nitric acid, whilst in a ratio of up to one part retarder to four parts of thinners. The use of more
in butyrate dope cellulose fibres are dissolved in acetic acid and mixed with retarder than this is unlikely to achieve the desired result.
butyl alcohols. The plasticisers in the two dopes are also different, as are • Cleaning Agent: Methylethyl-ketone (MEK) is an important, relatively low
the resin balance and solvent balances. Dope must be stored under suitable cost, solvent similar to acetone. It is widely used as a cleaning agent to
conditions, and has a tendency to become acid with age; if old dope is used remove wax and din and to prepare surfaces for painting or re-doping. It is
for refinishing an aircraft, it will quickly rot the fabric. Only fresh dope should also useful as a solvent for cleaning spray guns and other equipment.
be used, preferably buying it for the job in hand.

DOPING
Figure 97: Dope Constituents

MATERIALS (CONTINUED)
Materials (Continued)
• Fungicides: Since natural fabrics can be attacked by various forms of mildew
and fungus, it may be necessary to provide protection for cottons and linens
when doping. This is achieved by having a fungicide added to the first coat of
dope. The dope is usually supplied ready mixed, but can be prepared by using
a fungicidal paste obtained from an approved supplier. If the latter course
is necessary, the fungicidal paste should be mixed with the clear dope in
accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions; all fungicides are poisonous
and therefore, standard precautions should be taken to prevent any ill effects.
Since mildew or mould form on the inside of the fabric, it is important to ensure
that this first coat of dope completely penetrates the fabric.
• Tack Rags: A tack rag is a rag slightly dampened with thinners and is used to
wipe a surface after it has been sanded to prepare it for the application of the
next coat. Proprietary cloths are also available.
• Sandpaper: Sanding is carried out using wet-or-dry paper. This is a waterproof
sandpaper that will remain flexible and not clog. The grades most likely to be
used are 280, 360 and 600, the last mentioned being the finest grade.
• Drainage Eyelets and Inspection Rings: Openings in the fabric cover
for drain holes and inspection panels are always reinforced with eyelets or
grommets and inspection rings. These are made from cellulose nitrate sheet
and are doped into position.
Plain and Shielded Drainage Eyelets

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
Safety Precautions • Electrical equipment to be used in the spray shop must be of such a nature
that it cannot ignite the vapours that will be present. Lead lamps must be of
The storage and use of dopes is covered by various Government regulations the explosion-proof variety and dopes must not be mixed using stirrers driven
made under the Factories Act. by portable electric drills.
• The hazard with the use of dopes comes about because of the flammability
of the solvents that are used. The solvents have a low flash point and the
vapour produced is heavier than air. Accumulations of vapour are readily
ignited producing a serious fire which can spread very rapidly.
• One of the most common causes of ignition is a spark produced by the
discharge of static electricity. For example, during the course of doping, the
fumes from the solvents will accumulate inside the structure. When the dope
has dried, subsequent dry sanding and dusting will build up a static charge on
the surface. If the operator is wearing rubber soled shoes, he/she will be at
the same electrical potential as the surface and nothing will happen. Should
the charge on the operator now be lost through his/her touching some metal
part of the spray shop, for example and he/she then touches some metal part
of the structure being doped, the static charge will jump to earth creating a
spark and igniting the fumes. The best way to prevent this type of problem is to
eliminate the static charge altogether by grounding the structure being doped.
A wire connected from the structure to a clean metal part of the spray shop will
do the job satisfactorily. Clothing that is made of synthetic fibres will build up
a static charge more readily than that made from cotton. Leather soled shoes
will allow any static charge to be dissipated to ground. When spraying nitrate
dope ensure that the spray gun, the operator and the structure being doped
are all grounded together.
• The standard of housekeeping in the spray shop is an important aspect of
safety. If the floor becomes contaminated with dried nitrate dope overspray,
subsequent sweeping will produce a static charge with the attendant risk of
ignition and possible explosion. To clean the floor, it should be doused well
with water and then swept whilst it is still wet. Since dopes will not be the only
materials used in a spray shop, it should be noted that spontaneous combustion
can be the result of a mixing of dope and zinc chromate oversprays.
• The fumes created during the spraying process are hazardous to health
as well as being a fire risk. Proper operator protection must be provided as
recommended in the dope manufacturer’s technical literature. At the first sign
of any irritation of the skin or eyes, difficulty in breathing or a dry cough, the
operator should stop work and seek medical advice.

WORKING CONDITIONS
Working Conditions
• In order to accomplish a proper dope job, it is important to control both the • In addition to the proper control of air temperature, the humidity of the air
temperature and humidity of the air in the spray shop. In addition to this it is must also be controlled. The desirable range of air humidity is 45 to 50.
necessary to maintain sufficient air flow through the shop to remove the heavy Satisfactory work can be produced with air humidity as high as 70 or as low
vapours caused by atomisation and evaporation of the solvents used. as 20, depending upon other variables such as temperature and air flow, but
the control of the dope application at extremes is always more difficult.
• To maintain a suitable air flow through the spray shop it is necessary to install
a fan at floor level since the vapours produced are heavier than air. The fan • Humidity should be measured with a hygrometer and although direct
must be explosion proof, as must be all other electrical equipment installed reading instruments are available, the wet and dry bulb type is still the
in the area. The rate of air flow is dictated by the size of the spray shop most common. In this instrument two thermometers are mounted side by
and is the subject of various Government regulations. The discharge of the side, the bulb of one being kept wet by water evaporating through a wick.
vapours may also be the subject of further requirements and the advice of the To take a reading of humidity, both thermometers should be read and the
Factory Inspectorate should be sought. The air inlet to the spray shop should difference between them noted; the wet bulb thermometer will be lower.
preferably be in an adjoining room, or at least behind a suitable baffle, in order After finding the dry bulb reading in the table opposite, a reading should be
to reduce draughts to a minimum. If the inlet is in a separate room then the taken across to the column headed with the depression of the wet bulb. The
air temperature can be raised to that required before entering the spray shop. relative humidity as a percentage is given at the intersection of the two lines.
• Many problems associated with doping can be traced to incorrect temperatures Example Assuming a dry bulb reading of 17°C and a wet bulb reading of
of the air or the dope. If the dope has been left overnight in a cold place then 14°C, the depression of the wet bulb, that is the amount by which the reading
it will take many hours to bring it to the room temperature. Overnight heating of the wet bulb is reduced below that of the dry bulb, is 3°C. Reading across
of the spray shop is the most satisfactory method to prepare for doping since from 17°C in the dry bulb column to the depression column headed 3°C
it usually results in more uniform temperatures throughout the shop. Rapid indicates a relative humidity of 72.
heating tends to result in stratified heating with the ceiling being considerably
hotter than the floor level. Air temperature should be maintained between • In order to produce a satisfactory dope film, it is vitally important that all
approximately 21° and 26°C (70° to 79°F) for best results. If the temperature brushes, spray equipment and containers should be scrupulously clean. It is
is too low, the rapid evaporation of the solvents will lower the temperature important that oil and water traps in the air lines are properly cleaned and that
of the surface to the point where moisture will condense and be trapped in air reservoirs are drained of accumulated moisture. Pressure pots and spray
the finish. Too high temperature causes very rapid drying of the dope which guns should be thoroughly cleaned with thinners before the dope hardens. If
can result in pin holes and blisters. The only satisfactory way to operate is to passages have become obstructed with dried dope, the equipment should be
constantly monitor and control the air temperature as necessary. dismantled and the parts soaked in MEK or a similar solvent. Packings and
seals should never be soaked in solvents or they will harden and become
useless.

WORKING CONDITIONS
RELATIVE HUMIDITY (%)

PREPARATION OF PRIOR TO DOPING
Preparation of Prior to Doping

Before the component is moved into the spray shop, normal housekeeping tasks
should be carried out. All dirt, dust and dried overspray should be removed,
bearing in mind the safety precautions stated previously. Then the working
conditions of temperature and humidity should be achieved with the dope and
other materials being brought to the correct temperature.
• An inspection should be made of the fabric-covered component to verify the
following points:
–– The structure has been painted with dope-proof paint where required.
–– Correct and secure attachment of the fabric to the structure.
–– Correct allowance for tautening of the cover where this is of a natural
fabric such as cotton or linen. If the cover is too slack, no amount of doping
will rectify this. If it is too tight, a lightweight structure, such as a control
surface, could easily be distorted.
–– All dust has been removed from the fabric.
–– The fabric has reached the temperature of the air in the spray shop.
–– Plastics components, such as windows and windscreens, are adequately
protected against solvent attack; newspaper is not satisfactory for this
purpose.
• With the dope at the correct temperature, it should be mixed and then thinned
to a suitable consistency for brush or spray application as appropriate. Whilst
the dope is in storage the solid materials tend to settle and the purpose of
mixing is to bring these materials back into suspension. To mix any dope
satisfactorily, half the contents of the tin should be poured into a clean tin
of the same size. The remaining material should be stirred until all the solid
material is in suspension, paying particular attention to the bottom of the tin.
The contents of the first tin should then be poured into the second tin and a
check made that all pigment has been loosened from the bottom. Finally, the
dope from one tin should be poured into the other and back again, until it is
thoroughly mixed.

PREPARATION OF PRIOR TO DOPING

APPLICATION TO NATURAL FABRIC
Application to Natural Fabric

The best looking and most durable film is produced by using multiple coats of a • Filling Coats: When the first butyrate coat has fully dried, the fabric will feel
dope that is low in solids. A large number of thin coats, however, requires a great rough due to the short fibre ends (the nap) standing up. This nap should
deal of time and modern dope schemes tend to use fewer, but thicker, coats than be very lightly sanded off, using dry sandpaper, to leave a smooth finish.
the earlier schemes. The dope scheme is a schedule listing the number and The surface should then be rinsed clean with water and dried thoroughly.
order of coats of each type of dope. Typical examples of schemes detailed in Two full wet cross-coats of butyrate dope should now follow; a cross-coat is
British Standard BS X26 are given in the tables here and opposite. The standard a coat of dope sprayed on in one direction and then covered with a second
aircraft doping scheme is 752, but 751 is used on light structures that would be coat at right angles to it before the first coat dries. These in turn should be
distorted by overtautening and 753 is used where an extra taut cover is required. followed with one good cross-coat of aluminium dope after lightly sanding the
clear dope to encourage adhesion. The aluminium coat is in its turn lightly wet
• Priming Coats: This name is given to the first coats applied to the raw fabric. sanded to produce a smooth surface and the residue rinsed off with water.
The first coat of dope provides the foundation for all the subsequent coats Once the aluminium coat has dried, it should be checked for continuity by
and as such its mechanical attachment to the fabric is very important. This shining a light inside the structure. The film should be completely lightproof.
mechanical attachment is formed by the dope encapsulating the fibres of the
fabric. Nitrate dope has much better properties with regard to encapsulating • Finishing Coats: The finishing coats of pigmented butyrate dope may now
the fibres and is therefore preferred for the first coat. The dope should be be sprayed on. The number of coats will be determined as a balance between
thinned by 25 to 50 and applied by brush. The dope should be worked into quality and cost but should not be less than three. A high gloss finish is obtained
the fabric to ensure adequate penetration, but not to the point where it drips by lightly sanding each coat when dry and spraying multiple thin coats rather
through to the opposite surface. Since organic fabrics are subject to attack than several thick coats. The use of a retarder in the colour coats will allow the
by mildew, a fungicide should be added to the dope used for this first coat. dope to flow out and form a smoother film. The final coat should be allowed to
When applying the first coat of dope to the wings, the entire wing should first dry for at least a month before it is polished with rubbing compound and then
be doped on both sides aft of the front spar. The dope should be allowed waxed. The surface should be waxed at least once a year with a hard wax to
to shrink the fabric before doping the leading edge. In this way, the fabric reduce the possibility of oxidation of the finish.
will tauten evenly and adjust itself over the leading edge cap without forming
wrinkles.
• After the dope has dried for a minimum of 1 hour, the tapes, drainage eyelets
or grommets and inspection panel rings may be applied. A heavy coat of
nitrate dope should be brushed on where required and the tape laid into it,
working it down to the surface and rubbing out any air pockets as the tape is
laid. A further coat of clear dope is brushed over the top of the tapes. Drainage
eyelets or grommets and inspection rings are attached in a similar fashion at
this time. To ensure the best adhesion, eyelets or grommets and rings may
be soaked in dope thinners for no more than two minutes to soften them.
Inspection rings are best reinforced with a circular pinked-edge patch, a little
larger than the ring, doped over the top. The holes in eyelets or grommets
and rings are opened with a sharp, pointed knife after doping is complete. The
taping is followed by another coat of clear dope which may be butyrate and
may be applied by spray gun.

APPLICATION TO NATURAL FABRIC

APPLICATION TO POLYESTER-FIBRE FABRIC
Application to Polyester-Fibre Fabric

Polyester-fibre fabrics are being increasingly widely used for covering aircraft
because of their long life and resistance to deterioration. For this reason it is
extremely important that the dope film is of the highest quality so that its life will
match that of the fabric.
• Priming Coats: Tautening of the fabric cover is not a function of the
dope film where synthetic fabrics are used, although all dopes will
tauten to some extent. Polyester-fibre fabrics are heat shrunk when the
structure is covered. The most notable difference in doping a synthetic
cover is the difficulty, when compared with natural fabrics, of obtaining a
good mechanical bond between the dope and the fibres of the material.
Unlike natural fibres the polyester filaments are not wet by the dope and
the security of attachment depends upon them being totally encapsulated
by the first coat of dope. The first coat must be nitrate dope thinned in the
ratio of two or three parts of dope to one part of thinners. This coat is then
brushed into the fabric in order to completely encapsulate every fibre.
The dope should form a wet film on the inside of the cover but it
should not be so wet that it drips through to the opposite side of
the structure. The initial coat should be followed by two more brush
coats of nitrate dope thinned to an easy brushing consistency.
Certain additives are approved by the material manufacturer for use with the
first coat for improving adhesion to the fabric. However, since polyester is not
organic, there is no need for a fungicide to be added to the first coat of dope.
• Filling Coats: Taping and attaching of drainage eyelets or grommets and
inspection rings follows the same procedure as for natural fabrics. The priming
coats should be followed by spraying two full-bodied cross-coats of clear
butyrate dope. After these coats have completely dried they should be lightly
sanded (400 grit) and cleaned thoroughly with a tack rag. One full cross-coat
of aluminium dope should then be sprayed on and lightly wet sanded when
dry, the residue being rinsed off with water. This coat should be tested to verify
that it is lightproof by shining a light inside the structure.
• Finishing Coats: The finishing coats should now be applied in the same
manner as for natural fabrics. It should be noted that with a properly finished
polyester cover the weave of the fabric will still show through the dope film.
Because the fibres are continually moving, any attempt to completely hide
them will result in a finish that does not have sufficient flexibility to resist
cracking.

APPLICATION TO GLASS-FIBRE FABRIC
Application to Glass-Fibre Fabric

Glass-fibre fabric has a loose weave which tends to make it difficult to apply
to aircraft structures. To overcome this problem it is pre-treated with butyrate
dope and the covering and doping must be carried out in accordance with the
manufacturer’s installation instructions.
• Priming Coats: Nitrate dope must not be used under any circumstances with
this type of fabric. The first coat of clear butyrate dope is sprayed on with the
dope being thinned only enough to permit proper atomisation. The atomising
pressure must be set to the lowest possible that will permit proper atomisation
without the dope being blown through the fabric. The coat should be heavy
enough to thoroughly wet the fabric and soften the dope in the fabric, but must
not be so heavy that it causes the dope to run on the reverse side of the fabric.
If the dope is allowed to run in this way, an orange peel finish will develop and
the fabric will not tauten properly. After the first coat has dried, further coats of
butyrate dope should be sprayed on, each a little heavier than the one before
it, until the weave fills and the fabric tautens; this may take as many as five
coats. Tapes, drainage eyelets or grommets and inspection rings are applied
in a coat of butyrate dope.
• Filling Coats: Once the fabric is taut and the weave has been filled, two full-
bodied brush coats of clear butyrate dope should be applied and allowed to
dry thoroughly. The film should then be very carefully sanded, making sure
that it is not sanded through to the fabric. Whilst the fabric is not damaged by
ultra-violet radiation, the clear dope can deteriorate as a result of exposure
and therefore, a coat of aluminium dope should be sprayed on for protection
and lightly wet-sanded smooth. After the aluminium dope has been sanded,
the residue should be removed by washing with water and then the surface
thoroughly dried.
• Finishing Coats: The application of the finishing coats is carried out in
the same manner as for natural fabrics. Several thin, wet coats of coloured
butyrate dope will allow the surface to flow out to a glossy finish.

DOPING PROBLEMS
Doping Problems
The production of a doped finish that is both sound and attractive is dependent • Orange Peel: This is caused by insufficient thinning of the dope or holding
upon a great deal of care and attention being paid to detail at each stage of the the spray gun too far from the surface. It can also be caused by too high an
finishing process. In spite of this, problems do occur and the following paragraphs atomising pressure, use of thinners that is too fast drying or by a cold, damp
detail some common ones and their possible causes. draught over the surface.
• Adhesion: There are two basic areas in which adhesion may be poor; • Pinholes: These are smaller versions of a blister. Apart from the causes listed
between the fabric and the first coat of dope and between the aluminium coat in the ’Bubbles or Blister’ paragraph, they can be caused by water or oil in the
and subsequent coats. Adhesion to the fabric, particularly polyester fabric, spray system. An air temperature that is too high can also be a cause.
is largely dependent upon the technique used to ensure the encapsulation • Roping: This is a condition in which the surface dries as the dope is being
of the fibres. Adhesion to the aluminium coat may be impaired if too much brushed, resulting in an uneven surface. This is common when the dope is
aluminium powder was used or if the surface was not thoroughly cleaned after cold and has not been brought up to the temperature of the spray shop. When
sanding. The use of a tack rag to finally clean a surface before applying the applying dope with a brush, it should not be overbrushed. The brush should
next coat is always recommended. be filled with dope then stroked across the surface and lifted off. The pressure
• Blushing is a white or greyish cast that forms on a doped surface. If the applied to the brush should be sufficient to ensure the proper penetration of
humidity of the air is too high, or if the solvents evaporate too quickly, the the dope.
temperature of the surface drops below the dew-point of the air and moisture • Rough Finish: Dirt and dust on the surface, insufficient sanding and too low
condenses on the surface. This water causes the nitrocellulose to precipitate a working temperature can all cause a rough finish.
out. Moisture in the spray system or on the surface can also cause blushing. • Runs and Sags: This type of defect is caused by too thick coat, especially
Blushing can be controlled by reducing the humidity in the air (raising the on vertical surfaces. This can be the result of incorrectly adjusted spray
temperature by several degrees may achieve this) or by using a retarder in equipment or incorrect technique.
the place of some of the thinners. A blushed area can be salvaged by spraying
another coat over the area using a retarder instead of some of the thinners; • Wet Areas: This is a larger version of the defect described in the ’Fisheyes’
the solvents attack the surface and cause it to flow out. paragraph.
• Bubbles or Blisters are caused by the surface of the dope drying before all
the solvents have had time to evaporate. This may happen if a heavy coat of
dope is applied over a previous coat that had not fully dried.
• Dull Finish: The gloss of butyrate dope may be improved by the addition of up
to 20 retarder in the last coat. Excessive dullness may be caused by holding
the spray gun too far from the surface so that the dope settles as a semi-dry
mist. Small dull spots may be due to a porous surface under the area.
• Fisheyes: These are isolated areas which have not dried due to contamination
of the surface with oil, wax or a silicone product. Cleanliness is important,
especially when refinishing a repair. All wax should be removed using a
suitable solvent before attempting to re-dope the surface.

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
General Considerations
• The weight of the dope applied to the fabric is an indication that the scheme
has been correctly applied. In the BS X26 doping schemes, the weight
per unit area is given and should be checked by doping a test panel at
the same time as the structure. The fabric is weighed before doping and
then again after doping, the difference being the weight of the dope film.
United States Military Specifications call for a minimum dope weight of
161g/m2 (4.75 oz/yd2). A tolerance of +/-20% may be applied to the weights
given in BS X26.
• When an aircraft is re-covered and re-doped, it is essential that it is re-weighed
and a new Weight Schedule raised.
• After the re-covering, repair and doping of control surfaces it is essential that
the static balance of each surface is checked against the manufacturer’s
requirements. Addition of weight aft of the hinge line without correction of the
static balance is likely to cause flutter of the control surface.

CORROSION PART-66 M6 CAT B1
ELECTROCHEMICAL ACTION
Corrosion
Corrosion is a natural phenomenon whereby metal is converted into a metallic
compound such as an oxide, hydroxide or sulphate. Corrosion occurs due to two Effects of Corrosion
actions: chemical or electrochemical. Most metals are subject to corrosion, but corrosion can be minimised by the
Corrosion should be distinguished from erosion, which is primarily destruction by use of corrosion-resistant metals and finishes. The principal material used in
mechanical action. airframe structure is high-strength aluminium alloy sheet coated (clad) with a
pure aluminium coating (ALclad) which is highly resistant to corrosion attack.
Corrosion occurs because of the tendency for metals to return to their natural
state. Noble metals, such as gold and platinum, do not corrode since they are However, with an accumulation of airborne salts and/or industrial pollutants
chemically pure in their natural state. together with an electrolyte (moisture), pitting of the ALclad will occur.
All corrosive attacks begin on the metal surface. The corrosion process involves Once the ALclad surface is broken, rapid deterioration of the high-strength
two chemical changes. The metal that is attacked or oxidised undergoes an aluminium alloy beneath occurs.
anodic change, whilst the corrosive agent is being reduced and undergoing a Other metals commonly used in airframe structure (such as non-clad high-
cathodic change.
strength aluminium alloys, steel and magnesium alloys) require special preventive
The tendency of most metals to corrode creates one of the major problems in measures to guard against corrosion.
the maintenance of aircraft, particularly in areas where adverse environmental
• Aluminium alloys are usually anodised (artificial passivation) then primed and
or weather conditions exist. Some metals (such as stainless steel and titanium),
under the right conditions, produce corrosion products that are so tightly bound possibly top-coated with paint.
to the corroding metal that they form an invisible oxide film (called a passive film), • Steel (except most stainless steels) and other metals, such as brass and
which prevents further corrosion. bronze, require cadmium plating or zinc plating (sacrificial plating).
When the film of corrosion products is loose and porous (such as those of • Magnesium alloys are highly susceptible to corrosion attack, especially where
aluminium and magnesium), an electrolyte can easily penetrate and continue the airborne salts and/or industrial pollutants are present and require special
corrosion process, producing more extensive damage than surface appearance chemical and electro-chemical treatments and paint finishes.
would suggest.
Most pure metals are not suitable for aircraft construction and are used only in Electrochemical Action
combination with other metals to form alloys. More commonly known as galvanic action, the essential ingredients for this
Most alloys are made up entirely of small crystalline regions, called grains. type of corrosion are two dissimilar metals in the presence of an electrolyte.
Corrosion can occur on the surface of those regions which are less resistant,
and also at boundaries between regions, resulting in the formation of pits and Microbiological Corrosion
intergranular corrosion. Metals have a wide range of corrosion resistance. Microbial attack includes actions of bacteria, fungi or moulds.
The most active metals (those which tend to lose electrons easily, such as
magnesium and aluminium), corrode easily. The most noble metals (those which Stress Corrosion
do not lose electrons easily, such as gold and silver), do not corrode easily.
Stress corrosion is an intergranular cracking of the metal which is caused by a
Metals such as aluminium and titanium produce a passive oxide film on their combination of stress and corrosion.
surface that is impermeable and prevents further oxidation of the surface. This is
why pure titanium and aluminium are said to be corrosion resistant.

STRESS CORROSION
Figure 98: Ferrous Corrosion: Rust

EFFECTS OF CORROSION ON METALS
Effects of Corrosion on Metals Influence Factors of Corrosion

Some factors which influence metal corrosion and the rate of corrosion are the:
Steel
Corrosion of steel is easily recognised because the corrosion product is red rust. • Type of metal
When iron-based alloys corrode, dark corrosion products usually form first on • Presence of a dissimilar, less corrodible metal (galvanic corrosion)
the surface of the metal. These products are protective. However, if moisture is • Anode and cathode surface areas (in galvanic corrosion)
present, this ferrous oxide coating is converted to hydrated ferric oxide, which
is red rust. This material will promote further attack by absorbing moisture from • Temperature
the air. The most practical means of controlling corrosion of steel is complete • Heat treatment and grain direction
removal of the corrosion products by mechanical means and by maintaining the
• Presence of electrolytes (hard water, salt water, battery fluids etc.)
protective coating system (usually a plating, often combined with a paint system).
• Availability of oxygen
Aluminium • Presence of different concentrations of the same electrolyte
Aluminium and its alloys exhibit a wide range of corrosion such as crevice, stress
• Presence of biological organisms
and fretting corrosion. Both bare and clad aluminium alloys resist corrosion in
non-marine areas. Where airborne salts and/or industrial pollutants are present, • Mechanical stress on the corroding metal
all aluminium alloys require protection. The corrosion product of aluminium is a • Time of exposure to a corrosive environment
white-grey powdery material which can be removed by mechanical polishing or
brushing with materials softer than the metal. General surface attack of aluminium
penetrates slowly but is accentuated with the presence of dissolved salts.
One of the most corrosive metals that can come into contact with aluminium alloy
is mercury, which causes rapid and severe corrosion that is difficult to control.
Magnesium
Magnesium corrodes extremely easily and can usually be identified as a grey
powder that has severe pitting of the surface. Magnesium has limited uses in
aircraft and tends to be restricted to wheels and instrument casings.
Copper
Copper corrodes relatively easily, and examples of copper piping around a house
usually reveals a green powdery product at pipe unions. This is where the copper
is corroded. On aircraft the main use of copper is for electrical wires, due to its
low resistance, these wires are protected from corroding by plating them with tin
or nickel.

INFLUENCE FACTORS OF CORROSION
Figure 99: Chemical Corrosion

FILIFORM CORROSION
Filiform Corrosion
Filiform corrosion is a special form of oxygen-concentration cell corrosion or
crevice corrosion which occurs on metal surfaces having an organic coating
system.
It is identified by its characteristic worm-like trace of corrosion products beneath
the paint film. Filiform occurs when the relative humidity of the air is 78-90% and
the surface is slightly acid.
Corrosion starts at breaches in the coating system and fastener heads and
extends along the surface of the painted sheet underneath the coating.
If filiform corrosion is not removed, the corrosion can lead to intergranular
corrosion, especially around fasteners and at seams. Filiform corrosion can be
removed by using glass bead-blasting material with portable abrasive equipment
and/or sanding.

FILIFORM CORROSION
Figure 100: Filiform Corrosion

STRESS CORROSION
Stress Corrosion
Stress corrosion is an intergranular cracking of the metal which is caused by a
combination of stress and corrosion.
Stress may be caused by internal or external loading. Internal stresses are
produced by non-uniform deformation during cold working, by unequal cooling
from high temperatures and by internal structural re-arrangement involving
volume changes.
Internal stresses are induced when a piece of structure is deformed during an
assembly operation (i.e. during pressing in bushings, shrinking a part for press-
fit, installing interference bolts, installing rivets, etc.).
Concealed stress is more important than design stress corrosion as it is difficult
to identify before it has overcome the design safety factor. The level of stress
varies from point to point within the metal.
Stresses near the yield strength are generally necessary to promote stress
corrosion cracking, but failures may occur at lower stresses.
Environments
Specific environments have been identified which cause stress corrosion cracking
of certain alloys:
• Salt solutions and sea-water may cause stress corrosion cracking of high
strength heat-treated steel and aluminium alloys. Methyl alcohol-hydrochloric
acid solutions will cause stress corrosion cracking of some titanium alloys.
• Magnesium alloys may stress-corrode in moist air. Stress corrosion may be
reduced by applying protective coatings, stress relief heat treatment, using
corrosion inhibitors or controlling the environment.
• Shot-peening a metal surface increases resistance to stress corrosion
cracking by creating compressive stresses on the surface which should be
overcome by applied tensile stress before the surface sees any tension load.
Thus the threshold stress level is increased.

STRESS CORROSION
Figure 101: Stress Corrosion

Electrochemical Action
In the figure opposite we have a piece of aluminium alloy (such as alloy 2024,
of which most aircraft structure is made). In this material, copper is alloyed with
aluminium and the microscopic grains of the copper and the aluminium serve as
the cathode and the anode for our explanation.
Aluminium is more negative than copper and will act as the anode in the galvanic
action that takes place. Within the metal itself, the forces are such that there will
be no flow of electrons between the two alloying agents until an external path is
provided to form a complete circuit. This path is provided by the electrolyte, which
may be a surface film of moisture containing such pollutants as acids, salts or
other industrial contaminations.
In our illustration we will stick with a little hydrochloric acid in the atmosphere.
The electrode potential difference between the aluminium and the copper grains
causes positive ions to exist within the aluminium.
When the electrolyte film covers the surface, the aluminium ions attract chlorine
ions from the hydrochloric acid and form aluminium chloride, the corrosive salt.
Hydrogen ions will be attracted to the copper by the electrons from the aluminium.
These hydrogen ions will become neutralised and form molecules (H2) which
leave the surface as a free gas.
Corrosion has formed on the anodic aluminium but no corrosion products are
evident on the copper, the cathode.
This type of electrochemical attack produces pits filled with the corrosive salts,
and is usually rather localised. However, if the entire surface is covered with a
strong electrolyte, there will be so much more corrosion that it will produce a
more-or-less uniformly-damaged area. This type of corrosion is called a direct
chemical attack.

Figure 102: Electrochemical Corrosion

ELECTROCHEMICAL SERIES FOR METAL
Electrochemical Series for Metal

One of the basic characteristics of metals is their electrode potential. This simply
means that when two dissimilar metals are placed in an electrolyte, there will
exist between these two metals an electrical potential or voltage. This force will
cause the electrons in the more negative material to flow to the less negative
material – the cathode – if a conductive path is provided.
Arranged in Order of Electrode Potential (Nobility)

(most anodic – will give up electrons most easily)
• Magnesium
• Zinc
• CLAD 7075 Aluminium Alloy
• Commercially Pure Aluminium (1100)
• CLAD 2024 Aluminium Alloy
• Cadmium
• 7075 -T6 Aluminium Alloy
• 2024 -T3 Aluminium Alloy
• Mild Steel
• LEad
• Tin
• Copper
• Stainless Steel
• Silver
• Nickel
• Chromium
• Gold
(Most cathodic – Least corrosive)
NOTE: ANY METAL APPEARING BEFORE ANOTHER IN THIS SERIES IS

ANODIC TO ANY METAL WHICH FOLLOWS IT, AND WILL BE THE
ONE CORRODED WHEN THEY ARE SUBJECT TO GALVANIC AC-
TION.

ELECTROCHEMICAL SERIES FOR METAL
Figure 103: Electrochemical Reaction

PITTING CORROSION
Pitting Corrosion
The most common type of corrosion on aluminium and magnesium is pitting.
Pitting first appears as a white, powdery deposit. It starts on the surface of a
material and then extends vertically into the material.
This type of corrosion is dangerous because of the vertical extension, which
decrease the material strength. You do not get a large indication of this type of
corrosion on the material surface.
This corrosion can be the starting point for intergranular corrosion. Contamination
during the alloying process, swarf or electrolyte liquids can cause pitting.

PITTING CORROSION
Figure 104: Pitting Corrosion

INTERGRANULAR CORROSION
Intergranular Corrosion
Intergranular corrosion is an attack along the grain boundaries of the metal with
little or no indication on the surface. Each grain has a clearly defined boundary
which differs from the metal within the grain centre.
The grain boundary and the grain centre can react with each other as anode and
cathode when it comes into contact with an electrolyte.
Rapid selective corrosion at the grain boundaries can occur with delaminating.
High-strength aluminium alloys like 2024 and 7075 can develop intergranular
corrosion if they have been improperly heat-treated and are then exposed to
corrosive environments.

INTERGRANULAR CORROSION
Figure 105: Intergranular Corrosion

EXFOLIATION CORROSION
Exfoliation Corrosion
Exfoliation corrosion is an advanced form of intergranular corrosion where
the surface grains of a metal are lifted up by the force of expanding corrosion
products occurring at the grain boundaries just below the surface.
Exfoliation is most prone to occur in wrought products such as extrusions, thick
sheets and thin plates which have elongated flat-type grain structure.

EXFOLIATION CORROSION
Figure 106: Exfoliation Corrosion

FRETTING CORROSION
Fretting Corrosion
Damage can occur at the interface of two highly-loaded surfaces which are not
designed to move against each other. However, vibration may cause the surfaces
to rub together, resulting in an abrasive wear known as fretting.
The protective film on the metallic surfaces is removed by the rubbing action.
The continued rubbing of protective oxide film exposes fresh active metal to the
atmosphere.
Fretting can cause severe pitting. Dampening of vibration, tightening of joints,
application of a lubricant or installation of a fretting-resistant material between
the two surfaces can reduce fretting corrosion.
Fretting corrosion usually manifests itself as a black ring around fastener heads.
The black ring is the result of corrosion deposits working their way to the surface .

FRETTING CORROSION
Figure 107: Fretting Corrosion

MICROBIAL CORROSION
Microbial Corrosion
Microbial attack includes actions of bacteria, fungi or moulds. Micro-organisms Microbial corrosion can be minimised with a maintenance programme which
occur nearly everywhere. Those organisms causing the greatest corrosion includes programmed draining of water from fuel tank traps, followed by
problems are bacteria and fungi. inspection for milky white products that indicate microbial growth is present, tank
inspections, total removal of microbial growth and application of biocide with
Bacteria may be either aerobic or anaerobic. Aerobic bacteria require oxygen effected soak periods
to live. They accelerate corrosion by oxidising sulphur to produce sulphuric
acid. Bacteria living adjacent to metals may promote corrosion by depleting the
oxygen supply or by releasing metabolic products. Anaerobic bacteria, on the
other hand, can survive only when free oxygen is not present. The metabolism
of these bacteria requires them to obtain part of their sustenance by oxidising
inorganic compounds, such as iron, sulphur, hydrogen and carbon monoxide.
The resultant chemical reactions cause corrosion.
Fungi are micro-organisms that feed on organic materials. While low humidity
does not kill microbes, it slows their growth to prevent corrosion damage.
Ideal growth conditions for most micro-organisms are temperatures 68-104°F
(20- 40°C) and relative humidity 85-100%.
It was once thought that fungal attack could be prevented by applying moisture-
proofing coatings to nutrient material or by drying the interiors of compartments
with desiccants. However, some moisture-proofing coatings are attacked by
mould, bacteria or other microbes, especially if the surfaces on which they are
used are contaminated.
Microbial growth occurs at the interface of water and fuel, where the fungus
feeds on the fuel. Organic acids, alcohols and esters are produced by growth
of the fungus. These by-products provide even better growing conditions for the
fungus. The fungus typically attaches itself to the bottom of the tank and looks
like a brown deposit on the tank coating when the tank is dry. The fungus growth
may start again when water and fuel are present.
The spore form of some micro-organisms can exist for long periods while
dry, and become active when moisture is present. When desiccants become
saturated and unable to absorb moisture passing into the affected area, micro-
organisms can begin to grow. Dirt, dust and other airborne contaminants are the
least-recognised contributors to microbial attack. Unnoticed, small amounts of
airborne debris may be sufficient to promote fungal growth.

MICROBIAL CORROSION
Figure 108: Microbial Corrosion

GALVANIC CORROSION
Galvanic Corrosion
Galvanic corrosion occurs when two dissimilar metals make electrical contact in
the presence of an electrolyte. Metals of one group corrode when they are held
in contact with those in another group. The further apart the groups, the more
active the corrosion.
For example, magnesium would corrode very quickly when coupled with gold in
a humid atmosphere, but aluminium would corrode very slowly in contact with
cadmium. The rate of galvanic corrosion also depends on the size of the parts in
contact. If the surface area of the corroding metal (the anode) is smaller than the
surface area of the less active metal (the cathode), corrosion will be rapid and
severe.
When the corroding metal is larger than the less-active metal, corrosion will
be slow and superficial. For example, an aluminium fastener in contact with a
relatively inert monel structure may corrode severely, whilst a monel bracket
secured to a large aluminium member would result in a relatively superficial
attack on the aluminium sheet.

GALVANIC CORROSION
Figure 109: Galvanic Corrosion

CREVICE CORROSION
Crevice Corrosion
Crevice corrosion is a form of concentration cell corrosion. This is corrosion of
metal in a metal-to-metal joint, and corrosion at the edge of a joint. Sealing of
joints and gaps and use of protective coatings in the faying surface area can
reduce crevice corrosion.

CREVICE CORROSION
Figure 110: Crevice Corrosion

FASTENERS – SCREW THREADS PART-66 M6 CAT B1
THREAD FORMS
Fasteners – Screw Threads

• Pitch: The pitch of a screw thread is the distance, measured parallel to the
Thread Forms screw axis, between corresponding points on adjacent thread forms in the
same axial plane.
Introduction
A screw thread is the ridge left when a groove is cut into a cylindrical or conical • Lead: The lead of a screw thread is the distance that the moving member of a
surface. mating pair advances axially when turned one complete revolution. The lead
of a single start thread is the same as the pitch.
If the groove is formed on the external surface, the ridge is called an external or
male thread, whereas the thread formed inside a cylinder or cone is said to be an Single and Multiple Threads
internal or female thread.
When formed by one continuous groove, a thread is said to be single or single
A thread formed on a cylinder is known as a straight or parallel thread, whilst that start. The majority of threads used for adjustment and fastening are single start,
cut onto a conical part is called a taper thread. and the lead is equal to the pitch (P) of the thread.
When cut in a clockwise direction the thread is said to be right hand; when cut Multiple start threads consist of two or more ridges left by grooves cut side
in an anti-clockwise direction the thread is left hand. Most screws are right hand. by side. In this way the axial travel or lead of the thread is increased without
Features changing the pitch. For example, a nut engaged with a double-start thread will
travel twice as far in one complete turn as one engaged with a single start thread
Screw threads play an important part in all equipment maintenance and an
of the same pitch.
appreciation of the principal terms and features associated with threads is
essential when making screw threads and when using threaded parts. In multiple start threads, the lead is equal to the pitch of the thread multiplied by
• Form: The form of a screw thread is the shape of one complete contour of the the number of starts.
thread between corresponding points on the thread crest.
• Crest: This is the prominent point of the thread; whether an external or internal
thread, it is the top of the thread.
• Root: The root is the bottom point of the thread groove, whether the thread is
external or internal (male or female).
• Flank: The flank is the slope of the thread between root and crest.
• Thread Angle: This is the angle between two adjacent flanks.
• Major Diameter: The major diameter of a parallel screw thread is the diameter
of the crest for male threads and the root diameter for female threads. When
applied to male threads the major diameter may be referred to as the crest or
normal diameter.
• Minor Diameter: This is the root diameter of a male thread and the crest
diameter of an internal or female thread.
• Depth: This is the radial distance between root and crest.

THREAD FORMS
Figure 111: Features of a Screw Thread

STANDARD SCREW SYSTEM
Standard Screw System • BSP is another fine-pitch adaptation of the Whitworth thread form. It is used
for pipeline couplings where the fine pitch ensures that sufficient uncut metal
Screw-threaded parts have become essential in machine assembly and are used remains on the wall of a pipe to guarantee a strong connection. The thread
universally as fastening and securing devices.
may be tapered to assist in making a pressure-tight joint. The taper is based
Originally, firms making screwed parts used their own screw thread and no two upon the internal diameter of the pipe and is 1 in 16, based on diameter.
firms made the same. This led to difficulty in matching screwed parts, or indeed,
being at all sure that a correct screw was being used and, because there was • BA (British Association): This fine-pitch thread is used for sizes below 1/4in
no interchangeability of screwed components, the result was damage to screws, diameter only; it is widely used for smaller mechanical and electrical parts in
frustration and delay. aircraft and mechanical transport.
Obviously, some sort of standardisation was needed, even though it was accepted Unlike other standard threads, BA sizes are expressed numerically. The popular
that a single screw thread, with a fixed pitch for a given diameter, would not be size range is from 0 to 10; the larger the number, the smaller is the thread.
satisfactory in all circumstances. A further objection to a single screw form arose
The BA differs from BSW and BSF in that it has a thread angle of 47.5°,
from the use of both imperial and metric system of measurements.
although the feature of equal rounding for root and crest is retained.
Screw Systems The largest size (0 BA) has a major diameter of 0.236 in. The BA thread is metric.
For many years, the principal British systems have been British Standard (BS) • ANC and ANF (American National Coarse and Fine). These two American
and British Association (BA), whilst in Canada and the United States the American standard threads approximate to the BSW and BSF threads respectively. They
National (AN) has been the main screw thread used. perform a similar function in American engineering and may be encountered
The individual national threads have now been largely replaced by a common in machines of American origin.
screw thread designed to simplify the interchange of threaded parts; this is the The thread form is quite different from the British thread and in some ways is
Unified thread. A metric version of the Unified thread is being developed by the
more like a metric thread. The flattening of the crest and root in the ANC is not
International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO).
equal; modern manufacturing methods also produce thread crests which are, to
British Standard Thread Forms some extent, rounded rather than flat.
There are three British Standard thread forms in general use: British Standard • Unified: The basic thread form of the unified series incorporates features
Whitworth (BSW), British Standard Fine (BSF), and British Standard Pipe (BSP). from both American and British national threads. Although the American and
• BSW is the British Standard coarse thread which is recommended for all British specifications for the unified thread differ slightly, the differences do
general purpose work in a wide range of metals and plastics. The large not cause a lack of interchangeability of threaded parts. The series has three
Whitworth thread form makes it particularly suitable for rapid dismantling and versions of the basic thread form which are designed to cover all engineering
assembly of parts. It has a symmetrical ’Vee’-type thread with an angle of 55° requirements; these are:
and is rounded equally at the root and crest.
–– UNC – Unified National Coarse
• BSF is basically a finer version of the Whitworth thread form. The smaller
thread provides a finer form of adjustment and greater resistance to vibration –– UNF – Unified National Fine
in all fastening devices. For a given diameter, a BSF screw will always have –– UNEF – Unified National Extra Fine
more turns per inch (TPI) than a BSW screw and, because of its resistance to
vibration, it has been much used on British aircraft, mechanical transport and Components having unified threads are identified by a symbol or machine
mobile equipment. marking; the markings vary with the part and method of manufacture.

STANDARD SCREW SYSTEM
Figure 112: Screw Threads

THREAD PITCH
Thread Pitch Thread Profile

The shape (or profile) of a screw thread depends mainly upon the job it is intended
Coarse and Fine Pitch
to do.
Two screw threads may have similar major diameters and thread forms, yet
have different depths of thread. The screw which has a deeper thread cut into its The symmetrical ’Vee’ thread is the most common thread form and is a shape
surface will have fewer threads per inch (of its axial length) and is said to have a designed to combine strength with ease of engagement. The angle of the ’Vee’,
coarser pitch than the shallow thread. A coarse pitch thread has a greater lead and minor characteristics of the thread form, vary according to the system to
than a fine pitch thread of the same major diameter. which the thread belongs.
In a coarse pitch pair (e.g. nut and bolt), the axial movement for each revolution The Square, Buttress and Acme threads, which are primarily transmission
is greater than that produced by a fine pitch pair of the same major diameter. threads, are widely used in lifting tackle, screw-jacks and parts of heavy industrial
machinery. It should be noted that butress threads only transmit power in one
The increased axial movement is obtained at the expense of the minor diameter direction.
of the male screw which is smaller in the coarse pitch pair and, therefore, weaker
than its fine-pitch counterpart.
In general, a fine-pitch screw has a stronger root portion, tighter grip, finer
adjustment and is more resistant to shaking loose when subjected to vibration
than a coarse-pitch screw of a similar major diameter.
Screw Pitch Gauges

Screw pitch gauges are used to determine the pitch of a thread quickly and
exactly.
• Select a screw pitch gauge of the correct thread form.
• Keep the leaf parallel to the thread axis.
• Check that the gauge leaf fits the thread accurately.
• Read the required pitch directly from the leaf that accurately matches the
thread.

THREAD PROFILE
Figure 113: Screw Pitch Gauge

BOLTS, STUDS AND SCREWS PART-66 M6 CAT B1
BOLTS, NUTS AND SCREWS
Bolts, Studs and Screws

Bolts, Nuts and Screws
Introduction
The definition of a bolt is that it is tightened with a nut. A screw, therefore, is
tightened into a threaded hole by its head.
Power and/or hand tools may be used to install and remove bolts, screws and
nuts. If a specific type of tool is required, this will be given in this topic where
relevant.
Install bolts and screws, where practical, with the head either uppermost or
foremost where appropriate. In this position, there is less risk of the bolt/screw
falling out if it becomes loose.
If not specified in a repair procedure, or by the original position of the fastener,
install nuts so that not less than 1/32 in(0.8mm) of the bolt or screw extends
through the nut. If the bolts or screws are chamfered, the full chamfer must
extend through the nut.
The torque values for fasteners are given in SRM Chapter 51.

BOLTS, NUTS AND SCREWS
Figure 114: Types of Fastener Heads and Recesses

IDENTIFICATION
Identification
Aircraft bolts can be identified by the code marking on the bolt head.
The markings according to US standards denote the bolt manufacturer, the
material from which the bolt is made and whether the bolt is a standard type or a
special purpose bolt.

IDENTIFICATION
Figure 115: Screw Identification

INSTALLATION OF BOLTS
Installation of Bolts
In general, the grip length of a bolt should equal the material thickness.
In materials with a thickness greater than 2.4mm it is acceptable to have two
pitches of screw-thread contained within the hole.
If the material thickness is less than 2.4mm then no threads may be contained
within the hole.
A maximum of three washers may be used to adjust grip length.

INSTALLATION OF BOLTS
Figure 116: Bolt Installation

STUDS
Studs Fitting
Various methods are employed to fit studs. Amongst these methods are:
Introduction • Stud box
A stud is a piece of rod, threaded at each end with a plain portion in the middle.
• Stud insertion tool, and
It should be a tight fit in the thread tapped to receive it.
• Lock nuts
Unlike a bolt, a stud has no head. Therefore, its fitting (and removal) requires
special tools or techniques. Stud Box
This is simply a piece of hexagonal metal bar, drilled and tapped through its axial
centre-line.
1. The stud is screwed into one end and a standard set screw into the other.
2. The end of the screw is brought firmly into contact with the end of the stud to
lock the items into one unit.
3. The stud can now be screwed tightly into its housing by using a spanner on
the hexagon.
Once fitted, the stud box is removed by undoing the locking set screw to free the
box, which can then be unscrewed from the stud.
Stud Insertion / Removal Tool

The stud is started into its thread by hand and then the inserting tool is placed
over the protruding end until the plain shank of the stud enters the tool. A locating
screw on the outer end of the tool is adjusted to position the tool correctly, and a
cage and cam arrangement grips the shank of the stud when the tool is turned.
The stud and tool can now turn together.
Lock Nuts
Two nuts are screwed onto the outer thread of the stud and locked firmly together
by using two spanners. The stud is then screwed firmly into its housing by using
Types of Stud a single spanner on the outer nut. A spanner used on the lower nut will remove
Standard or Plain studs are the most widely used of all types of stud. They have the stud.
the same diameter for both threaded portion major diameter and the unthreaded
portion. Waisted studs are used where strength has to be retained but weight
saving is required. Stepped studs are used to provide a stronger anchorage than
plain studs when they are being inserted into soft material. They may also be
used as replacements for plain stud that have had to be oversized. Shouldered
studs are used where maximum rigidity is required against lateral stresses.

STUDS
Figure 117: Stud Insertion / Removal

STUDS
Stud Removal
The state of the stud dictates the method of removal. If it is undamaged, the
stud can be removed as described previously. However, if the stud is damaged,
removal should be carried out using one of the following methods.
Filed Flats
Providing there is sufficient stud protruding, flats are filed and a spanner or tap-
wrench used to unscrew the stud (see opposite left).
Ezi-Out
If the stud is broken level with or below the surface, drill as large a hole in the stud
as possible (without encroaching on the stud threads) and remove the stud using
an Ezi-Out screw-extractor.

STUDS
Figure 118: Stud Removal

SELF-TAPPING SCREWS
Self-Tapping Screws
These are used extensively to secure thin-gauge sheet-metal parts where nuts
and bolts are either impractical or too expensive.
When screwed into a hole of the correct diameter, they form their own thread.
The screw head may be slotted or cruciform.

SELF-TAPPING SCREWS

NUTS
Nuts Castle Nut

These nuts are designed to fit on standard airframe bolts and may be used when
Nuts for aircraft bolts and screws are manufactured in many sizes and shapes.
the bolt is subjected to either shear or tensile loads. They are made from the
• Non-self-locking nuts same material as the shear castle nut.
• Locking nuts
• High-temperature self-locking nuts
• Low-temperature self-locking nuts
Non-Self – Locking Nuts

These are used with drilled-shank hex-head bolts, clevis bolts, eye bolts or struts Castle Nut
and are designed to accommodate a cotter pin or wirelocking as a means of
safetying. Slotted Engine Nut
This nut is designed for use on an aircraft engine and is not approved for airframe
Shear Castle Nut
use. It is made of heat-treated steel.
Used only for shear load on clevis bolts.
These nuts are available in cadmium-plated nickel steel, corrosion-resistant steel
and in 2024 aluminium alloy.
Slotted Engine Nut
Wing Nut
Shear Castle Nut Wing nuts are intended for use on hose clamps and battery connections, etc.,
where the desired tightness is ordinarily obtained by the use of fingers. They are
made of either cadmium-plated steel or brass.
Wing Nut

LOCKING NUTS
Locking Nuts
Lock Nut Oddie Stiffnuts
A lock nut is a thin, plain nut which is tightened down firmly onto the main, plain Oddie stiffnuts have six tongues at their outer end which are bent inwards to form
nut. This friction wedges the threads to prevent them both slackening. a circle slightly less in diameter than the root of the bolt thread. As the bolt passes
through the nut, the tongues are pushed upwards, applying a locking load onto
the bolt thread.
Lock Nut
Nyloc Stiffnuts
This nut has an unthreaded nylon insert permanently housed at the outer end.
As the bolt threads engage the insert, the nylon is compressed into them, setting
up a friction which prevents the nut unscrewing. Low temperature use only.
Oddie Stiffnuts
Aerotight and Philidas Stiffnuts

These nuts have slotted locking extensions which are closed during manufacture
to put the screw-thread out of alignment. As the bolt engages and realigns the
extension thread, a grip is produced which provides a friction lock.
Aerotight and Philidas Stiffnuts

Nyloc Stiffnuts

LOCKING NUTS
Anchor Nuts
A floating type anchor nut is used when a slight range of movement is necessary
to ensure the bolt can locate.
A strip nut is used when a row of anchor stiffnuts is required. In this arrangement,
the stiffnuts are fitted at equal intervals along a channel strip which itself is riveted
to the blind side of the structure.

LOCKING NUTS

HIGH-TEMPERATURE SELF-LOCKING NUTS
High-Temperature Self-Locking Nuts

In applications where temperatures exceed 120°C (250°F), all-metal locknuts
are used.
All-metal locknuts are constructed with either the threads in the locking insert out-
of-phase with the load-carrying section, or with a saw-cut insert with a pinched-in
thread in the locking section. The locking action of the all-metal nut depends upon
the resiliency of the metal when the locking section and load-carrying section are
engaged by screw threads.
They are made out of steel alloy, CRES or CRES silver-plated. Silver-plated nuts
should not be used in contact with titanium.

LOW-TEMPERATURE SELF-LOCKING NUTS
Low-Temperature Self-Locking Nuts

These should not be used in any location where the temperature will exceed
121°C (250°F).
Fibre- or nylon-locknuts are constructed with an unthreaded fibre-locking insert
held securely in place. The fibre or nylon has a smaller diameter than the nut, and
when a bolt or screw is entered, it taps into the insert, producing a locking action.
After the nut has been tightened, ensure the rounded or chamfered end bolts,
studs or screws extend at least one thread or chamfer through the nut. Flat end
bolts, studs or screws should extend at least 1/32 inch through the nut.
If fibre-type self-locking nuts are re-used, inspect the fibre carefully to ensure it
has not lost its locking friction or become brittle. Do not re-use locknuts if they
can be run up fingertight.
Bolts 5/16 inch diameter and over with cotter-pin holes may be used with self-
locking nuts, but only if free from burrs around the holes. Bolts with damaged
threads and rough ends are not acceptable. Do not tap the fibrelocking insert.

HELI-COIL INSERTS
Heli-Coil Inserts
Many screws and bolts are driven into threads cut into castings made of such
soft metals as aluminium, magnesium or plastic. Rather than allowing these soft
materials to wear each time the screw is inserted or removed, the holes are
protected with Heli-Coil inserts.
Heli-Coil inserts are available for all thread standards. These inserts are
manufactured from round wire which is converted into a diamond-shaped cross-
section having a tolerance of .0005mm (0.0002 in) across the flats.
This precision wire is formed into a spiral coil which has a driving tang and a
notch to facilitate removal of the tang after the insert is screwed into a Heli-Coil
tapped hole.
Two types of Heli-Coil inserts are available:
• The standard type provides a free running thread.
• The screw-lock type provides a resilient internal locking thread.
Heli-Coil inserts permit each thread to ”adjust” to the screw. In threaded assemblies
there is always the possibility of lead and angle errors between mating members.
Heli-Coil inserts are self-adjusting to compensate for such errors and thereby
assure that all threads are fully engaged.
Heli-Coil inserts assure full load distribution throughout the entire length of the
thread because all threads are fully engaged. In an ordinary threaded assembly
the first thread carried 45-50% of the load.
Wire thread inserts have a tang at the inner end to facilitate fitting with a special
tool; this tang may be removed after installation if required.

HELI-COIL INSERTS
Figure 119: Heli-Coil Insertion

HELI-COIL INSERTS
Installation The insert will find into the thread and should be installed so that the outer
Since the internal and external threads on a thread insert have the same number end of the insert is at least half a pitch below the surface of the component.
of threads per inch and the internal thread is designed to be of standard size, –– When a prewind tool is used, the insert should be placed in
then a special-size tap is required to cut the threads into which the insert is the chamber with the tang towards the nozzle and the mandrel
fitted. These special taps and checking gauges are provided by the insert pushed forward through the insert to engage the tang in the slot.
manufacturers. The mandrel should be rotated clockwise and pushed gently forward to
• Drilling: The hole for the insert should be drilled to the diameter engage the insert coil in the nozzle threads, rotation being continued
and depth specified in tables supplied by the insert manufacturer, until the insert is about to emerge from the outer end of the nozzle.
the depth being calculated from the fitted length of the insert, plus The tool should then be placed squarely over the tapped hole and the
the thread runout, plus a half pitch gap at each end of the insert. handle rotated to transfer the insert from the tool into the tapped hole; no
Care should be taken to ensure that the hole is drilled in the correct location forward pressure should be used.
and square to the surface, and that all swarf is removed before tapping. In –– Unless otherwise stated, inserts should be installed so that the outer coil
some cases, particularly when the hole is near to the edge of the component, is at least half a pitch below the component surface.
it may be necessary to check for cracks by a specified non-destructive testing
–– Absolute cleanliness of the tapped hole and freedom from burrs is
method.
essential to prevent distortion of an insert. When jointing compound or
• Thread Tapping: The thread should be tapped with a special tap provided anti-corrosive compounds are specified, they should be applied strictly
by the insert manufacturer, a straight-fluted tap being used for hand- according to the relevant instructions and surplus compound should be
tapping and a spiral-fluted tap for machine-tapping where this is possible. removed as specified after installing the insert.
Normal workshop practices should be used for tapping, with
• Tang Removal: It is not always necessary to remove the tang of a wire thread
special emphasis on cutting the thread coaxially with the hole.
insert, but removal may be specified in some cases for screw clearance or
Lubricant should be used according to the type of metal being cut, e.g. a light
product appearance, both in blind holes and through-holes.
mineral oil is generally recommended for tapping light alloys.
A tang in a through-hole is removed by use of the inserting key used as a punch,
• Thread Gauging: After the insert thread has been cut, it should be cleaned of
with the tang outside the engaging slot, or by use of a special punch. A sharp
all swarf and foreign matter. The thread should then be checked with a special
blow with a hammer on the key or punch will fracture the wire at the notch where
GO/NO-GO plug gauge provided by the insert manufacturer to ensure that
the tang joins the coil.
the thread is satisfactory. Any thread imperfections indicated by tightness of
the GO gauge should be removed by further use of the original tap or, if this To remove the tang from an insert fitted in a blind hole, long round-nosed pliers
is ineffective, by use of a new tap. are required; the tang should be bent backwards and forwards through the insert
bore until it fractures at the notch and can be removed.
• Fitting The Insert: An insert should be screwed into the lapped hole by
the use of either an inserting key or an inserting tool of the prewind type,
depending upon which is recommended for the particular insert. A different
sized key or tool is provided for each size of insert.
–– The inserting key should be used by sliding the insert onto it so that the
tang is engaged in the driving slot at its forward end; the assembly should
then be applied to the tapped hole, compressing the insert downwards
with the thumb and forefinger of one hand while turning the key with
the other hand; no downward pressure should be applied on the key.

HELI-COIL INSERTS
Figure 120: Heli-Coil Insertion Data

HELI-COIL INSERTS
Insert Removal
Under normal circumstances, particularly when fitting instructions have been
carefully carried out, the removal of inserts should be unnecessary. However, if
an insert has to be removed because of bad fitting, damage or wear, this can be
done by bending the top coil inwards to form a rough tang and unscrewing the
insert with the insertion tool or a pair of pliers.
Some manufacturers recommend the use of a tapered left-hand tap of appropriate
size, which grips the top coils internally and unwinds the insert when rotated.
Other manufacturers provide a range of extractor tools which are fitted with
hardened and tempered blades; the blade will bite into the inner surface of the
insert, which can then be unscrewed.
After removal of an insert, the threads in the hole should be carefully examined
for damage before fitting a new insert.

HELI-COIL INSERTS
Figure 121: Typical Heli-Coil Extractor Tool

FASTENERS – LOCKING DEVICES PART-66 M6 CAT B1
SAFETY METHODS
Fasteners – Locking Devices

Safety Methods
Safetying is the process of securing all aircraft bolts, nuts, screws, pins and other
fasteners so that they do not work loose due to vibration. A familiarity with the
various methods and means of safetying equipment on an aircraft is necessary
in order to perform maintenance and repair.
There are various methods of safetying aircraft parts. The most widely-used
methods are:
• Wirelocking
• Cotter (split) pins
• Lock-washers
• Locking plates
• Snap-rings (circlips)
• Self-locking nuts

SAFETY METHODS
Letter Code Material Alloy Elements
C CRES 19% Chromium

9% Nickel
F Carbon Steel 0.18 to 0.23%

- Zinc plated - Carbon
N Ni Cr Fe – Alloy Ni Base with

15.5% Cr and 8% Fe
NC Ni Cu – Alloy Ni Base with 30% Cr

(Monel)
Figure 122: Lockwire Material Identification

NUTS, BOLTS AND SCREWS: WIRELOCKING METHODS
Nuts, Bolts and Screws: Wirelocking Methods

Nuts, bolts and screws may be locked using either the single- or double-twist
methods. The double-twist method is the most common method of wirelocking.
The single-wire method may be used on small screws in a closely-spaced
closed geometrical pattern, on parts in electrical systems and in places that are
extremely difficult to reach.

NUTS, BOLTS AND SCREWS: WIRELOCKING METHODS
Figure 123: Typical Wirelocking Examples

WIRELOCKING
Wirelocking
Wirelocking is the most positive and satisfactory method of safetying cap-screws,
studs, nuts, bolt-heads, and turnbuckle barrels which cannot be safetied by any
other practical means. It is a method of wiring together two or more units in such
a manner that any tendency of one to loosen is counteracted by the tightening
of the wire.
The number of twist per inch that the wire must achieve depends on the gauge
of the locking wire and is given in the Aircraft Maintenance Manual Chapter 20.

WIRELOCKING
Figure 124: Locking of Screws

WIRELOCKING
Figure 125: Locking of Screws

WIRELOCKING
Figure 126: Locking of Electric Connectors

LOCKING DEVICES – WASHERS
Locking Devices – Washers

Various methods exist, depending on their application and the whim of the design
authority, for locking nuts and bolts with washers.
Spring Washer Shakeproof Washer

This is either a single coil or square section spring with sharp corners or a double- This is a spring steel washer with slanting serrations on its internal or external
coil spring. It is fitted beneath the nut so that when the nut is tightened the spring circumferences. The angle of the serrations is such that the nut is able to ride
is compressed, setting up a friction and thus preventing the nut from vibrating over them whilst being tightened, but any tendency to unscrew will be resisted by
loose. the sharp edges of the serrations biting into the underside of the nut (similar to
a ratchet). They may be repeatedly used providing they retain their springiness.
Spring Washers Shakeproof Washers

Tab Washer
This is a metal washer with two or more tabs, suitable for use with plain nuts. One
tab is bent against one of the flats of the nut and the other is bent over an edge
of the component or fitted into a slot or hole machined in the component. It is not
permissable to straighten the tabs and re-use the washer.
Tab Washers

LOCKING DEVICES – WASHERS
Figure 127: Other Locking Devices

LOCKING DEVICES – QUICK-RELEASE FASTENERS
Locking Devices – Quick-Release Fasteners

Pip Pin Camloc
This is a simple and secure, non-threaded fastener, allowing the rapid installation The Camloc fastener consists of four principal parts:
and removal of parts without tooling. Available as a simple locating pin (detent • Receptacle
pin) and a locking version (double-acting).
• Grommet
1. Ring pull detent pin: A single ball locates the pin, no positive lock. The
• Retaining ring
simplest option for location purposes. Simply push to insert, and pull to
remove. Fitted with a ’keyring’ loop. • Stud assembly
The receptacle consists of an aluminium alloy forging mounted in a stamped
sheet metal base. The receptacle assembly is riveted to the access door frame,
which is attached to the structure of the aircraft.
The grommet is a sheet metal ring held in the access panel by the retaining ring.
Grommets are available in two types; the flush type and the protruding type.
2. Double acting steel pin: To release the ball lock mechanism, the ring handle In addition to serving as the grommet for the hole in the access panel, it also
can be pushed in or pulled out (double acting), moving a centre core, thus holds the stud assembly.
releasing the two balls, allowing the pin to be extracted. Instantaneous self
The stud assembly consists of a:
locking, vibration resistant, easy application.
• Stud
• Cross pin
• Spring
• Spring cup
The assembly is designed so that it can be quickly inserted into the grommet by
compression of the spring. Once installed in the grommet, the stud assembly
cannot be removed unless the spring is again compressed.

Figure 128: Camloc Fastener

Dzus
Dzus fasteners are available in two types:
• One is the light-duty type, used on box covers, access hole covers, and
lightweight fairing.
• The second is the heavy-duty type, which is used on cowlings and heavy
fairings.
The main difference between the two types of Dzus fastener is a grommet, used
with the heavy-duty fasteners. Otherwise their construction features are about
the same.
The figure opposite, left, shows the parts making up a light-duty Dzus fastener.
Notice that they include a spring and a stud. The spring is made of cadmium-
plated steel wire and is usually riveted to an aircraft structural member. The stud
comes in a number of designs (as shown in views A, B, and C) and mounts in a
dimpled hole in the cover assembly.
Airloc
The figure opposite, right, shows the parts that make up an Airloc fastener.
Similar to the Camloc fastener, the Airloc fastener consists of a receptacle, stud,
and cross pin. The stud is attached to the access panel and is held in place by
the cross pin. The receptacle is riveted to the access panel frame. Two types of
Airloc receptacles are available:
• The fixed type
• The floating type
The floating type makes for easier alignment of the stud in the receptacle. Several
types of studs are also available. In each instance the stud and cross pin come
as separate units so that the stud may be easily installed in the access panel.

Figure 129: Dzus and Airloc Fasteners

LOCKING DEVICES – COTTER PINS
Locking Devices – Cotter Pins

Cotter pins are used to secure bolts, screws, nuts and pins. Some cotter pins are
made of low-carbon steel, while others consist of stainless steel, and thus are
more resistant to corrosion.
Stainless steel cotter pins are used in locations where non-magnetic material
is required. Regardless of shape or material, use all cotter pins for the same
general purpose: safetying.
The figure opposite shows three types of cotter pins and how their size is
determined.
NOTE: Whenever uneven-prong cotter pins are used, the length measurement
is to the end of the shorter prong.
Cotter pin installation is shown opposite.
• Use castellated nuts with bolts that have been drilled for cotter pins.
• Use stainless steel cotter pins especially near compasses.
• The cotter pin should fit neatly into the hole, with very little sideplay.
The following general rules apply to cotter pin safetying:
• Do not bend the prong over the bolt end beyond the bolt diameter (cut it off if
necessary).
• Do not bend the prong down against the surface of the washer (again, cut it
off if necessary).
• Do not extend the prongs outward from the sides of the nut if you use the
optional wraparound method.
• Bend all prongs over a reasonable radius – sharp-angled bends invite break-
age.
• Tap the prongs lightly with a mallet to bend them.

LOCKING DEVICES – COTTER PINS
Figure 130: Cotter Pins

LOCKING DEVICES – KEYS
Locking Devices – Keys

• Feather Key: This type of key is used when axial movement is required
Introduction between the hub and the shaft. An example of the use of a feather key is
The name key is given to a specially-shaped piece of metal that is used to when a gear or a pulley must slide along a shaft whilst continuing to transmit
transmit a drive at considerable mechanical power from a shaft to a hub, or vice drive. The keyway in the hub is cut to allow the key the minimum side and top
versa, when the mating surfaces are otherwise smooth. clearance needed to provide a sliding fit.
The key is a solid piece of metal that is wedged between the parts, or fitted into • Woodruff Key: This key is made in the shape of a segment of a parallel-sided
matching recesses (or keyways) in the shaft and hub. disc-similar to the capital letter D. It fits into a shaped cavity in the shaft which
conforms closely to the profile of the key, and into a uniform keyway in the hub
A key is of rectangular or square section, uniform in width, and of either uniform or
to provide a push fit on the sides with clearance along the top flat face of the
tapered thickness. It is produced in many variations, depending upon the situation
key. The advantage of the Woodruff key is that it is suitable for fitting to either
and the load to be transmitted. In general, keys are used only in circumstances
parallel or taper shafts.
which do not call for frequent separation of the parts.
Taper Keys
The agreed engineering standard is for a taper of 1 part in 100 on the thickness,
with the tapering surface of the key matching the recess (or keyway) cut into the
bore of the hub.
Several types of taper key are in common use:
• Hollow Saddle Key: This type of key is hollowed (shaped) to fit the radius of
the shaft. When driven into position, its taper provides a friction drive between
hub and shaft that is capable of transmitting a moderate load. There is no
keyway cut into the shaft and, therefore, hollow keys are not suitable for
heavy loads.
• Flat Saddle Key: This rectangular or square-section key is driven into a
keyway in the hub and bears upon a flat on the shaft. It provides a more
positive drive than that achieved by the hollow saddle key.
• Gib- Headed Key: This taper key is fitted into keyways which are machined
partly in the shaft and partly in the hub. An important feature of fitting keys into
these keyways is that the keyways must be perfectly aligned before fitting the
key. With this in mind, it may be necessary to use a slave key when assembling
the parts together; never rely upon the key to align the keyways as it is driven in.
These keys and their keyways are capable of transmitting a much greater
driving load than are the saddle-type keys. The head of the Gib-headed key
is used as a means of removing the key when it is not possible to drift the key
out from the opposite side.

LOCKING DEVICES – KEYS
Figure 131: Keys

FASTENERS – AIRCRAFT RIVETS PART-66 M6 CAT B1
RIVETS (SOLID RIVETS)
Fasteners – Aircraft Rivets

Rivets (Solid Rivets)
General
The upset head of a solid rivet is formed by deformation of the shank.
Aluminium Alloy Rivets

Rivets made of US material 1100 are used in the ‘as fabricated’ condition.
They are used to attach aluminium alloy components where a low-strength rivet
is sufficient to hold the load.
Rivets made of US material 2017, 2117 and 7050 are heat treated by the
manufacturer, no further treatment is necessary. They are used to attach
aluminium alloy components where a medium strength is necessary.
NOTE: Rivets made from US material 2017 can also be installed after heat
treatment, but this must be specified in a specific repair (for heat treat-
ment refer to Structural Repair Manual Chapter 51).
Rivets made of US material 2024 are supplied in -T4 condition. They are used
to attach aluminium alloy components where high strength is necessary. These
rivets are to be heat treated (refer to SRM Chapter 51).
Monel Rivets
Monel rivets, without heat treatment before use, are used in steel, titanium or
aluminium alloy riveted assemblies.
Titanium Rivets
Titanium rivets are rivets with a cylindrical or a partially tapered shank. No heat
treatment is necessary for this type of rivet.
Selection of the Correct Rivet

When repairing aircraft structure, it must be restored to the condition of structural
integrity and aerodynamic shape that was needed for its original certification.
When selecting a rivet, the shear strength of the rivet must match the bearing
strength of the material being riveted, with the bearing strength being slightly
higher than the shear strength. A commonly-used rule of thumb for selecting the
rivet size is to choose a rivet whose diameter is at least 3 times the thickness of
the thickest sheet being joined.

RIVETS (SOLID RIVETS)
Figure 132: Head Types of Solid Rivets

RIVET MATERIALS
Rivet Materials
1100 Aluminium (A) 5056 Aluminium Alloy (B)
This is commercially pure aluminium, and a rivet made of this material is too soft Many aircraft parts are made of magnesium, and to avoid a dissimilar metal
and does not have the strength required for structural applications on aircraft. contact that could lead to corrosion, magnesium structure is riveted with 5056
These rivets are designated by the letter A, and there is no identifying mark on rivets which contain about five percent magnesium as an alloying agent.
their head. A -type rivets are used only in non-structural parts of an aircraft such These rivets are identified by a raised cross on their head. Shear head rivets are
as fairings and furnishings inside the cabin. also available.
2117 Aluminium Alloy (AD)
Corrosion-Resistant Steel (F)
There are more rivets of 2117 aluminium than any other alloy, and these rivets
Rivets of this material are used for fastening corrosion-resistant steel sheets
have sufficient strength for structural use. Since they do not need to be heat-
for such applications as fire-walls and exhaust shrouds. They do not have any
treated (as do some of the other types of structural rivets) they can be driven in
the condition they are received from the supplier. marking on their head.
AD rivets are identified by a small dimple in the centre of their head. Monel (M) (Nickel Alloy)
2017 Aluminium Alloy (D) Monel rivets are identified with two recessed dimples or a raised r in their head
and are used in some instances in place of corrosion-resistant steel rivets, where
D-rivets are identified by a raised dot in the centre of their head. their somewhat lower shear strength is not detrimental.
They are the most often used rivet in Boeing airplanes. D-rivets are available as
standard rivets and as shear head rivets. Shear head rivets (BAC R 15 CE.D) Titanium (T)
have smaller heads than ordinary 100-degree countersink rivets. They are Titanium rivets are identified by a raised V or T on their head and are used for
generally used to attach the fuselage skin to the stringers. fastening Steel Alloy and Titanium Alloy.
NOTE: DO NOT SHAVE SHEAR HEAD RIVETS.
NOTE: ON AIRBUS AIRCRAFT IT IS PERMITTED TO HEAT-TREAT D-RIV-
ETS BEFORE INSTALLATION AND STORE THEM IN A FREEZER.
(SEE DD-RIVETS)
2024 Aluminium Alloy (DD)

DD-rivets are made of heat-treated aluminium alloy and they are so called ice-
box rivets. They are identified by two raised dashes on their heads.
They are placed in cold storage (-10°F or lower) immediately after the heat-
treating operation to prevent them from becoming too hard to drive. This type of
rivet is used where high strength is required.
Icebox rivets must be completely driven within 15 minutes after removal from
the freezer or dry ice; they are not to be returned to cold storage once they have
been removed.

RIVET MATERIALS
Figure 133: Rivet Head Identification Markings

RIVET MATERIALS

RIVET MATERIALS
Figure 134: Rivet Heads

RIVET MATERIALS
Figure 135: Rivet Nomenclature

RIVET MATERIALS
Figure 136: Part Number Example

HI-LOK AND HI-LITE
Hi-Lok and Hi-Lite • When standard aluminium alloy nuts are used, spot-facing is necessary as
follows:
General –– for 5/16 in. (8.0mm) diameter pin (threaded) and the outer surfaces are
There are two parts of the Hi-Lok and Hi-Lite (pin threaded) fastener: more than 1.5 degrees out of parallel
1. A threaded pin with a head (universal or countersink) –– for 3/8 in. (9.5mm) and larger diameter pin (threaded) and the outer
surfaces are more than 1.0 degree out of parallel.
2. A collar with an internal thread and an external shear groove
Pins (threaded) and collars are usually supplied lubricated and this lubricant
The pin has a hexagonal recess in the threaded end. This recess permits the use
must not be removed.
of an Allen wrench to hold the pin during installation. The hexagonal drive-end of
the collar breaks off at the shear groove when the collar is installed to its correct Pin (threaded) fasteners are usually installed in interference-fit holes. However,
torque value. a clearance fit hole (unless specified differently) must be used if one or more of
the structural members to be attached are made of:
In some areas with a limited clearance, self-locking nuts and washers are used
instead of collars. When used on wings, a washer is not used, reducing the risk • Steel
of a fuel leak. • Stainless steel
When pin (threaded) fasteners are used to join structure with outer surfaces that • Titanium
are not parallel, the conditions that follow are applicable:
Before the installation of pin (threaded) fasteners, ensure that:
• When standard aluminium alloy collars (ASNA2O28, DAN11, NSA5075
and NSA5O75W) are used, an out-of-parallel condition up to 3.0 degrees is • All the necessary pins and collars or nuts are of the correct type.
acceptable. • The pins and collars or nuts are made of the correct material.
• When standard CRES collars (ABS0258, ASNA2036, DAN12, HL73, HL86 • The pins and collars or nuts have the correct surface protection and/or
and and HL87) are used, an out-of-parallel condition up to 0.5 degrees only lubrication.
is acceptable. • The pins have the correct grip length.
NOTE: IN THESE CONDITIONS, THE AXIS OF THE FASTENER HOLE • The thread of the pin has the same diameter as the collar or nut applicable
MUST BE PERPENDICULAR TO THE SURFACE ON WHICH THE to the pin.
FASTENER HEAD WILL SEAT. Install the pin (threaded) fasteners with power or hand tools.
• If the conditions above will be exceeded, the applicable self-aligning collar The correct hand tools are available from the various pin manufacturers (an
and washer must be used. When permitted, suitable self-aligning standard example is shown in a figure later on), but a hand tool can be made locally with
nuts and washers can be used. a ratchet handle tool made of hardened steel. It is necessary to modify this tool
Conditions as mentioned above are not applicable to the wing structure. For the as follows:
wing structure, the conditions that follow are applicable: • Remove the ball in the square drive.
• When standard steel nuts are used, spot-facing is necessary when the outer • Drill a hole for the Allen wrench through the square drive.
surfaces are more than 0.5 degree out of parallel.

HI-LOK AND HI-LITE
Figure 105: Hi Lok

THE PRINCIPLE OF HI-LITE FASTENERS
The Principle of Hi-Lite Fasteners

In conventional aerospace fastener designs, the pin thread run-out area and the
mating collar/nut counterbore depth do no useful work in terms of load-carrying.
In fact, this particular portion of the system can, for the most part, be considered
“extra” material that, where possible in the interests of weight savings, should be
reduced to a minimum.
All standard-thread-length pins require a 2-pitch maximum thread run-out in the
transition thread-to-shank zone measured from the grip plane.
The fundamental advantage of the Hi-Lite system is that the operation normally
considered necessary for a reduced transition area and thus shorter thread length is
completely eliminated.
The coloured portion shows thread-length saved when comparing standard pin
lengths with the 1 pitch maximum thread run-out on the Hi-Lite reduced transition
zone.
The Hi-Lite fastener system achieves full performance along with reduced weight
from a completely formed, shorter, work-hardened thread that extends into the
transition zone of the pin to within 1 pitch of the grip plane. Hi-Lite carries all the
benefits built into standard thread length pins with their 2-thread pitch such as Hi-
Lok (the familiar pin/collar system employed on airborne assemblies throughout
the industry).
It is the short thread length which provides considerable savings. On a comparison
basis with the standard Hi-Lok, for example, Hi-Lite weighs in with an advantage as
high as 15%.

Figure 138: Hi-Lok / Hi-Lite Comparison

Figure 139: Hi-Lok Part Number

HI-LOK COLLARS
Material Diameter Supplier Part Number Colour of Collars
2024 Standard and HL 79 Red

1/64” Oversize
2024 1/32” Oversize HL 84 Blue
2024 3/64” Oversize HL 279 Black
CRES Standard and HL 87 Cadmium Plate

1/64” Oversize
CRES 1/32” Oversize HL 393 Cadmium Plate
CRES 3/64” Oversize HL 287 Cadmium Plate


Figure 140: Sequence of Installation: Hi-Loks

TAPER-LOK
Taper-Lok
General
A Taper-Lok fastener is a tapered bolt with a threaded end and a self-locking nut. It is very important to tightly clamp the parts together when they are prepared for
The nut is also threaded and includes its own washer. The use of this fastener is the installation of Taper-Loks.
almost the same as that of a standard nut and bolt. Taper-Lok bolts can be installed with hand or power tools.
Taper-Loks are used in those areas of the structure where a high fatigue It is very important to prepare the hole for a Taper-Lok to the highest possible
performance is required. The Taper-Lok helps to achieve this performance precision. If this is not done, it could have a detrimental effect on the fatigue life
because it has a constant interference fit in the tapered hole in the structure. This of the structure.
causes a good compression of the structure material around the fastener hole,
and a balanced stress pattern. NOTE: IT IS RECOMMENDED THAT ONLY APPROVED OPERATORS IN-
An additional feature of the Taper-Lok is the good sealing effect that is given by STALL TAPER-LOK BOLTS.
the tapered interference fit. The holes for protruding head bolts must have a relief radius at the head end of
The taper of the bolt, and the hole to which it is fitted, is small. It is only 6.35mm the hole.
(0.25 in) for each linear foot (12 in), a ratio of 1 in 48. NOTE: IF A HOLE THAT HAS BEEN USED BEFORE IS FOUND DAMAGED
The Taper-Lok bolt is a light bolt with good strength property. Bolts are available OR OVERSIZE, IT MUST BE REPAIRED TO USE THE CORRECT
for tension or shear uses. OVERSIZE BOLT (REFER TO SRM CHAPTER 51).
Taper-Lok bolts are usually supplied with a special lubricant on them. The special The data given in the head-marking table will help the operator to identify the
lubricant must not be removed before the bolt is installed. correct bolt to fit in a hole of specified dimensions (nominal diameter and grip
length).
Before the Taper-Loks are installed in a repair, ensure that:
The Taper-Loks of different nominal diameters are divided into grip-length groups.
• They are made of the correct material.
Thus, bolts of the same nominal diameter can be found for use on materials of
• They have the correct type of head. different thickness. Part numbers on the head and end of the bolt are used to
• They are of the correct diameter. identify a bolt.
• They are of the correct grip length.
• The nuts are of the correct type.

TAPER-LOK
Figure 141: Taper-Lok Stress Pattern

LOCKBOLT
Lockbolt • Where Lockbolts are installed in structure with surfaces that are not parallel,
the limits that follow apply:
General –– For CRES tension-type pins, an angle up to 7 degrees is acceptable for
A Lockbolt (pin swaged) fastener is a two-piece assembly consisting of: titanium tension-type pins, an angle up to 5 degrees is acceptable, except
in the wing structure where the limit is 3 degrees.
1. A pin with a protruding or countersink head. The shank of the pin includes
grooves on to which a collar is swaged, a tension break-off groove and pull- –– For titanium shear-type pins, an angle up to 3 degrees is acceptable.
grooves. The pull-grooves are only used for installing the pin (swaged). • All cutting tools (drills, reamers and countersinks) used to prepare the hole
2. A collar that is swaged on to the locking grooves on the pin shank to secure for a pin must be in good condition, to ensure that the surface of the hole is
the pin (swaged) when it is installed. smooth.
NOTE: IT IS IMPORTANT THAT THE COLLARS ARE PUT ON THE PINS • Before installing pins, ensure that the pins and collars are as specified in the
WITH THE COLLAR FACING THE CORRECT WAY. repair procedure.
• Only corrosion-resistant steel (CRES) or titanium pins are used for repair • The shank of a pin does not expand when the pin is installed, therefore the
work. hole for the pin must be prepared very accurately.
• A correctly-installed Lockbolt gives a strong but light-weight fastener, and is • Collars for pins can only be swaged with a suitable power tool.
available for tension or shear requirements . • The various manufacturers of Lockbolt pins and collars use different part-
• Pins are installed in clearance- and transition-fit holes when they are used to numbering methods. It is recommended that these items are stored in
repair steel or titanium structure. containers that show the applicable part number and type of item.
• Pins are installed in clearance-fit holes in structures that are a combination of • The identification number for pins (swaged) and collars is given in the SRM
aluminium alloy and steel or titanium, unless otherwise specified in a repair Chapter 51.
procedure. • Unless otherwise specified, pins are ‘wet-installed’ with sealant.
NOTE: IF THE HOLE SIZE IS ONLY GIVEN FOR THE STEEL OR TITANIUM Before you install Lockbolt pins, ensure that the holes are clean, smooth and
IN THE COMBINATION ABOVE, THEN THE HOLE IN THE ALUMINI- prepared in accordance with SRM Chapter 51.
UM ALLOY PART IS AN INTERFERENCE FIT. When an existing hole is damaged or oversize, install the next oversize pin.
• Pins are supplied lubricated. This lubricant must not be removed before they
are installed unless otherwise specified in an engineering document.
• Repair parts must be temporarily secured with grip-pins or other suitable tools
before the fasteners are installed.
• When it is not possible to install a Lockbolt because of limited space a Hi-Lok
(refer to SRM chapter 51) is an acceptable alternative.

LOCKBOLT
Figure 142: Lockbolts

LOCKBOLT
Installation Procedure
CAUTION: REFER TO THE TOOL MANUFACTURER’S INSTRUCTIONS
BEFORE USING A POWER TOOL TO INSTALL/SWAGE THESE
PINS AND COLLARS. ENSURE THAT THE TOOL PRESSURE
REGULATOR CONTROL IS SET CORRECTLY (HIGH OR LOW
PRESSURE). FAILURE TO DO THIS CAN CAUSE DAMAGE TO
THE PIN AND/OR STRUCTURE.
Three different procedures are used to install Lockbolt pins. These procedures
are related to the type of fit (interference, transition or clearance) that is required,
and the type of structure (thick or thin) in which the pins (swaged) will be installed.
The procedures are given in the SRM, Chapter 51 as follows:
• Interference or transition fit in any structure
• Clearance fit in thin structure
• Clearance fit in thick structure

LOCKBOLT
Figure 143: Installation Sequence

CHERRYLOCK BLIND RIVET
Cherrylock Blind Rivet

General
There are three types of these blind rivets that are used for repair work on the
aircraft. These are:
• Standard Cherrylock
• Bulbed Cherrylock
• Oversize Cherrylock
These blind rivets are supplied as one piece and consist of three parts:
1. A tubular body that has a head at one end. Two types of head are available:
a 100° countersink head and a protruding head.
2. A pin that goes through the body. The pin has a head opposite the body head.
It also has a lock-groove, a break-off groove and pull-grooves. The pin head
of the bulbed type has also a shear ring. This makes sure that the pin breaks
off at the break-off groove in line with the top of the rivet head when the ring
shears and relocates on the pin head.
3. A lock-collar on the pin. When the blind-rivet is installed, the collar is swaged
into the lock-groove on the pin and in the head. This makes sure that the pin
is locked into the body.
To identify the correct blind rivet for a repair, or a replacement, refer to SRM
Chapter 51.
These blind rivets are supplied with a layer of lubricant on them. Do not clean
them, or touch them more than is necessary, before they are installed.
Do not install blind rivets that are not in a satisfactory condition. Discard any that
are not.
You can use hand or power operated tools to install blind rivets. These tools must
have the correct heads attached to them.
It is recommended that you do a test procedure on some unwanted materials
before you install blind rivets. Do the test on materials that are the same (type
and thickness) as the repair materials. Use blind rivets that are the same (head
type, diameter and grip-length), as those for the repair.
After you have installed a blind rivet, the end of the pin can be above the rivet
head. You can mill the pin until it is in line with the top of the rivet head.

CHERRYLOCK BLIND RIVET
Figure 144: Cherrylock and Cherrylock Bulbed

CHERRYMAX BLIND RIVET
Cherrymax Blind Rivet

General
There are two types of these blind rivets that you can use for repair work on the
aircraft. These are:
• Cherrymax, and
• Oversize Cherrymax
These blind rivets are supplied as one piece and consist of three parts:
1. A tubular body that has a head at one end. Two types of head are available:
a 100° countersink head and a protruding head.
2. A pin that goes through the body. The pin has a head opposite the body head.
It also has a lock-groove, a break-off groove and pull-grooves. There is also a
driving anvil on the pin. This makes sure that the lock-collar sits correctly, and
that the pin always breaks off at the break-off groove.
3. A lock-collar on the pin. When the blind rivet is installed, the collar is swaged
into the lock-groove on the pin and in the head. This makes sure that the pin
is locked into the body.
To identify the correct blind rivet for a repair, or a replacement, refer to SRM
Chapter 51.
These blind rivets are supplied with a layer of lubricant on them. Do not clean
them, or touch them more than is necessary, before they are installed.
Do not install blind rivets that are not in a satisfactory condition. Discard any that
are not.
You can use hand or power operated tools to install blind rivets. These tools must
have the correct heads attached to them.
It is recommended that you do a test procedure on some unwanted materials
before you install blind rivets. Do the test on materials that are the same type and
thickness as the repair materials. Use blind rivets that are the same head type,
diameter and grip-length, as those for the repair.
After you have installed a blind rivet, the end of the pin can be above the rivet
head. You can mill the pin until it is in line with the top of the rivet head.

Figure 145: Cherry Max

Figure 146: Imex / Avdel – Blind Rivets

Figure 147: Huck Blind Rivet

Figure 148: Jo Bolt

Figure 149: Driving Sequence

DETERMINATION OF FASTENER LENGTH (BLIND FASTENERS)
Determination of Fastener Length

(Blind Fasteners)
General
When determining the length of a fastener for installation, the combined thickness
of the material to be joined must be known. This measurement is known as ”grip
length”.
Work Sequence
• Put the grip scale (gauge) in the hole.
• Hook the gauge on to the rear face of the material. Make sure that the
materials are clamped and there is no gap.
• Read the material thickness of the material on the front face of the gauge.

DETERMINATION OF FASTENER LENGTH(BLIND FASTENERS)
A Selection of Fastener Manufacturers’ Grip Gauges

Figure 150: Hi-Lok Grip Scale


NOTE If the point of measurement is on a line, use the lower figure.
Figure 151: Fastener Length Determination


BLIND FASTENERS
Blind Fasteners Cherrylock

The standard Cherrylock rivet (or ’Wiredraw’) is available in three different head
Introduction types:
There are areas of an aircraft’s structure that cannot be accessed easily when • Universal
riveting – it is not possible to get a riveting block (bucking bar) onto the rivet tail
• 100° Countersunk
(the ’blind’ side).
• 100° Countersunk (shallow) (for thin-sheet applications).
For this reason, fasteners were created that formed their own tail when pulled
from the front; no access was necessary to the blind side. Rivet diameters are nominal size, i.e.
• 1/8 in
Mechanical-Lock Blind Rivets
• 5/32 in
Huck • 3/16 in
An American engineer called Louis C Huck invented the mechanical-lock blind
Rivet sleeves are available in four different materials:
rivet (and installation tooling) in 1943, when it was first used in the manufacture
of the B-24 bomber. • 5056 aluminium alloy
• 2017 aluminium alloy
Cherry
• Monel
The Cherry company subsequently developed their own version of the
mechanical-lock blind fastener – the Cherrylock. Cherry have been more • A-286 CRES
successful, commercially, than Huck, so it is more likely you will encounter this
manufacturer’s fasteners than Huck’s. Bulbed Cherrylock
Bulbed Cherrylock are only available in diameters 1/64 in oversize from the
Tooling normal nominal sizes.
Although almost identical in shape, size and strength, both Huck and Cherry Head types available are:
rivets can only be fitted with their own tooling; you cannot fit a Huck rivet with a
Cherry gun and vice-versa. • Universal
The original Huck rivets were formed using a ’double-action’ procedure which • 100° Countersunk
involved a complicated setting-up process. • Unisink (a combination of countersunk and Universal)
They subsequently developed a ’single-action’ rivet, which simplified the riveting • 156° Countersunk (for honeycomb materials)
gun set-up, but operators need to be alert to the fact that there are two types of This is very useful if rivet holes have become worn during rivet removal and gives
rivet, each with their own set-up technique. the flexibility of fitting a larger diameter rivet without needing to open up the hole
If you try to fit a ’single-action’ rivet with a gun set up for ’double-action’ (or vice- to the next nominal diameter (which may be critical in maintaining sufficient land).
versa), a malformed rivet will result. Rivet sleeves are available in three different materials:
Cherry rivets are only of the ’double-action’ variety and the tooling set-up is very • 5056 aluminium alloy
simple.
• Monel
Both Huck and Cherry guns use different sized nose-pieces for each individual
diameter rivet being fitted. There are also different nose-pieces to fit either • Inconel 600
universal or countersunk rivets.

BLIND FASTENERS
Figure 152: Bulbed Cherrylock Rivet

BLIND FASTENERS
CherryMAX
A relatively recent development by Cherry is the CherryMAX rivet. Its incorporation
of a sacrificial integral driving anvil means that tooling is simplified. The same
operating head in the riveting gun can fit a range of different diameter rivets, from
1/8 in to 3/16 in, and the driving anvil reduces wear to the operating head.
Several different types of riveting gun can be used to fit CherryMAX rivets. One in
particular (the G750A) is a hand-gun that does not need a compressed air supply
to operate; very useful for a ’quick-fix’ in the field.

BLIND FASTENERS
Figure 153: CherryMAX Rivet

OLYMPIC-LOK RIVETS
Olympic-Lok Rivets
Introduction
An Olympic-Lok rivet is a light, 3-piece mechanically-locked, spindle-type blind
fastener. It carries its stem lock integral to the maunufactured head.
When installing, the lock-ring is pressed into a groove on the pulling stem just as
the rivet completes drawing the metal sheets together.
CAUTION: POST-INSTALLATION, NEVER FILE THE STEM OF AN OLYM-

PIC-LOK FASTENER; IT WILL WEAKEN THE MECHANICAL
LOCK.
Head Styles
The Olympic-Lok is available in three head styles:
• Universal (protruding)
• 100o flush countersunk
• 100o flush shear
Material
There are eight different alloy combinations of:
• 2017-T4
• A-286
• 5056
• Monel
Lock spindles are made from the same material as their sleeves.
Tooling
As with Huck and Cherry blind fasteners, although almost identical in shape, size
and strength to them, Olympic rivets can only be fitted with their own tooling; you
cannot use a Huck or Cherry gun.

OLYMPIC-LOK RIVETS
Figure 154: Olympic-Lok Rivets

RIVNUTS
Rivnuts
Introduction
A rivnut is a combination of a rivet and a nut, resembling a hollow rivet with
threads inside its shank. It is used when it is necessary to attach anything with a
screw to thin sheet metal.
Fitting
A hole is drilled through the skin and the rivnut is slipped into the hole and upset
with a special puller so that it grips the skin.
When the installation tool is unscrewed, it leaves the threaded receptacle in the
skin.
A key on the rivnut fits into a slot cut into the edge of the hole to prevent the rivnut
rotating when the screw is inserted or removed.

RIVNUTS
Figure 155: Rivnut – Grip Length Determination

PIPES AND UNIONS PART-66 M6 CAT B1
RIGID AND FLEXIBLE PIPES (TUBES)
Pipes and Unions

Rigid and Flexible Pipes (Tubes)
Introduction
A tube assembly consists of the tube and both tube fittings. Tube assemblies
are differentiated according to their use as low, medium and high pressure tube
assemblies.
Extruded tube material of various non-corrosive steels, aluminium and titanium
alloys is available.
Their dimensions are determined by the ”external diameter” in 1/8-inch increments
and the ”wall thickness”.
The higher the quality of material that is selected for a line, the easier it is to
achieve the same operational pressure with reduction of the wall thickness and
thus less flow resistance due to the larger inner diameter.
Steel lines are increasingly being used as pressure lines, even if this could be
accomplished with aluminium lines. The reason for this is the greater operating
safety and the longer life expectancy.
• At pressures of over 1500 PSI (105 bar) we speak of high pressure lines
• Under 1500 PSI (105 bar) medium pressure lines
• Suction and return lines we speak of low pressure lines
Medium and low pressure lines are preferably made of aluminium alloys for
weight-saving.
Lines in the engine area, where there is danger of fire, and in the landing gear
area, where there is danger of being hit by stones, must principally be made of
steel. Titanium lines are still the exception; they can be used due to reasons of
weight.
At the same time, the lines must be able to connect to the connections exactly
matching the axis and be free of tension so that they maintain the necessary seal
over longer operating periods.

RIGID AND FLEXIBLE PIPES (TUBES)
Ref. AMM A340 / ATA 20 -23 -00

Figure 156: Table: Pipe Material / Diameter / Thickness

PIPE IDENTIFICATION
Pipe Identification
General
All pipes are marked with drawing or part number, inspection stamp, test stamp
and date of manufacture. This information can be stencilled on the pipe or surface
stamped. System identification is also marked on each pipe within a system.
There are two methods of system identification. The colour/symbol system and
the code system that is based on the ATA 100 numbering system.
Both methods identify the pipe by applying tape to the pipe near its ends.
Colour / Symbol System

The colour/symbol system uses words, colours and symbols to indicate the
system and content of the pipe.
The Code System

The code system employs the ATA 100 numbering system and will indicate:
• The system – by a symbol
• The component to which the pipe is fitted
• The subsystem to which the pipe is fitted
• Whether it is a suction, pressure or return pipe
WARNING: PIPELINES IDENTIFIED WITH THE LETTERING PHDAN HAVE

PHYSICALLY DANGEROUS CONTENTS, THIS COULD BE DUE
TO TEMPERATURE, NOXIOUS, CORROSIVE ETC....

PIPE IDENTIFICATION
Figure 157: System Contents Identification

TUBE FITTINGS
Tube Fittings
General
Tube fittings or tube connections form the transition to the fittings on the units,
branches or to other tubes.
In this way, they must fit to the various types of tubing and nominal diameters on
the one side and to the various threads and fittings (flared or ball-bush fittings)
on the other side.
There are tube fittings for the various pressure ranges in aluminium and titanium
alloys respectively and in cadmium-plated or stainless steel versions.

TUBE FITTINGS
Figure 158: Connection Examples

FLARELESS FITTINGS
Flareless Fittings
The illustrations show versions of the ”flareless tube fittings” now widely in use
which usually achieve their seal by the ”ball-bush principle”.
MS Fitting
The sleeve or O-ring of malleable steel is shaped by pre-stressing in such a way
that its inner cutting edge is pushed over the pipe to seal it. At the same time the
lip of the seal is pushed into the cone of the fitting and forms a seal line. During
this the tube must, in principle, be on the stop support.

FLARELESS FITTINGS
Harrison Fitting
The sleeve of solid steel has a ball-bush fitting as a seal and is not moulded.
The tube is moulded, in that it is swaged in the sleeve from inside so that it is
sealed tightly. With this type of fitting, the tube is not allowed to touch the end of
the fitting.
The advantage of this type of fitting is ease of handling, as well as simple tooling
required for installation.
For this type of connection, you also need a special tool, which moulds a sleeve
by widening the pipe. The tool can be compared to a thorn that expands in the
tube by a mechanical process.
This type of connection is well suited for thin-walled tubes and is almost totally
vibration-resistant.

FLARELESS FITTINGS
Permaswage Fitting
This is a repair fitting for damaged pipes.
With this type of connection, a steel sleeve is squeezed onto the prepared pipe
end with a hydraulically driven tool.
The advantage of this type of fitting is that it can be made quickly in situ, it is light
and gives a good seal.
The great disadvantage of this fitting is that it cannot be separated, which can be
very problematic at disassembly.

FLARELESS FITTINGS

FLARE-TYPE FITTING
Flare-Type Fitting Types of Flare

There are two types of flare used in aircraft tubing systems:
Introduction • Single Flare
With a flare-type fitting a special tool is required to make the flare.
• Double Flare
By tightening the union nut, a sleeve is pulled against a conical fitting, whereby
the tube is pressed between the fitting and the sleeve. The close fit between the Single Flare
inside of the flared tube and the flare cone of the fitting provides the actual seal, A single flare is formed with either an impact-type flaring tool or one having a
therefore surfaces must be scrupulously clean and free of cracks, scratches and flaring cone with a rolling action.
nicks etc.
• Impact-Type
The sleeve provides added strength and suports the tube to prevent vibration This method involves the tubing being clamped in flaring blocks (the ’grip
concentrating on the flare. die’) whilst a plunger is driven into the end of the tube using light hammer
This fitting is relatively complicated to manufacture, but has proved its worth for blows whilst rotating the plunger.
use in engines because it is relatively vibration-resistant. • Roll-Type
This is the preferred method, involving an entirely self-contained unit
Flare Angle producing a good flare.
Aircraft flared fittings have a standard flare angle of 37° and are not interchangeable The tube is clamped and the flaring cone is turned into the tube end,
with vehicle-type flares, which are 45°. expanding the flare until it reaches the edges of the die. No hammering is
required.
Leak Inspection
If a leak is apparent from a correctly-tightened joint, it should be dismantled and Dimensions
mating surfaces thoroughly inspected for debris or damage. See next page.
CAUTION: DO NOT OVER-TIGHTEN THE JOINT IN ATTEMPTING TO CURE
A LEAK. THIS MAY RESULT IN FAILURE OF A COMPONENT.

FLARE-TYPE FITTING
Figure 159: Single Flare Fittings and Tools

FLARE-TYPE FITTING
Single Flare Dimensions for Single-Flare Tubing
Dimensions External Sleeve Diameter B Radius

Single flares must be manufactured to certain tolerances to ensure a strong, Tube OD (in) Steel or Aluminium Alloy Tubing (in) +0.010 (in)
leak-free joint. +0.000
1/8 0.200 -0.010 0.032
+0.000
3/16 0.302 -0.010 0.032
+0.000
1/4 0.359 -0.010 0.032
+0.000
5/16 0.421 -0.010 0.032
+0.000
3/8 0.484 -0.010 0.046
+0.000
1/2 0.656 -0.010 0.062
+0.000
5/8 0.781 -0.010 0.062
+0.000
3/4 0.937 -0.010 0.078
+0.000
1 1.187 -0.015 0.093

FLARE-TYPE FITTING
Figure 160: Flared Fitting Types

FLARE-TYPE FITTING
Double Flare
Soft aluminium tubing with an outside diameter of 3/8 in or smaller can be
double-flared to provide a stronger connection.
A double flare is smoother and more concentric than a single flare and thus
provides a better seal. It is also more durable and resistant to the shearing effect
of torque.
Procedure
• The tubing is inserted into the flaring die to a depth determined by the stop-pin
and then clamped.
• The upsetting tool is inserted and, with as few blows as possible, the initila
upset is formed.
• The upsetting tool is then substituted for the flaring tool and then hammered
to form the double flare.
Dimensions for Double-Flare Tubing

FLARE-TYPE FITTING

TUBE DAMAGE
Tube Damage
Evaluation of Tube Damage
Various different types of damage are described in the aircraft manuals:
–– Sharp-bottomed surface defect is defined as damage with loss of
material where the damage cuts into the material to form a sharp edge at
the deepest point (e.g. scratches)
–– Round-bottomed surface defect is defined as damage with loss of
material, although the damage on the bottom is not sharp edged, but
rounded instead (e.g. abrasion points)
–– A round-bottom surface impact is a dent in the tube walling.
In principle, the following limitations apply: if damage is not described in the
manual, it is not permitted.
For example, sharp-edged dents (angles smaller than 90°) are not allowed
because they are not described in the example in the manual.

TUBE DAMAGE
Ref. AMM A340 / ATA 20 -23 -11

Figure 161: Damage Tolerances

HOSES
Hoses
General Construction
Hoses (including fittings) are produced mainly by a manufacturer. It is unusual to Hoses are built up from layers.
fabricate hose assemblies. • The inner layer carries the fluid and therefore must be compatible (chemically)
Fitted hoses must meet the following requirements: with the fluid being transported and have the minimum amount of porosity.
The four main compounds used to construct inner liners are:
• There must be a certain amount of slack between both fittings because hoses
reduce their length by between 2% and 4% and expand in diameter when –– Neoprene (for petroleum-based fluids)
under pressure. Tensile stress on the fittings is unsafe and therefore not –– Buna-N (better suited for petroleum-based fluids)
permitted.
–– Butyl (phosphate ester-base hydraulic fluid (Skydrol))
• They must not twist when the end-fittings are tightened. Twisted hoses have a
–– Teflon (compatible with almost every fluid carried)
shortened life and can be damaged or buckle when there is movement. End-
fittings can loosen off. • Reinforcement layers cover the inner liner and determine the hose’s strength.
Common materials used for reinforcement layers are:
Why hoses? –– Cotton
Flexible hoses are used extensively on aircraft to connect stationary to moving
–– Rayon
parts and in areas of high vibration.
–– Polyester fabric
Applications –– Carbon-steel wire
There are essentially three types of hose ratings:
–– Stainless steel wire braid
• Low pressure ................. up to 600 pounds per square inch (psi)
Diligent design of reinforcement layers can minimise the dimensional changes
• Medium pressure ........... up to 3000 psi of hoses under pressure.
• High pressure ................ 3000 psi + • The protective outer cover is usually made of rubber-impregnated fabric or
stainless steel braid. It is put over the reinforcement to protect from physical
Lay Lines damage or heat.
Lay lines run along the length of a hose. They are yellow, red or white stripes,
incorporating MIL-SPEC numbers and various other manufacturers’ information. Inspection
Besides identifying the hose, it serves to indicate whether the assembly is twisted At designated intervals, hoses should be inspected for deterioration. Particular
when installed. attention should be paid to indications of leakage and mechanical damage (braid
separation from the covering or broken wire braids).
Damage limits will be found in the Aircraft Maintenance Manual.

HOSES
Figure 162: Flexible Hoses

HOSES
Re-usable Fittings
It is possible to re-manufacture certain hose assemblies by re-using the end-
fittings (the socket, nut and nipple).
Prior to this, however, it is important to thoroughly inspect the salvaged fittings
for wear or other damage.
If any doubt exists as to the item’s serviceability, it is to be discarded.
Method
Determine the length of hose required (usually using the old assembly as a
pattern).
Protect the outer covering by wrapping with tape (this also minimises wire
braiding splaying), then cut the hose to length with a fine-tooth saw, ensuring
both ends are square-cut.
1. With the socket held firmly in a vice (using suitable protection for its surface)
and the tape removed, screw the hose into it. Having bottomed the hose in
the socket, back it off approximately half a turn.
2. With the socket still held firmly in the vice, force the lubricated end of the
assembly tool into the hose sufficiently far for the nipple to be inserted.
3. Using the assembly tool, the nipple is then screwed into the socket, squeezing
the hose tightly between socket and nipple.
4. Finally, back off the nipple to leave a gap, permitting the nut to turn freely.
Cleaning and Pressure-Testing

The completed hose assembly must be cleaned out internally with compressed
air (blown from both directions alternately) and then proof-tested (normally at 1
1/2 times working pressure) by capping one end.
CAUTION: PRESSURE TESTING IS NORMALLY THE RESPONSIBILITY OF

SPECIALISTS. A HOSE THAT BURSTS UNDER PRESSURE CAN
CAUSE SERIOUS OR EVEN FATAL INJURIES.

HOSES
Figure 163: Re-usable Hose Fittings

HOSE INSTALLATION
Hose Installation
There are a number of checks to carry out prior to installing a flexible hose.
Inspect the hose for:
• Applicability
• Length
• Cleanliness
• Damage
Check the hose identification tag for:
• Part number
• Cure date (within limits)
• Assembly date (within limits)
When fitting a hose assembly, it is important:
• Not to twist it, thereby placing it under undue strain. Check the lay line printed
along the hose length
• That it is subjected to the minimum of flexing during operation
• That it is supported at least every 24 inches
• That it is not stretched tightly between its fittings
• That the minimum bend radius is observed

HOSE INSTALLATION
Figure 164: Installation Example 1

HOSE INSTALLATION
Hose Installation
It is possible to replace a short bend radius with an elbow fitting, but the largest
possible bend radius is still preferred.
The minimum permissable bend radius is determined by the operating pressure,
the type of hose and the nominal size. The bend radius required increases when
the hose has to carry out movements in the operating condition.
If they can move and become twisted, they are to be fixed with clamps to prevent
this.
Clamps are also necessary where there is a danger to the hoses due to vibration,
long lengths or sharp edges.
Protective Sleeves
There are areas on an aircraft that produce wear (from abrasion) or extreme
heat.
Flexible hoses must be protected from these dangers with suitable sleeving.
Sleeving is available in a variety of materials, including:
• Heat shrink
• Nylon spiral wrap
• Teflon
CAUTION: TAKE CARE WHEN REMOVING FIRE SLEEVES; EARLY PROD-

UCTS CONTAINED ASBESTOS.

HOSE INSTALLATION
Figure 165: Installation Example 2

PIPES AND UNION PART-66 M6 CAT B1
FITTINGS
Pipes and Union

Fittings
Hydraulic fittings are used throughout the hydraulic system to provide simple
connections between hydraulic components and tubing.
Standard MS (flareless) and AN (flared) fittings are used in aircraft.
Both types are made in many different shapes and designs. They may be ordered
in either male or female design or in a combination design (male on one end and
female on the other).
Flareless Fittings
The main feature of MS fittings is that they can be used to connect unflared
tubing. An MS fitting has a counterbore in which the tube end is installed.
In the sectional view of an MS fitting opposite, notice the 24 beveled portion
of the counterbore and its seat. The seat forms a slope for the tube during the
connection of one tube to another tube or for a tube to a component and the
beveled area causes the tube connector sleeve to seal the connection as the
tube nut is tightened.
Identification of Flareless Fittings

MS fittings are made of aluminium alloy or steel.
Aluminium alloy fittings can be identified visually by their yellow anodised
finish. The cadmium-plated steel fittings are identified by letter-number codes;
for example, MS21900-4, which is interpreted as follows:
MS....... prefix (Military Specification)
21900.. design part number (adaptor, flareless tube to AN flared tube)
4.......... size of fitting in sixteenths of an inch
The material from which the fittings are made is indicated by the absence of a
letter at the end of the MS number or by the addition of a letter at the end of the
number, for example:
MS21900-4 ............. Carbon steel
MS21900-8-D ......... Aluminium alloy
MS21900-8-S ......... Corrosion-resistant steel (CRES)

FITTINGS

FITTINGS
Figure 166: MS Flareless Fittings

FITTINGS

FITTINGS
Flared Fittings CAUTION: FLARED FITTING PART NUMBERS ARE EITHER ’AN’ OR ’MS’.
Flared (AN) fittings, like flareless (MS) fittings, come in many different shapes. SOME OLDER TYPES (’AC’) STILL EXIST. IT IS IMPORTANT TO
The main difference between AN and MS fittings is the manner in which the BE AWARE OF THIS AND NOTE THAT THERE ARE A NUMBER
hydraulic tube fits to the fitting. OF PHYSICAL DIFFERENCES THAT MEAN THEY ARE NOT IN-
TERCHANGEABLE.
The MS fitting has a counterbore in which the tubing is inserted; the AN fitting
has a 37° flared (beveled) face to which the tubing is fitted. This flared area of
the fitting is the seating surface and must be maintained. Any bad flare on this
sealing surface will show up as a hydraulic leak.
AN Flared Fitting Identification

Material Colour Code
Aluminium Alloy Blue D
Steel Black None
Brass Natural B
AN819 (Sleeves) Cadmium Plated Z
Aluminium Bronze
Part Number Breakdown

FITTINGS
Figure 167: Flared Fitting Types

FUEL FITTINGS
Fuel Fittings Quick-Threading / Indicating-Type

This type is connected by twisting the socket in a clockwise direction onto the
Quick Disconnect Couplings threaded nipple portion.
The advantages of quick-disconnect couplings include ease and speed when
connecting and disconnecting fuel systems. They also help to eliminate vapour
loss and other hazards caused by exposed fuel.
Screw-Type
This type is connected by rotating the union nut until teeth fully engage the teeth
of the lock spring. A distinct clicking noise is heard as the teeth engage.
Inst-o-Matic Push / Pull-Type

This type is connected by pulling back the spring-loaded outer shell of the socket,
and while in this condition, pushing the socket firmly onto the nipple and releasing
the socket shell.

FUEL FITTINGS
Full Grip Push / Pull-Type Ball Lock-Type

This type is connected by pushing the mating halves together. This type is connected by pushing socket onto nipple assembly and rotating
socket cam collar clockwise.
Proper care and handling of quick-disconnect couplings must be exercised to

prolong coupling life and ensure the integrity of the system in which they are
employed.
• Tools: Do not use gripping tools to connect or disconnect coupling halves as
Straight Flow Ball Valve-Type these actions can normally be readily accomplished by hand.
This type is connected by mating the socket to the nipple portion and then turning • Use: Couplings of the types listed have undergone extensive engineering
the socket in a clockwise direction. prior to production. All have been subjected to extensive vibrational and other
testing. They will perform satisfactorily and will not separate during use if they
have been properly connected and are otherwise in serviceable condition.
• Care: Avoid dirt or other foreign matter contamination when couplings are
in the disconnected condition. Contamination can inflict coupling damage
and will, when coupling halves are connected, cause system contamination.
Should contamination occur, wipe with a clean, dry lint-free cloth or use a
clean brush. If a brush is used, assure no bristles remain in the coupling
connecting areas after brushing.
• Handling: Handle quick-disconnects as you would any other fine piece of
equipment. Although they are not delicately designed, do not abuse them by
dropping or inflicting other types of abuse.

SPRINGS PART-66 M6 CAT B1
FUEL FITTINGS
Springs
Introduction Compression Springs
A spring is an engineering component which, when deflected by a force, tends Compression springs are open-coiled helical springs that work by resisting
to return to its unloaded shape. Ideally the energy input to cause the deflection compressive force. These springs are manufactured in cylindrical, conical,
is usefully recovered. concave (hourglass), convex (barrel) or any shape to suit an application and are
Springs are used extensively throughout mechanical engineering in a number of typically made with round wire.
forms: Closed ends are preferable because they allow a greater degree of squareness
• Metal Springs and prevent tangling. Grinding the ends permits greater squareness control and
inhibits buckling.
–– Helical Compression Springs
–– Helical Extension Springs Extension Springs
–– Helical Torsion Springs Extension springs work by their initial tension resisting the pulling force to which
their ends are attached. Extension springs use various types of ends, including
–– Coil Springs eyes, loops, hooks, and others. The path of wire from the body of the spring to
–– Disc Springs its ends should be as smooth, gradual and seamless as possible to maximise
the life of the spring. The most common extension spring material is round wire.
–– Leaf Springs
–– Spiral Springs Torsion Springs
• Other Spring Types Torsion springs work by resisting externally applied torque. Friction and arm
deflection affect torque. Torsion springs are most effective when supported over
–– Air Springs
a rod or tube. Double torsion springs consist of one right-hand and one left-hand
–– Elastomer Springs coil section connected to each other and working in parallel. Torsion springs are
Metal springs generally fall into one of three classes of duty: most commonly manufactured from round wire.
• High Duty Springs subject to rapidly reciprocating loads e.g. engine valve Wireform Springs
springs
Wire forms can produce tensional and torsional movement. They are used in a
• General Duty Springs that work infrequently for limited periods diverse range of applications including:
• Static Load Springs Springs that are used to apply a fixed load throughout • Baggage label clips
their life.
• Electrical switchgear
• Light fittings
• Hooks
• Telecommunications equipment
• Textile machinery
• Safety equipment

FUEL FITTINGS
Figure 168: Common Spring Types

PROPERTIES OF COMMON SPRING MATERIALS
Properties of Common Spring Materials

High-Carbon Spring Wire Alloy Steel Wire
High-carbon spring steels are the most commonly used of all springs materials. The alloy spring steels are used in applications involving high stress and where
They are least expensive, readily available, easily worked and most popular. shock or impact loading occurs. Alloy spring steels also can withstand higher and
lower temperatures than the high-carbon steels.
These materials are not satisfactory for high or low temperatures or for shock or
impact loading. • Chrome Vanadium ASTM A 231
• Music Wire ASTM A 228 –– Cold drawn and heat treated before fabrication
–– Cold drawn –– Used for shock loads and moderately elevated temperatures
–– High and uniform tensile • Chrome Silicon ASTM A 401
–– High quality springs and wire forms –– Cold drawn and heat treated before fabrication
–– Not recommended for applications where the temperature exceeds –– Used for shock loads and moderately elevated temperature
121°C (250°F)
Stainless Steel Wire
• Hard Drawn ASTM A 277
The use of stainless spring steels has increased considerably in recent years.
–– Cold drawn Several new compositions are now available to withstand corrosion. All of these
–– Average stress applications materials can be used for high temperatures up to 650°F.
–– Lower cost springs and wire forms • AISI 302/304 ASTM A 313
• High Tensile Hard Drawn ASTM A 679 –– Cold drawn, general purpose, corrosion and heat resistant
–– Cold drawn –– Magnetic in spring temper
–– Higher quality springs and wire forms –– Not recommended for applications where the temperature exceeds 260°C
(500°F)
• Oil Tempered ASTM A 229
• AISI 316 ASTM A 313
–– Cold drawn and heat treated before fabrication
–– Cold drawn
–– General purpose spring wire
–– Heat resistant and better corrosion resistance than 302
• Carbon Valve ASTM A 230
–– Magnetic in spring temper
–– Cold drawn and heat treated before fabrication
• 17-7 PH ASTM A 313 (631)
–– Suitable for cyclic applications
–– Cold drawn & precipitation hardened after fabrication
–– High strength and general purpose corrosion resistance
–– Slightly magnetic in spring temper

Figure 169: Example of Spring Application 1

Properties of Common Spring Materials High-Temperature Alloy Wire

Nickel-based alloys are especially useful spring materials to combat corrosion
Non-Ferrous Alloy Wire and to withstand both elevated and below-zero temperature application. Their
Copper-base alloys are important spring materials because of their good electrical non-magnetic characteristic is important for such devices as gyroscopes,
properties combined with their excellent resistance to corrosion. Although these chronoscopes, and indicating instruments. These materials have high electrical
materials are more expensive than the high-carbon and the alloy steels, they resistance and should not be used for conductors of electrical current.
nevertheless are frequently used in electrical components and in sub-zero • A 286 Alloy
temperatures.
–– Cold drawn and precipitation hardened after fabrication
• Phosphor Bronze Grade A ASTM B 159
–– Good corrosion resistance at elevated temperature
–– Cold drawn
• Inconel 600 QQ-W-390
–– Good corrosion resistance and electrical conductivity
–– Cold drawn
• Beryllium Copper ASTM B 197
–– Cold drawn and may be mill hardened before fabrication
• Inconel 718
–– Good corrosion resistance and electrical conductivity
• Monel 400 AMS 7233
–– Cold drawn
• Inconel X-750 AMS 5698, 5699
–– Good corrosion resistance at moderately elevated temperature
• Monel K 500 QQ- N- 286
–– Excellent corrosion resistance at moderately elevated temperature
Flat High-Carbon Spring Steels
Although several types of thin flat strip are obtainable for specific applications
in watches, clocks and certain instruments, only two types are readily available.
These two compositions are used for over 95% of all applications requiring flat
high-carbon strip. Although these materials are frequently plated, sections under
0.015” having carbon content over 0.85 with hardness over Rockwell C47 are
highly susceptible to hydrogen-embrittlement even though special plating and
beating operations are employed.

Figure 170: Example of Spring Application 2

BEARINGS PART-66 M6 CAT B1
GENERAL
Bearings
General
Plain Bearings Sliding Bearings
In their simplest form, these bearings consist of load-carrying cylindrical inserts The journal of a sliding bearing operates in a bearing box, a bearing bushing or
made of hard wearing materials, such as cast iron, phosphor-bronze, white metal directly in the bearing body.
or special plastics. Plain bearings are used mainly in applications where the loads
are relatively light and the motion is relatively continuous. The prime example is Bearings for large journal diameters and bearings that cannot be pushed over
crankshafts and connecting rods in internal combustion engines. the shafts during assembly (e.g. crankshafts) must be two-part bearings.
To work efficiently, there must be some clearance between the stationary part To decrease friction between journal and bearing, a continuous lubrication film
and the rotating part. Extreme care needs to be taken to ensure that particle has to exist. For this, bearing play is necessary.
contaminants do not collect in this clearance in order that rapid wear is avoided. The amount of bearing play depends on the demands the bearing is subjected
Regular maintenance is therefore very important with most plain bearing to and the lubricant.
applications. Sliding bearings are resistant to push forces, they operate with little noise and
In view of the need for frequent maintenance, anti-friction bearings with rolling they are suitable for both slow and fast rotational journal speeds.
elements have largely replaced plain bearings in modern applications. Their high starting resistance, however, is disadvantageous. They also require
Bearings are used to support the journals of shafts and axles. continuous maintenance.
Bearings for supporting journals, which are designed to accept forces at right-
Bearing Loads
angles to the drilling axis, are called journal bearings or roller bearings.
Bearings typically have to deal with two kinds of loading, radial and thrust.
Bearings for pivot journals, which are designed to accept forces in a longitudinal Depending on where the bearing is being used, it may see all radial loading, all
direction, are called pivot bearings or axial bearings. These are different to thrust loading or a combination of both.
sliding bearings or anti-friction bearings.

GENERAL
Figure 171: Types of Bearing Loads

ANTI-FRICTION BEARINGS
Anti-Friction Bearings
There are five basic types of anti-friction bearings:
• Tapered
• Needle
• Ball
• Spherical
• Cylindrical
Each is named for the type of rolling element it employs.
An anti-friction bearing consists of the outer and inner raceway, the rolling
element and usually a rolling element cage.
The roller element rolls on the tracks of the raceways. Thus, the friction of sliding
is replaced by the much lower friction of rolling. The rolling element can be
arranged in one or two rows. The cage keeps a certain space between the rolling
elements.
The raceways and rolling elements are manufactured from chromium steel or
chromium nickel steel. They are hardened and ground. The rolling element and
the tracks of the rings are polished. Steel plate or brass plate is usually used as
material for the cages.
There is a distinction to be made between ball bearings and roller bearings.
Ball bearings have a very low starting resistance and are suitable for high rotation
speeds. Roller bearings are used if the occurring stresses are too severe for ball
bearings. Theoretically, balls transfer the bearing pressure to only one spot whilst
rollers transfer the pressure along a line. This is why rollers and their tracks
withstand higher pressures than balls and their tracks.
Pin bearings have smaller outer diameters than roller bearings for the same
shaft diameter. The pins can also be installed directly between the shaft and the
bearing housing without raceways.

Figure 172: Common Anti-Friction Bearing Types

Ball Bearings Spherical Roller Bearings

All types of ball bearings have a ’point’ contact between the balls and the races. The self-aligning feature of spherical roller bearings allows minor angular
Because of this point contact for a given load capacity it is generally necessary displacements between shaft and housing to be accommodated. They have a
to specify a larger ball bearing than a tapered roller bearing which distributes the high radial load-carrying capacity, but under heavy load the stress is not evenly
load over the length of the roller (line contact). The most popular type is the ’deep distributed and true rolling motion only occurs at two contact points on each roller.
groove ball bearing’ which is suitable for light radial loads only. Axial or shock This naturally induces skidding along the roller length and therefore the spherical
load conditions should be avoided since this can lead to rapid failure. roller bearing has a higher coefficient of friction and lower speed capabilities than
It is also important to ensure that the lubricant is clean since contaminants tend other types of roller bearings.
to get trapped in the race groove, which ultimately limit performance and bearing The cage must be of an extremely robust construction to counteract the roller
life. Deep groove ball bearings are supplied as an assembly with inseparable skewing effect which increases the cage moment of inertia and limits the number
races; they necessarily have a radial clearance which can only be adjusted by of rollers. It is best suited to applications where there is a risk of misalignment at
the fits of the inner and outer races. They are mostly used where size, load
assembly, and where speed and deflection criteria are not exacting.
capacity and radial clearance are not important, but where ease of assembly and
low cost are. Tapered Roller Bearing
Cylindrical Roller Bearings The tapered roller bearing combines the benefits of all the other bearing types as
The most common use of cylindrical roller bearings is at non-locating positions well as offering additional advantages:
where it is necessary to accommodate thermal expansion effects by allowing • Combined radial and thrust load capacity
axial displacement (floating) of the shaft relative to the housing. • A longer relative life for a given bearing size, or
Inner and outer races are separable (which facilitates mounting and dismounting)
• Reduced bearing size for a given load capacity
and the cylindrical rollers have line contact with the races so they can carry more
radial load than the point contact of ball bearings. • Adjustability: for optimum performance either end-play or preload values can
be specified according to the design requirements
The cage must align and retain the rollers which necessitates a heavier cage
and fewer rollers when compared to a tapered roller bearing of similar size, and • Less sensitive to contaminated environments due to the natural pumping
hence a lower load capacity. action which forces any particle contaminants out of roller/race contact area
Designs are also available to carry a limited axial load by integrating additional • Low friction coefficient and high speed capabilities due to true rolling motion,
flanges on the inner or outer race. However, the full axial thrust must be when compared to other roller bearing types
taken between the flanges and the roller ends which can lead to high stress
• Simple mounting and dismounting with separable inner and outer races
concentrations.
• A choice of mounting arrangements to suit the loading aspects and design
Needle Roller Bearings constraints of an application
Needle roller bearings are similar to cylindrical roller bearings but with long, thin • Lower price for a given calculated fatigue life
rollers, giving them a very compact cross-section. They are very adaptable and
have a high radial load capacity in relation to their sectional height, but can cope
only with very light axial loads.
Typical applications are in the synchromesh mechanisms of automotive
gearboxes, and as planetary gear bearings in light duty epicyclic hub-reduction
units.

Figure 173: Tapered Roller Bearing: Advantages

BEARING MATERIALS
Bearing Materials
The following are suitable as bearing materials: copper tin alloys, copper tin zinc
casting alloys, lead tin alloys, cast iron, dry-powdered metals and synthetics.
These materials have good sliding properties. Some have good emergency
properties, i.e. they are insensitive to short interruptions of lubricant supply
(self-lubricating bearing materials). Dry-powdered bearing metals contain fluid
or solid lubricants in their pores. These come out when heated and provide the
necessary lubrication.
A requirement for the long working life of bearings is adequate lubrication.
Integrated oil grooves or oil wells distribute the lubricant over the full length of
the bearing. An even film of lubricant must be maintained by supplying enough
oil or grease. If the lubricant is missing, the journal will cut into the bearing.
Synthetic bearings are often lubricated with water. The water also acts as a
coolant, because these bearings tend to retain heat.
Where machines use sliding bearings, there is the possibility of insufficient oil in
the bearings when starting the machine. This can be avoided by using a grease
pump. By operating the pump before starting the machine, the bearings will be
pre-lubricated.
With sliding bearings, grease lubrication is usually only used for strongly-stressed
bearings with a large size bearing play (rolling stands), for slow-moving shafts
and for swinging shafts and axles.
Radial Bearings
Radial bearings can accept forces that act radially to the shaft axis. Axial bearings
or longitudinal bearings accept forces that act in the direction of the axis of the
shaft. With the exception of roller bearings and pin bearings, radial bearings can
be subjected to low axial forces and axial bearings can be subjected to low radial
forces.

RADIAL BEARINGS
Figure 174: Radial Bearings

TRANSMISSION PART-66 M6 CAT B1
GENERAL
Transmission
General
Physical power transmission from the engine to flying control surfaces,
undercarriage etc. is achieved by belts, cables, control chains, chainwheels,
pulleys and levers.
Additional components may be shafts, pull- and push-rods, cranks, eccentrics,
threads, friction wheels, hydraulics and compressed air.

GENERAL

CONTROL CHAINS, CHAIN WHEELS AND PULLEYS
Control Chains, Chain Wheels and Pulleys

Introduction
Chains provide strong, flexible and positive connections and are generally used Chains may be used solely in control runs or in conjunction with cable assemblies.
wherever it becomes necessary to change the direction of control runs in systems Incorrect assembly of chains should be rendered impossible by the use of non-
where considerable force is exerted. reversible chains in conjunction with the appropriate types of wheels, guards and
The change of direction is achieved by the use of chain wheels or pulleys. Chains connectors.
may be found in:
• Control column installations
• Aileron and elevator controls
• Trim control systems

CONTROL CHAINS, CHAIN WHEELS AND PULLEYS
Figure 175: Typical Chain Assembly Arrangements

CHAIN DRIVES
Chain Drives
Chain drives are suitable for non-slip power transmission with large spaces
between axles when cogwheels are not available to decrease the size of the
spaces. Most often roller chains or gear chains are used, for example, for the
thrust-drive of machine tools and in the field of automobile manufacture.
Roller chains and gear chains have low frictional loss and are smooth-running.
The turnable rolls of roller chains roll along the flanks of the chain wheel teeth.
The number of teeth on the chain wheels should not be smaller than 12, otherwise
chain wear will be too high.
Roller chains do not require much maintenance and will work without any
disturbance even when temporarily contaminated or during rough operation.
Gear chains have cogged lugs which engage into the gaps between the teeth of
the chain wheel. They are virtually silent in operation. The number of teeth of the
chain wheels should not be smaller than 17 with regard to wear.

GEAC
RHA
N
IH
SAV
C
EOGGEL
D
UGW
SH
C
IE
H
NGAG
N
IE
TT
O
HG
EAP
B
SETWEET
N
HTEETO
H
TF
H
CEHA
W
N
I HET
E
HLE
.A
Y
RV
R
EITUALS
L
Y
IE
O
NIP
TERAT
O
ITH
N
N
E
.UMBEO
R
TF
EETO
H
TF
H
CEHA
W
N
I HEEL
S
SHOULN
DO
B
T
SE
MALLET
R
HAW
1N
7TR
IHEGART
D
W
OEAR.
Figure 176: Chain Drives

TRIM CONTROL
Trim Control
Power transmission for trim is achieved via a chain drive. The revolving chain is
tensioned by a chain tightener. Safety covers prevent the separation of the chain
from the toothed wheel.
Figure 177: Chains – Trim Control

COUPLINGS
Couplings
Couplings are used to connect two shafts with each other. They are classed as:
• Solid couplings
• Movable and disconnectable couplings
• Safety couplings
Solid Couplings
By using solid couplings a rigid connection between two shafts is achieved. The
best known solid couplings are sleeve couplings and disk couplings.
The sleeve coupling consists of two cast iron sleeves which are fixed to the shaft
ends by screws. If the contact pressure is not high enough to transfer the torque,
adjusting springs are added.
With a disk coupling, two disks are fitted to the shaft ends by screws. Balancing
of the two disks is achieved by a cylindric insertion or a centre plate. Adjusting
springs provide shaft attachment. Disk couplings have no protruding parts and
are therefore accident-proof.

COUPLINGS
Movable Couplings comprise expansion couplings, hinge couplings and elastic Extension Couplings allow a small longitudinal movement of one shaft in
couplings. They are used if the shafts are not in alignment or if the position of relation to the other. This axial movement must take place because, for example,
the shafts change during operation. the length of the shaft may change due to heating during operation. One coupling
of this kind is the claw coupling (also disconnectable).
Hinge Couplings comprise cross-links, dry-disc joints and ball- and socket-
joints. They are used where the direction of the axes of the shafts linked to the
Cross-Links, such as universal joints, are suitable to transfer stronger forces, couplings change in a certain, limited angle. Dry-disc joints consist of elastic
such as in cars. If the journals of the journal cross assembly run in pin bearings, clutch discs, each connected to a flange at the end of the shaft.
these links need no maintenance.

GEARS
Gears
Gears are used more than any other drive mechanism. They use a drive gear
(input) and a driven gear (output) which turn in opposite directions. To gain a
mechanical advantage when using gears, the drive and driven gear must have
different numbers of teeth. If a drive gear has 50 and the driven gear has 100
teeth, the gear ratio is 1:2, and the mechanical advantage gained is 2. That
means that the power required to drive the gear halved for a given output speed.
Toothed-Wheel Gears
Toothed-wheel gears transfer rotational movement at low speeds without slip.
This means that a change of the transformation ratio (which could be caused by
slipping of a belt) is not possible.
To reduce noise as much as possible, the wheels of high-speed toothed-wheel
gears should have ground tooth-flanks and should operate in an oil bath.
To prevent accidents, all toothed-wheel gears must be covered by efficient
protection devices which also prevent contamination.
Power transmission in parallel shafts is achieved by spur wheels or by cog-
wheels with internal toothing and pinion (a small driving wheel). In the case of
shafts with axes that stand perpendicular to each other, power transmission is
achieved by bevel gears.
If the axes are crossing, power transmission is achieved by a worm and worm
gear or by a helical gear.
By the use of a spur wheel and spur rack, rotational movements are transformed
into straight-line movements and vice versa. This is commonally reffered to as
rack and pinion steering

TOOTHED-WHEEL GEARS
Figure 178: Toothed-Wheel Gears

SPUR GEARS
Spur Gears
Spur gears may have straight teeth, slanting teeth and herringbone teeth. On
wheels with slanting or herringbone teeth, the teeth are arranged helically on the
wheel.
Wheels with slanting teeth operate much more quietly than wheels with straight
teeth, because at all times several teeth are engaged (not engaged suddenly
across their entire breadth).
However, slanting teeth create a force that acts in an axial direction. This force
has to be picked up by axial bearings. To avoid excessive axial force, the slanting
angle of the teeth should not be larger than 20.
In wheels with herringbone teeth, the axial forces eliminate each other. Because
of this, herringbone gears are used for the transmission of large forces.

SPUR GEARS

BEVEL GEARS
Bevel Gears
Bevel gears that operate together are two conical surfaces which roll without
slipping because of their tooth system. The bevel peaks meet at one point,
provided the bevel wheels are correctly manufactured.
In a bevel gear, a wheel cannot be exchanged for another with a different number
of teeth because the angle in which the teeth are cut or slotted to the body of the
wheel changes with the number of teeth. Bevel wheels are manufactured with
straight, circular or helical teeth. Those with curved teeth operate with very little
noise, but they create a larger axial force than wheels with straight teeth.

B
A
EN
V
G
IE
W
L
E
AA
H
RE
C
,E
A
LNNO
B
EX
E
TCHANGE
FO
D
A
R
NOTHE
W
D
F
R
F
A
IT
E
H
IRE
NU
TMBE
O
TE
R
F
EB
TH
ECAU
T
S
A
HE
N
E
WG
N
IL
H
C
E
TIH
TEE
A
TH
R
C
O
E
US
T
R
LOTTE
TO
H
D
BE
OD
O
TH
W
Y
F
EHE
C
EH
LANG
W
ES
TH
N
IE
UMBE
O
TE
R
F
B
ET
E
H
VW
.ELHEE
A
LR
S
M
EANUF
ACTURE
W
D
S
TH
T
IRA
C
G
R
IC
H
U
T
,LA
O
H
RR
E
C
LIT
A
E
L
TE
H
TH
O
.W
SE
C
TH
IURVE
TE
D
EO
TH
PERA
W
TE
V
TH
E
IT
L
R
T
N
IL
Y
B
E
O
T
S
UH
E
IT
C
E
,Y
RE
LA
T
R
EGA
ER
X
Figure 179: Bevel Gears

HELICAL GEARS
Helical Gears Worm Gears

Helical gears are only suitable for the transfer of small forces, because the flanks Large transmissions can be achieved with worm drives when the drive is created
of the teeth contact in only one spot. Helical wheels that operate together must by the worm. When a one-toothed worm turns once, the respective worm gear
both have teeth that are inclined to the same side (left or right). The degree of moves only the distance of one tooth. The ratio of transmission becomes larger
slant of both wheels may vary. The combination of the slanting angles results in the higher the number of teeth of the worm gear.
the axial angle of both wheels – usually 90°.
Figure 180: Helical and Worm Gears

GEAR UNITS
Gear Units
Gear units transmit the (usually constant) rotational speed of the driving engine
in a way that the shaft or spindle turns with the required rotational speed. Gear
units can also change the direction of the rotational movement.
Stepped-Pulley Drive
With a single-pulley drive, only as many rotational speeds can be reached as the
belt pulleys have stages. More than 5 stages are rarely used because a higher
number of stages would take up too much space. If two three-stage belt-drives
are arranged in series, 9 rotational speeds (not 6) will result.
To get the same belt tension for every stage the sum of both working stage
diameters must be identical. To enable the V-belt to move from one stage to the
next in a V-belt drive, the distance between the axes of the belt pulleys must be
made adjustable with a rocker or an eccentric.
Toothed-Wheel Gears
There are two types of variable gears, depending on how the individual toothed
wheels contact each other:
• Caster swivel wheel gears
• Driving-key-type transmission
The wheels of variable gears are engaged and reach the desired rotational speed
by moving them sideways. If many rotational speeds are required by a machine
tool, several gears are arranged in series. Variable gears are suitable to transmit
large forces. They are used to adjust the revolutions of turning machines, milling
machines and planing machines.
Like all other toothed-wheel gears, they are not suitable to drive machines for
precision work. Variable gears usually may only change gears during start up or
run down.

TOOTHED-WHEEL GEARS
Figure 181: Stepped Pulley Drive / Toothed Wheel Gearing

DRIVING-KEY-TYPE GEARS
Driving-Key-Type Gears
The driving-key-type gear can only be used to transmit small forces at low
rotational speeds. The tightly-fitted toothed wheels on the driving shaft are
constantly engaged to the loosely-adjusted wheels of the driven shaft. An elastic
spring coupling key is moved in axial direction in the slot of the hollow driven
shaft.
This elastic spring coupling key engages in the splines of the wheels and moves
the shaft. Rings which are installed between the individual wheels press the
elastic spring coupling key out of the spline of one wheel before it can engage in
the spline of the next wheel. Driving-key-type gears do not need much space and
can change gears during operation.
Figure 182: Driving-Key-Type Gearing

INFINITELY VARIABLE ROTATIONAL SPEED
Infinitely Variable Rotational Speed

The infinitely variable rotational speed makes it possible to adjust to every desired
rotational speed within the speed range during operation. This can be achieved
mechanically, electrically or by fluids.
Friction Gears
Friction gears have a simple set-up. The driving friction wheel is movable so that
the rotational speed of the driven friction disk is infinitely variable. The efficiency
of these gears is unfavourable.
Cone Pulley Drive

The cone pulley drive is suitable for transmission of smaller forces at high
rotational speeds. The cone pulley pairs are axially movable. By adjusting the
pulleys, the V-belt is forced to move more to the outside of one pulley and more
to the middle of the other. This changes the effective pulley diameters and thus
the transmission ratio.
The cone pulley drives are built for adjustment ranges up to 10:1. Adjustment
range here means the ratio of the largest to the smallest output speed.

CONE PULLEY DRIVE
Figure 183: Friction Gear

TRANSMISSION COMPONENTS CONTROL MECHANISM
Transmission Components Control Mechanism

General
The structural elements of power transmission within control mechanisms must
meet the following requirements:
• Safe
• Lightweight
• Movement free from play
Cables
Cables are the primary transmission components in airplanes without “fly-by-
wire“ systems. Cables are versatile, offer movement free of play, problem-free
transmission on a weight-saving basis and can thus be routed into almost every
area via guiding pulleys.
It has to be regarded as a disadvantage that cables can only transmit pulling
forces. Cables are connected by turnbuckles. Clips secure the turnbuckles. By
twisting the turnbuckles the tension of the cables is changed.

TRANSMISSION COMPONENTS CONTROL MECHANISM
Figure 184: Control Mechanism

PUSH RODS
Push Rods
Push rods are used to operate rudders, auxiliary rudders, flaps etc. Push rods
can transmit pulling and pushing forces.
CAUTION: IF PUSH RODS ARE ADJUSTED, ENSURE THAT THE THREAD

IS VISIBLE THROUGH THE CONTROL-HOLE.

QUADRANTS
Quadrants
Forces are transferred to cables via cable quadrants and the forces of the cables
are also transmitted to push rods via cable quadrants.

ROTARY SELECTORS
Rotary Selectors
Swinging or rotating movements are transmitted by rotary selectors.
Figure 185: Rotary Selectors

CONTROL CABLES PART-66 M6 CAT B1
CABLE LINES
Control Cables
Cable Lines
Introduction
Cable lines have advantages over other mechanical actuators, such as linkages,
shafts and chains, predominantly weight-saving.
Cable lines are used in many applications and can be routed into almost every
space via guiding pulleys or deflector rolls.
Handling, checking, adjustment and stretching are relatively easy.
Cables used in airplane construction normally consist of individual cable wires
with a minimum tensile strength of 1200N/mm2 at a breaking elongation of 2 to
7%.
The steel wires are twisted into strands and these are twisted into cables.
Normally, the wires are twisted in one direction and strands the opposite.
The number of steel wires in one strand and the number of strands in one cable
are the result of the following calculation:
3/32 – 7x7
or
1/8 – 7x19 To check the tension of aircraft control cables, a tensiometer is used. The cable
In this calculation, the fractional numbers stand for the diameter of the cable is placed between two blocks on the frame and riser. The trigger is then pulled to
(inch). apply pressure to the cable and indicate the cable tension.
The first figure tells you that the cable consists of 7 strands and the last figure
tells you how many steel wires there are in a strand.
Tensioning
Large aircraft have a complex automatic cable tensioning system to maintain
tension relative as the aircraft expands and contracts due to ambient air
temperatures.
Small aircraft cable tensions are set up as a compromise as they do not have this
automatic system.

CABLE LINES
Figure 186: Build-Up of Cables

CABLE TERMINALS
Cable Terminals
Introduction
Metal cable terminals are swaged to the end of a cable by plastic deformation of
their hollow shanks.
Terminal Types
There are a number of different cable terminal types:
• Ball (single or double shank)
• Stud end (short or long thread)
• Fork end
• Eye end

CABLE TERMINALS

CABLE SYSTEM COMPONENTS
Cable System Components

Fairleads
Fairleads are used to guide control cables to prevent contact with the aircraft
structure.
Pressure Seals
Where control cables pass through pressure bulkheads, pressure seals are
used. The seals are filled with grease and allow the cable to pass freely whilst
preventing the loss of pressurisation air.
Pulleys
Pulleys are used in control cable runs to effect a change in direction.

CABLE SYSTEM COMPONENTS

CABLE TURNBUCKLES
Cable Turnbuckles
Introduction
Change in cable tension is effected by turnbuckles. There must be no more than
three threads exposed at either end of the turnbuckle barrel and the turnbuckle
must never be lubricated.
Locking
Opposite are illustrations of the various methods of locking turnbuckles. Many of
the more modern turnbuckles are safetied with clip-type locking devices. When
the tension is correctly adjusted, the two-piece clips are inserted into a groove in
the turnbuckle body and the terminal end on the cable. The two pieces are then
clipped together through the hole in the barrel.

CABLE TURNBUCKLES
Figure 187: Turnbuckles

FLEXIBLE REMOTE CONTROL SYSTEMS
Flexible Remote Control Systems

Introduction
Manually-operated remote controls are installed in aircraft to operate, from the
flight deck, such components as trim tabs, brake control valves and engine
controls.
They can also be adapted for other uses such as the indication of landing gear
movements, position of flaps etc.
Remote Control Methods

Chains, sprockets, pulleys, cable, levers and rods are used for remote control,
but advantage may be gained by the use of a cable and conduit since the control
can be bent to pass through the structure.
Cable and Conduit

Cable and conduit is relatively lightweight and installation is simple compared
with other methods of remote control.
Teleflex and Bowden are typical methods of cable and conduit control, in which
each system consists primarily of a cable passing through a covering (conduit)
fitted with appropriate end fittings.
In principle, if the conduit is bent, a pull on the cable will tend to straighten the
conduit, but because of the natural stiffness and the fact that the ends of the
conduit are fixed, straightening is prevented.

FLEXIBLE REMOTE CONTROL SYSTEMS
Figure 188: Typical Remote Control System

TELEFLEX CONTROLS
Teleflex Controls
Cables Conduits
The cable consists of a tension wire wound either with a continuous left- or right- The rigid conduits normally used in aircraft are of light alloy, although steel and
hand helix winding which engages with the teeth of gear wheels at the transmitting tungum conduits are used for special purposes. It may be bent in smooth curves
and receiving ends of the control run. to radii of not less than 3 inches.
The helix winding may also be used as a thread by which various end fittings can Where there is relative movement between conduit and component, flexible
be attached to the cable. conduit may be fitted, but to avoid backlash only the minimum length should be
used. Flexible conduit may be bent to a radius of not less than 9 inches.
The cable is designed for transmitting both pull and push. There are two types
of cable in use: NOTE: SUPPORT MUST BE GIVEN TO BENT PORTIONS OF THE CON-
1. No 2 Cable: This cable is built up from a high-tensile steel wire which is DUIT, BUT CLAMP BLOCKS, SPACED 3 FT APART, SHOULD BE
wound with a compression winding. The latter is wound with a left-hand USED TO SECURE STRAIGHT PORTIONS TO THE AIRFRAME.
helix winding which is pitch-spaced by a spacer winding. The cable is 3/16“
diameter. Sliding End Fittings
These are used where it is not necessary to convert the pull-push movement of
2. No 380 Cable: This cable is built up from a high-tensile steel wire which
the cable into a rotary movement; they are used in lieu of wheel units.
is wound direct with a right-hand helix winding and spacer winding. In this
method of construction there is improved efficiency and a reduction in Various types of sliding end fitting are available, each comprising a guide tube
backlash, particularly when the cable is under compression. The cable is terminating in a fork, eye, ball joint or an internal or external threaded fitting.
3/16“ diameter. The cable is attached to the end fitting by means of a special collet attachment or
by means of a lock spring and plug.
NOTE: BECAUSE OF THE DIFFERENCE IN THE LAY OF THE CABLES
(LEFT-HAND AND RIGHT-HAND) THEY ARE NOT INTERCHANGEA-
BLE. E.G. A No 2 CABLE MUST BE USED WITH A No 2 TRANSMIT-
TING UNIT.

TELEFLEX CONTROLS
Figure 189: Types of Teleflex Cable and Typical Sliding End Fittings

TELEFLEX CONTROLS
End Fittings 5. Junction Box Unit: These are installed where it is necessary to reverse the
The transmitting end of a control is usually fitted with a wheel unit consisting of a direction of travel of the control cables, or to branch a run of cable so as to
hand-operated gear wheel enclosed in a casing. operate two components (e.g. on both port and starboard sides of the aircraft).
In one type the box contains a gear wheel and provision is made for two
Alternatively, where the control loading is light and the control run fairly straight, cables to pass through the box, one on either side of the gear wheel. The
a pull-push operating handle can be used. gear wheel may be rotated to move both cables, or one cable may operate
At the remote end, the cable operates an appropriate wheel unit or is coupled, the gear wheel which in turn operates the other cable.
by means of a sliding end fitting, direct to the actuating mechanism on the 6. Swivel Joints: This can be installed where rotary movement of the control
component being controlled. lever at the receiving end does not exceed 90°. This type of joint consists
Swivel joints are also provided to take up the angular movement of an actuating of a ball and socket connection inside a housing attached to the end of the
lever at the end of a control run. rigid conduit. The housing must be rigidly secured to the aircraft structure.
1. Single-Entry Unit: In this wheel unit the cable enters the unit by means of The ball is welded to a length of tubing of the same size as the conduit. A
a conduit connector and is led into a slot in the gear wheel. The rotary travel suitable sliding end fitting is attached to the end of the control cable so that
of the unit is limited to 270° of travel of the gear wheel and a minimum of 40° the guide tube slides freely over the swivel joint tube.
engagement must be maintained at all times between the gear wheel teeth
and the cable.
2. Double-Entry Unit: Where greater travel than can be obtained with a
single-entry unit is required, a double-entry unit may be used. In this
wheel unit the cable enters the unit by means of a conduit connector
and, after wrapping round the gear wheel, emerges via another
conduit connector at a point 90°, 120° or 180° from the point of entry.
The end of the cable that emerges from the unit may be accommodated in a
short length of conduit known as a spent travel tube.
3. Anti-Torsion Tube: It is sometimes necessary to prevent the control cable
from turning in the conduit and so altering the relative adjustment. This is
done by installing an oval-sectioned anti-torsion tube in place of a spent
travel tube. This tube serves as a guide to an oval ferrule secured to the
spent travel end of the cable.
4. Straight-Lead Unit: In this unit the cable passes straight through and
consequently engages on only a few teeth of the gear wheel. Therefore,
these units are not suitable for heavily-loaded controls. It can be interposed
in a control run or fitted at the transmitting or receiving ends of a control.

TELEFLEX CONTROLS
Figure 190: Teleflex System Components

TELEFLEX CONTROLS
End Fittings (continued)

7. Torsion Drive: In certain installations, the final linear movement of the control
is converted to rotary action by the use of a distributor box coupled, via a
torsion drive, to the component to be operated. The torsion drive is similar to
a normal flexible drive.
8. Distributor Box: This is similar in construction to a receiver unit
with a gear wheel attached to the face of the cable gear wheel.
The attached gear wheel drives a pinion on a cross shaft which
engages with one or two tongue ends of the torsion drive cable.
To convert the rotary motion of the torsion drive to the linear movement
of a trimming tab, a sprocket-driven screw jack may be used.
To prevent vibration from affecting the setting of a wheel unit control, or to
lock the control in any position, a damping device may be fitted. This device
consists of a spring-loaded friction plate pressed against the gear wheel.

TELEFLEX CONTROLS
Figure 191: Teleflex Distributor Box

TELEFLEX CONTROLS
Conduit Connectors Servicing

Some conduit connectors are similar in construction to all-metal pipe couplings Servicing of the control system consists of checking its operation, examining for
without an olive. The standard nipple-type connector consists of a screwed wear and damage, renewing defective parts and periodical lubrication.
nipple that is threaded onto a rigid conduit, before the conduit is flared. The
nipple is then screwed into a wheel unit or conduit connector body, thus retaining Probable Cause Remedy
the conduit secure against a shoulder in the internally-threaded connection hole. (a) Flexible type – renew complete
Another type of conduit connector, termed a clamp connector, consists of a split Damaged conduit conduit.
block bored out to house the unflared ends of a conduit. The conduit is gripped by (b) Rigid type – cut out damaged
tightening two clamping bolts, and is located by two bifurcated pins. portion and renew.
Kinked cable Renew cable.
Quick-Break Units
Quick-break units of various types are installed in control runs to facilitate removal Dismantle end fittings and remove the
of components without disturbing the control. The cable joining fittings are similar Lack of lubricant in conduit cable from the conduit.
in all types of quick-break unit and consists of rods machined with interlocking Smear the cable with high-altitude
slotted ends attached to the ends of the cables. grease and re-assemble.
Remove sliding tube from end of cable
Bent sliding end fitting and test for freedom.
If stiff, fit new parts.
Check alignment of swivel joint (if
fitted).
Fouling between end fitting and Renew damaged parts and reset the
airframe due to damage or faulty assembly.
installation
Worn wheel unit gear wheel, allowing Renew wheel unit.
cable to override
Jammed swivel joint Dismantle, clean, assemble and test.
If unsatisfactory, renew swivel joint.

TELEFLEX CONTROLS
Figure 192: Teleflex Conduit Connectors

TELEFLEX CONTROLS
Teleflex System Installation 4. Cable: The cable must be kept clean, free from kinks and well lubricated. If dirty,
1. Conduit: Rigid conduit must be clean, free from dents and deformations and it may be cleaned in kerosine, wiped dry with a non-fluffy cloth and re-lubricated.
reasonably straight. When renewing a conduit, never use conduit that has been A cable that has been damaged, strained or over heated, must be renewed.
previously bent for some other part of the system. After fitting the cable in the The method of fitting a new cable is as follows:
conduit, it should be possible to work the cable backwards and forwards by A. Assemble the conduit in position.
hand. If this is not possible, the run of conduit has not been installed properly.
B. Cut the cable 2 inches in excess of requirements.
Damage to rigid conduit may be repaired by inserting a new length of conduit
and making the connection by use of a connector. Bending, if necessary, C. Fit the cable into the unit and engage with the transmitting end fitting.
should be done by use of a bending machine, or by using a special hand D. Assemble the receiving end fitting and mark the required length of cable.
bender. Flexible conduit, if damaged, must be completely renewed.
E. Remove the cable from the conduit and cut to length.
2. Conduit Connectors: When tightening a nipple type connector, two
F. Replace the cable and, at the same time, smear the cable with high
spanners should be used to prevent twisting of the conduit. If there is
altitude grease as it enters the conduit.
any end play between the conduit and the body of the connector after
tightening, dismantle the connection and check the flare on the conduit; G. Connect the cable to the end fittings and check for freedom of movement
flaring of a conduit should be done only with the special flaring tool provided. and range of movement.
When fitting a clamp type connector, the ends of the two lengths of conduit H. Ensure that all fittings are in safety and correctly locked. Lubricate, as
must be square and unflared. To fit the connector, remove the locking pins necessary.
and slacken off the clamping bolts. Slide the two lengths of conduit into the
connector and ensure that the ends butt centrally in the transverse slot, then 5. Sliding End Fitting: To attach the cable to a sliding end fitting, unscrew the
tighten up the clamping bolts. Insert a drill of the correct size through the hexagon plug, screw the locknut right back and pass the cable through the
locking pin holes. Operate the drill which will cut half way through the wall of plug, then proceed as follows:
the conduit. Insert the bifurcated locking pins and open out their legs. The A. Screw the lock spring on to the end of the cable, so that about 3/16 in
correct size drill is 3/32 in dia for No. 2 and No. 3 conduits. (two threads) of cable projects through the spring.
3. Wheel Units: To fit the cable into the single entry unit, tuck it into the slot in B. Insert the cable end, with its lock spring, into the bore of the end fitting
the gear wheel and ensure that the cable helix engages with the gear wheel and screw the plug tight down. During this operation, the end fitting must
teeth to give a wrap of at least 40°. On double entry units, the cable should be prevented from rotating.
engage with the gear wheel correctly and project through the lead out hole C. Check that the free end of the cable is beyond the inspection hole, but not
throughout the travel of the control. Ensure that the cable end, when fully beyond the fork gap (fork end fittings only). If satisfactory, position the tab
extended, does not foul the blanked end of the spent travel tube. All wheel washer, tighten the locknut and lock with the tab washer.
units should be packed with high altitude grease.
D. Check the distance from the face of the bore to the sliding tube which
should not exceed 0.45 inches. This ensures that the lock spring is tightly
compressed.

TELEFLEX CONTROLS
Figure 193: Assembly of Teleflex Sliding End Fitting

BOWDEN CONTROLS
Bowden Controls
Cable End Fittings
This short run, lightly-loaded type of control has a cable made of non-corrodable Various types of end fitting and connector are provided, each installation being
steel wire, which. is designed for ”pull” operation only. The return action is designed to meet a specific requirement. Normally, the transmitting end of a
provided by a spring. control is fitted with a hand lever which engages with the nipple on one end
of the cable. At the remote end, the cable passes through an adjustable stop
Conduit and is connected to the component operating lever. To return the hand lever
The conduit consists of a close coil wire, covered with cotton braiding and finished to the normal position after operation, the system is spring loaded either at the
with a black waterproof coating. Caps are fitted on each end of the conduit to transmitting or receiving end of the control run.
prevent the braiding from unravelling and to reinforce the end of the conduit. On
Hand Lever
some installations, rigid conduit is used to house the cable over straight runs.
A typical hand lever is illustrated. If it is necessary to dismantle an existing control
or to fit a new cable, unscrew the adjustment to slacken the cable, then rotate
the nipple and slide the nipple and cable sideways to pass the cable through the
end fitting slot.
Cable Nipples
When a control assembly is made up, the ends of the cable are threaded through
brass nipples which are soldered or swaged to the cable.

BOWDEN CONTROLS
Adjustment Stop
The remote end of the cable usually passes through a plain stop and is attached
to the component by the cable nipple. The plain stops, which may be fitted to
both ends of the conduit, consist of hexagon headed screws drilled to allow the
cable to pass through. The head of each screw is counterbored to receive the
protective cap fitted over the end of the conduit.
The stops also enable the length of the conduit to be adjusted, thus altering the
tension of the cable.
Connectors
Two types of connector are used. The cable connector is used for joining two
cables only and cannot be employed where a conduit is fitted. It is also used for
joining a length of Bowden cable to a cable of a different type, such as may be
used for long straight runs. The control connector is used for joining two Bowden
controls, as illustrated.
Junction Box
A junction box is used for connecting a single cable to two others where there are
two components to be operated by a single control or where one component is
When the stop is fitted to the remote end of the conduit, it is mounted in a Tee
operated by two controls.
barrel, which must be securely fixed to a rigid member of the airframe. Where it
is inconvenient to fit plain stops at the ends of the conduit, a double ended stop
may be fitted in the length of the conduit.

BOWDEN CONTROLS
A. Inspect the cable ends for fraying or other damage. Frayed cables must
be renewed.
B. Inspect the conduit for kinks and signs of wear, especially at bends and
at the ends.
C. If there is any slackness in the cable, screw out the conduit adjustment
stops until the slackness disappears. After adjustment, make sure that all
components are still in safety and securely locked.
D. Operate the control lever over its full range and ensure that the spring
returns the lever freely and smoothly to its stop.
E. Check the security and locking of mountings and clips.
Installation
1. Conduit: The conduit must be clean, free from kinks or distortion and not
damaged. If damaged, the conduit must be renewed. Any bends in the
conduit should be as large as possible. The minimum radius of bend is
twelve times the diameter of the conduit. Where the cable is connected to a
lever, the alignment should be such that the centre line of the conduit is in
a straight line through the mid position of the rise and fall of the arc of travel
of the lever. If this adjustment is not made, the cable may rub on the edge
of the stop and be worn away. When the conduit has been correctly aligned,
the Tee barrel forming the adjustable stop mounting must be securely locked
in this position. This is important as, should the Tee barrel swivel, the control
will be distorted. The control should be attached to the airframe by pliable
clips. For controls longer than 2 ft., the conduit should be supported every 12
in. The conduit of a Bowden control should never be in tension.
2. Cable: Care must be taken when handling the cable to avoid kinking it, as
this will cause the cable to work harshly in the conduit. The cable must be
clean, free from fraying or corrosion and lubricated with graphited synthetic
grease applied at room temperature (60-70°F.) The grease must be well
rubbed into the interstices of the cable.
3. Servicing: The control should be inspected periodically as follows:

BOWDEN CONTROLS

ELECTRICAL CABLES AND CONNECTORS PART-66 M6 CAT B1
DESIGN
Electrical Cables and Connectors

Introduction Wire types are categorised into different temperature ranges and are manufactured
in accordance with military specifications (Mil):
The installation of the single wire electrical system in aircraft is unique in that
the wire is only used to support the electrical current to the load and then back –– Up to 100/150°C (normal)
through the aluminium structure to the generator or battery. –– Up to 250°C (high temp)
Electrical installation techniques have evolved rapidly with the new electronic –– Up to 400°C (fire resistant)
systems that are used in modern aircraft.
Design
General
A wire is an isolated single copper conductor surrounded by insulation.
A cable is any group of two or more conductors, with or without shielding,
separately insulated and grouped together by an outer sleeve.
Electrical Wires
There are many different types of aircraft wire and cable available from a wide
range of manufacturers. Selection of the correct type, or suitable alternative is
usually made in accordance with the aircraft wiring diagram manuals and general
specifications.
Normally, a stranded copper conductor is used for maximum wire flexibility. The
strands are tinned, nickel plated or silver plated.
Wires with aluminium conductors are only used for large loads (galleys etc.) to
save weight.
A variety of different materials are used for wire and cable insulation. All consist
of high quality plastics and must be:
–– Voltage resistant up to 600V
–– Resistant against all aircraft fluids
–– Highly flexible
–– Strong
–– Light weight

DESIGN
American Standard German Standard Type of wire or cable

MIL-W (e.g.) DIN-Norm (e.g.)
Mil-W 5086 DIN 9251 Copper stranded wire up to 105°C
Mil-C 7078 / Copper stranded wire up to 105°C
Mil-W 16878 DIN 9253 Copper stranded wire below 105°C, (inside boxes only)
Mil-W 7139 / Copper stranded wire up to 250°C
Mil-W 7072 DIN 29900 Aluminum stranded wire up to 150°C
Mil-W 25038 / Copper stranded wire up to 400°C (750°F)
Figure 194: Examples of Wire Categorisation

WIRE AND CABLE TYPES
Wire and Cable Types 4 Cable (multi twisted)
1 Wire
MIL-W-7078
MIL-W-5086 or * MIL-W-7139
Max voltage: 600V
Temperature range: -65°C to +250°C
Max voltage: 600V
Temperature range : -55°C to +105°C
5 Aluminium wire
* -60°C to +250°C
2 Wire
MIL-W-7072 or LN 29900
NSA 935 012 (Type AKA or AKB metric)

Max voltage: 600V
Temperature range: -55°C to +105°C
Max voltage: 600V
Installation of aluminium wires:
- Only for wires larger than size 8
- Not on engines
3 Cable (shielded)
- Not in high vibration areas
MIL-W-7078
Max voltage: 600V


WIRE AND CABLE TYPES
Figure 195: Wire and Cable Types

SHIELDED WIRE
Shielded Wire Coaxial Cable

Shielded wires are used in systems to protect against any outside erratic signals This type of cable is only used to transport high frequency signals, e.g.
or magnetic interference. The shield is around single wires or multi-conductor communication transmitter antenna cables.
cables. Transport of high frequency signals in coaxial cable is best achieved when both
In signal circuits operating below 50KHz, maximum protection is provided by sides of the shield are grounded.
grounding the shield on one side only, to prevent backflow current on the shield Coax cables are manufactured with stranded or single cores in a temperature
due to a difference of potential. range of -40°C up to 84°C (e.g. MIL-C17D).
Exception: The ARINC 429 data bus shielding is grounded on both ends.

COAXIAL CABLE
Figure 196: Shielded and Coaxial Cable Design

IDENTIFICATION PART-66 M6 CAT B1
PART NUMBERS
Identification
Part Numbers
The following examples illustrate the usual ways in which wires and cables are
part numbered.
All aircraft use a wide variety of different wires and cables. Only the original cable
types installed at manufacture or authorised alternatives are to be used.
All aircraft maintenance organisations must guarantee this.
The part number of the wire or cable does not reflect its circuit functionality. This
information is printed on the wire or cable, separate from the part number as
required by ISO 2574. (Ref. manufacturer wire ident. next pages)
Boeing wire type codes see SWPM 20-00-13
Airbus wire type codes see ESPM 20-32-21

PART NUMBERS
Figure 197: BMS Numbering System

PART NUMBERS
Figure 198: Airbus Wire Type Coding

PART NUMBERS
Figure 199: German Standard Sheet DIN 9253

MANUFACTURER WIRE IDENTIFICATION
Manufacturer Wire Identification

Manufacturer Identification System for Electrical Wires
Summary of ISO 2574
Due to the variation in requirements for wire coverings, the minimum size of wire
that can be marked will depend upon the overall diameter and should be stated
in the national individual wire specification.
All single wires and multi conductors (on the red wire only) shall have a
manufactures legend, printed in a contrasting colour, repeated at intervals of 150
to 500mm and containing the following information:
• Specification (wire type)
• Manufacturer
• Country of Origin
• Year of manufacture
• Wire size (AWG)
(Also refer to DIN 29575 and NSA 935000)
Codes for Airbus see ESPM 20 -32 -21

MANUFACTURER WIRE IDENTIFICATION
Figure 200: Manufacturer Wire Identification

SYSTEM WIRE IDENTIFICATION
System Wire Identification

General
To facilitate installation and maintenance wires and cables must carry identification
markings.
The wire identification marking should consist of a combination of letters and
numbers that identify; the circuit it belongs to, its wire size and any other
information to relate the wire to a wiring diagram.
All Aircraft Maintenance Divisions are required to mark all wires with a numbering
system for identification, prior to installation.
Wires are marked using a special wire marking machine. The principle methods
are:
• Mechanical printing with heat and a colour foil
• Ink-jet
• CO2 laser
• UV laser
Wire identification marking – Boeing rules:
• Wires must be marked at each end of the wire, cable or harness within 3 in
(10cm) of the end.
• The maximum marking interval allowed is 72 in (1.8m).
• Marking must be in upper case letters and Arabic numerals.
• Must be easily read at a distance of 15 in (40cm) with ambient room light.
• Must have a minimum contrast measurement of 55 percent
• Is not necessary on a wire that is less than 3 in (10cm) long
Some wires and cables cannot easily be marked without insulation damage. In
these cases, insulation tubing printed with the identification mark can be installed
on the wire or cable. This method is normally used for identifying the following:
• Shielded wire
• Thermocouple wire
• Multiconductor cable
• High temperature wire (with insulation difficult to mark)

SYSTEM WIRE IDENTIFICATION
Figure 201: Wire Marking

AIRBUS WIRE MARKING
Airbus Wire Marking Non -printable cables or cables with Identification Sleeves
(a) Definition
Airbus Wire Marking Rules Non-printable cables are cables that cannot be marked due to their physical
The method by which a cable is marked is determined by the cable category. structure or whose insulation can be damaged by marking (e.g. coaxial
There are three main categories of cables: cables).
This category comprises:
• Printable cables
–– Large gauge cables, AWG 14 and below, shorter than 2500mm (98 in),
• Non-printable cables
with the exception of single wires to AWG 10 that are marked with CO2
• Cables without markings laser
Printable cables: –– Medium gauge cables shorter than 2500mm (98 in), located inside
(a) Definition electronic racks
Printable cables are identified by direct marking of the insulation at regular –– All cables that are marked by hot stamping and are connected to an end
intervals. termination (VN, VG, VC) located in a Skydrol zone (ref. Specific Areas
• This category mainly contains 24 to 6 gauge cables, longer than 75mm (2.95 chapters 20-31-21)
in) and fibre optic cable. –– Sensitive cables identified by code S
(b) Operation (b) Operation
• For single wires, hot stamping or laser marking must be used depending on Non-printable cables are identified with NSA 937201 sleeves.
the coating code. The sleeves shall be adapted to the cable gauge and located as close as
• For shielded and fibre optic cables, laser marking must be used. possible to the terminations, 150mm (6 in) max. These sleeves are white and
printed with the cable identification characters in black.
The full cable length must be marked as follows:
The exception to this rule is the sensitive cables (code S) sleeves which are
• For cables shorter than 2000mm (78.74 in), at a maximum pitch of 75mm
pink printed black.
(2.95 in.)
The minimum character height for all sleeves is 3.2mm (0.13 in).
• For cables longer than 2000mm (78.74 in), at a maximum pitch of 75mm (2.95
in.) within 1m of each end and at a maximum pitch of 380mm (14.96 in) on the Cables without markings
center portion of the cable. Cables without markings are:
(c) Special cases • Cables shorter than 150mm (6 in) and ground pick-up cables (ferrule to ferrule
• If a cable is shortened by modification within the 75mm (2.95 in) pitch zone, a or to connector).
cable identification sleeve must be added at the shortened end. • Circuit breaker monitoring cables (A320 only)
ESPM 20-32-22 • Monitoring cables connecting two adjacent in-line circuit breakers (A330
-A340 only)
• Cables inside small VU’s (BF type-flexible cables)

AIRBUS WIRE MARKING
Figure 202: Airbus Wire Marking

AIRBUS WIRE MARKING
Systems Letter Coding

(Abstract of MIL-W5088 and DIN 29571)
The table below lists a basic method of coding for the first letter in system
identification. A second letter is often used to provide a more detailed system
description.
The second letter coding is listed in the Wiring Diagram Manual and is used as
follows:
SA = Radio Altimeter
I I Second letter: Sub-System: Radio Altimeter
I First letter: System: Radar Navigation
Sometimes, more than one system (e.g. Radio Altimeter) is installed. Additional
systems are coded as follows:
1 SA = Radio Altimeter System # 1
Common usage is also made of the ATA 100 chapter numbering system as
illustrated in the second table below:

AIRBUS WIRE MARKING
Figure 203: System Coding

AIRBUS WIRE MARKING
Boeing Identification
Wire Bundle Number Wire or Cable Number
Every system uses a separate wire bundle number. Sometimes they are divided Each wire in the bundle must have a different number. Wires shorter than 10cm
into electrical and electronic systems. are only numbered if noted in the Wiring Diagram Manual (WDM).
If there are no printable wires inside the wire bundle, a yellow identification wire Boeing uses the following coding for different wire types:
is inserted which is annotated with the bundle number. 001-199 = Single conductors
System Coding Letter 200-299 = Double conductors
As described previously under system coding. 300-399 = Triple conductors
Colour Code 400-499 = Quadruple conductors
Used by multiple conductor cables as illustrated on the next page. 500-... = Special use
Wire Size
Denoted in American Wire Gauge (AWG) reverse numbering system. i.e: Higher
number = smaller wire.

AIRBUS WIRE MARKING
Figure 204: Boeing Wire Numbering

AIRBUS WIRE MARKING
Airbus Identification Colour Code

(Ref. ESPM 20-32-21) A. Colour of shielded and unshielded multi-wire cable elements
Wire Number 1 White
All wires on the aircraft must be identified. A numeric reference system is used 2 Red Blue
which indicates the function of the wire.
3 Red Blue Yellow
Wire identification Rules
4 Red Blue Yellow Green
Wires are identified by two groups of four figures separated by a space. The
5 Red Blue Yellow Green White
first four figures make up the system coding number. The second four figures
represent the number of the wire in the circuit. 6 Red Blue Yellow Green White Black
System Coding Number B. Colour Codes
The first two digits: A Amber
Refer to the ATA 100 chapter numbering system e.g. Chapter 33 = Lighting) B Blue
Digits three and four: BK Black
Refer to the ATA 100 sub-chapter numbering system e.g. Sub chapter 33-13 BR Brown
= Panel lighting C Clear
Wire or Cable Number G Green
Each wire in the ATA chapter must have a unique number. GY Grey
Wires shorter than 10cm are only numbered if noted in the Wiring Diagram O Orange
Manual (WDM).
P Purple
Colour Code
PK Pink
Used for multiple conductor cables and written behind the last digit.
R Red
Wire Size
V Violet
An indication of wire size is not included in the Airbus wire numbering system.
W White
Wire type and size is indicated on the appropriate wiring diagram by means of a
footnote. Y Yellow

AIRBUS WIRE MARKING
Figure 205: Airbus Wire Identification

AIRBUS WIRE MARKING
Special Airbus Regulations

Ground Wires
Ground wires used for single system grounds use the wire identification code
appropriate to the system.
All common grounds used for multiple systems use the ground points ATA
Chapter 2491 (circuit code VN) for identification (see example).
Spare Wires
Spare wires use chapter 2499 for identification.
ARINC Bus Identification
Aeronautical Radio Incorporated (ARINC) 429 data bus cables use numbers
from 7000 to 7999 and the appropriate ATA prefix of the corresponding system
(see example).
Sensitive Wires (Primary Fly by Wire Systems)
The following rules apply for any wires annotated on wiring diagrams with the
letter ’S’ or for wires in a wire bundle wrapped by pink wire ties:
- No modification allowed without a service bulletin from Airbus.
- After modification, full flight control system functional checks must be carried
out prior to the aircraft return to service.

AIRBUS WIRE MARKING
Figure 206: Airbus Special Regulations

CURRENT CARRYING CAPACITY
Current Carrying Capacity

The table below shows the current carrying capacity guidelines for copper and
aluminium wire with different wire sizes.
The maximum current flow specified in this table represents wires in wire bundles
of approx. 30 wires, with an ambient temperature of 20°C.
If the temperature goes down, the maximum possible current in one wire will go
up and vice versa.
If the number of wires in which 100% current is flowing at the same time is lower,
the maximum possible current flow in every other wire will increase.
The exact maximum current flow for a wire is calculated by the manufacturer in
accordance with MIL-W5088 (current rating calculation).
In addition to the American Wire Gauge (AWG) numbering system measured in
inch2, Airbus uses some alternative metric wire cross sections measured in mm2
which have the same AWG.
Wires with metric cross sections are marked with a green dashed line on the
outside of the insulation.
This different cross section measurement under the same AWG does not present
any problems for crimping but requires careful selection of the correct wire
stripping tool.

CURRENT CARRYING CAPACITY
Figure 207: Current Carrying Capacity

AROMATIC POLYIMIDE (AP) INSULATION
Aromatic Polyimide (AP) Insulation Precautions for AP insulated wires (Summary of Advisory Circular (AC) 25-xx
1989)
One of the main aims in modern aircraft is to save weight and space. When
compared to older types of insulation, AP saves approximately 50% weight and To prevent carbon arc tracking the following precautions are to be observed:
30% space thus offering attractive design features. • Care must be taken to prevent damage to the insulation during wire stripping,
AP also has very high temperature resistance. On average it commences to crimping and during installation.
smolder at 815°C. • All looms must be fully supported to prevent movement, which could give rise
Tests have shown however, that under certain conditions live AP insulated wires to wire/wire or wire to structure abrasion. Where contact cannot be prevented,
and cables can be destroyed by a phenomena known as Carbon Arc Tracking. suitable action is to be taken to prevent chafing.
This phenomena falls into two categories: • In-line-splices must be located outside of the loom and the loom below the
splice wrapped prior to installation.
Dry carbon arc tracking is caused by short circuit, wire to wire or wire to
ground, resulting in a build up of carbon deposits on the conductors. This occurs • Physical damage to the insulation material must be immediately rectified by
when the wire insulation is broken down by chaffing or when gaps appear in the repair or replacement.
insulation wraps. The build up of carbon deposits will continue as long as power • Bend radii should be as large as the installation allows to ensure that insulation
is applied until a full power arc is established resulting in destruction of the wire cracking does not occur during the fabrication or installation of wire bundles.
or wire bundle as the AP in the insulation burns. Ideally bend radii should be at least ten times the overall diameter of the
Wet carbon arc tracking has the same result as dry carbon arc tracking but is largest individual wire in the loom, or six times the overall diameter of the
caused when a breakdown in the insulation is contaminated with fluid causing a loom, whichever is the larger.
short circuit wire to wire or wire to ground. • Do not wrap spywrap around the loom to prevent chafing.
• Do not use plastic ties to support the loom without first wrapping the loom with
insulating tape. It is recommended that flat wax binding tape is used for tying
cable looms.
• Plastic cable clamps are not to be used in wing areas. Metal clamps with
appropriate rubber layers may be used.
• It is strictly forbidden to puncture AP wire insulation with a test prod.

AROMATIC POLYIMIDE (AP) INSULATION
Figure 208: ARC Tracking Sensitive Wire

SPECIAL WIRES & CABLES PART-66 M6 CAT B1
THERMOCOUPLE
Special Wires & Cables

Thermocouple
Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT) cable conductors are made of two different
alloys: Chromel and Alumel
These two materials are also used as elements in the thermocouple.
Some older aircraft also use copper and constantan as wire conductor materials
due to the lower resistance and therefore voltage drop of these materials.
To prevent confusion with normal copper conductor twin core cable (insulation
colour red/blue) the conductor insulation colours for thermocouple cables are
different. They are usually white/green but can be white/red or red/yellow but are
never the same as normal twin core cable.
CAUTION
- Repair Alumel wires with Alumel splices only.
- Repair Chromel wires with Chromel splices only.
Ref. SWPM 20-10-13
ESPM 20-43-11

THERMOCOUPLE
Figure 209: Thermocouple Wire

FIRE WARNING WIRES
Fire Warning Wires

All fire warning system wires must have extremely high temperature resistance
and must conform to MIL-W-25038.
The normal temperature range is up to 400°C with a maximum fire resistance of
1093°C (2000°F flame) for 5 minutes.
Fire warning system wire insulation is generally red but can also be white.

FIRE WARNING WIRES
Figure 210: Fire Warning Wires

ELECTRICAL CONNECTORS PART-66 M6 CAT B1
INTRODUCTION
Electrical Connectors
Introduction
Electrical connectors are used to facilitate maintenance when frequent
disconnection is required.
They are categorised by type and class and in the vast majority of cases make
use of crimped contacts. Some connectors with soldered contacts still exist, but
are becoming increasingly rare.
The decision on wether to install pins or sockets at a connector is decided by
establishing which side of the disconnect is live or ’hot’. The hot side will normally
have socket type contacts installed in order to minimise the risk of electric shock.
Connectors generally fall into two basic groups:
• Split shell (disassembled) construction
• Assembled construction
Split shell connectors are identified by AN numbers and, as stated previously, are
divided by type and class with manufacturers variations in each.
There are six basic types of AN connector, which are further broken down into the
five classes indicated below:
Class A – General purpose connector with a solid, one-piece back shell
Class B – Back shell separates into two parts
Class C – Pressurised connector, removeable inserts
Class D – Moisture and vibration resistant. Wires are threaded through tight
-fitting holes in the back shell sealing grommet.
Class K – Fireproof connector
Classes A, B, C, and D – Made of aluminium
Class K – Made of steel

INTRODUCTION
Figure 211: Split Shell Connectors

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION
Figure 212: Split Shell Construction

INTRODUCTION
Assembled Connectors
Assembled connectors are by far the most common connector type.
They consist basically of one part, i.e.; the insert locking mechanism and insulator
are an integral part of the connector shell.
Only the backing clamp is separate and carries a different part number to the
connector. (This applies when ordering parts. The backing clamp does not come
with the connector.)
Assembled connector part numbers generally follow the same convention as that
of split shell connectors as illustrated in the example below.

INTRODUCTION
Figure 213: Assembled Connectors

INTRODUCTION
Exploded View of MS Connectors

The picture below details the component parts of a MS 3106 B connector.
Back-Shell
The back-shell of any connector has to provide the wires with proper support. At
the end of the connector housing a ”follower” provides an interfacial seal as well
as sealing at wire ends.
Typical Strain Relief Clamps:

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION
Connector Installation
Circular connectors, when installed with the axis in a horizontal direction, shall be
positioned so that the master key-way (main groove) is located at the top.
When installed with the axis in a vertical direction, the master key-way shall be
located forward in relation to the aircraft.
1 Shell Size
The shell size is denoted in 1/16 inch. The letter “S” is used for a short housing.
2 Contact Groove Codes

To prevent cross connection, the insert of most connectors can be rotated and
inserted into the shell at manufacture.
3 Contact Arrangement
This is a code for the contact arrangement which is sometimes equal to the
number of contacts (for Boeing aircraft this is always the case).

INTRODUCTION
Figure 214: Contact Groove Codes

CONTACT CONFIGURATION – NUMBERS
Contact Configuration – Numbers

In modern connectors, the contact configuration is usually denoted by either
letters, numbers or a combination of both.
The convention for numbered contact configurations is shown below.
Most connectors use a circle line running from inside to outside, some connectors
however, count from outside to in and some count in columns.
In order to establish which way a line is counting, look for the number adjacent
to the outside contact.
As an additional aid to counting, every 10th contact is circled. SWPM 20-61-00

CONTACT CONFIGURATION – NUMBERS
Figure 215: Contact Arrangements

CONTACT CONFIGURATION – LETTERS
Contact Configuration – Letters

Where the contact configuration is denoted in letters, the number of contacts is
often greater than the number of letters in the alphabet.
For this reason, use is made of the following order of precedence:
• Upper case letters
• Lower case letters
• Double upper case letters
The following graphic illustrates examples of this method of contact marking.
Flag notes are used for clarification.
1 Start at the outer shell, circle inside in alphabetical order.
2 After the last upper case letter ’Z’, the first lower case letter ’a’ is marked
with a circle.
3 After the last lower case letter ’z’, the next contact is ’AA’. This is also
marked with a circle.
4 As some letters are similar to numbers and also to other letters, they are
deleted to prevent confusion. Each time a letter is deleted, it is marked on
the connector by a small slash.
In Wiring Diagrams small letters can be presented in different ways. For instance
lower case ’a’ can be written as follows:
A or – A or < A or A or a

CONTACT CONFIGURATION – LETTERS
Figure 216: Contact Marking

ENVIRONMENTAL SEALING
Environmental Sealing
All connectors are environmentally sealed. The following example illustrates an
assembled connector sealed at three points.
1 This position is sealed when a contact is inserted and locked.
2 This position is sealed across the mating faces of the plug and receptacle.
3 This position is sealed when a wire or seal plug is installed.
Optimum environmental protection is achieved when all three positions are

sealed.

Figure 217: Environmental Seals

Seal Plug Insertion

All unused contact holes must be fitted with nylon or teflon seal plugs.
Unwired Contacts
For crimped contact connectors outside the pressurised area, appropriate
unwired contacts must be fitted, in conjunction with the seal plugs, in order to
provide a full environmental seal.
SWPM 20-60-08
ESPM 20-48-41

Figure 218: Seal Plug Insertion

CONNECTOR ALTERNATIVES
Connector Alternatives
As well as the standard connector part numbers, a number of alternative part
numbers and manufacturers are listed in the standard practices manuals.
Some examples are listed below:
SWPM 20-61-11

CONNECTOR ALTERNATIVES
Figure 219: Examples of Part Numbers

COAXIAL CONNECTORS
Coaxial Connectors
Coaxial cables and connectors are used to interconnect the components in
circuits transporting high frequency signals.
Soldered Coaxial Connectors

This description covers the BNC, C, HN, and LN series:
1. Place nut, washer and gasket over cable. Remove outer jacket of shield.
2. Unbraid and comb out shield. Cut dielectric and conductor to given
dimensions. Tin center conductor.
3. Slide shield clamp over the shield and butt against cable jacket.
4. Fold shield strands back over clamp. Trim braid ends to dimension shown.
5. Place contact on conductor and solder with minimum heat.
Crimped Coaxial Shelf Connector

This type of crimped coaxial connector is used inside shelf receptacles.
• Fig. 1
–– Prepare the cable as shown, and slide the sealing boot and outer ferrule
over the cable.
• Fig. 2
–– Insert the stripped wire into center contact, so that the conductor is visible
through the inspection hole.
–– Select an appropriate crimp tool and locator and crimp contact.
–– Maximum allowable gap between the insulation and the end of the
conductor is 0,030 to 0,060 inch.
• Fig. 3
–– Hold the shielded cable behind the primer-coated area. Insert the contact
wire assembly into the shielded contact body. A properly inserted contact
cannot be removed.
ESPM 20-44-31 20-48-31/32
SWPM 20-53-05 20-71-11

COAXIAL CONNECTORS
Figure 220: Coax Connector Process

POLARISATION KEYS
Polarisation Keys
Most computer shelf receptacles are equipped with polarisation keys to prevent
the wrong computer being inserted into a shelf.
Three posts can be rotated into six different positions so that the shelf and the
computer polarisation keys must match before the computer can be inserted.
The keying code also forms the last two digits of the connector part number.
The shaded area indicates the solid portion of the post.
The un-shaded area indicates the open portion of post.
SWPM 20-71-11 (-12, -14)

ESPM 20-44-21

POLARISATION KEYS
Figure 221: Polarisation Keys

POLARISATION KEYS
Polarisation Coding
The table below illustrates the complete list of polarisation codes for three post
polarisation keys.

POLARISATION KEYS
Figure 222: Polarisation Coding

LOCKWIRING OF ELECTRICAL CONNECTORS
Lockwiring of Electrical Connectors

Non self-locking threaded coupling connectors located in engine nacelles, areas
of high vibration and in areas that are normally inaccessible for maintenance
inspections must be wire-locked.
For this purpose, 0.02 in (0.5mm) diameter, corrosion resistant steel locking wire
(MS 33540) must be used.
1 2 3 Wire locking for split shell connectors.
4 If the receptacle has no holes for wire locking, the plug can be wire
locked to a hole in the surrounding structure provided that the safety wire length
is less than 5.904 in (15cm).
5 Wire locking for coaxial connectors.
The preferred tool for wire locking connectors is the wire locking plier shown
below.
SWPM 20-60-07 ESPM 20-51-12

LOCKWIRING OF ELECTRICAL CONNECTORS
Figure 223: Lock-Wiring

TABLE OF CONTENTS PART-66 M6 CAT B1
Table of Contents High-Strength Low-Alloy Steels....................................................................................... 27

Low Alloy Steels and their Applicable Strength Ranges.................................................. 28
Primary Steels used in Modern Airplanes....................................................................... 29
Materials..................................................................................... 1 Hydrogen Embrittlement Potential................................................................................... 31
General ......................................................................................................................... 1 Steel Alloy Rework Precautions...................................................................................... 33
Abbreviations..................................................................................................................... 1 Process Controls............................................................................................................. 33
Conversions...................................................................................................................... 1 Surface Protection........................................................................................................... 35
Introduction........................................................................................................................ 3 Protective Treatments..................................................................................................... 35
Definitions ......................................................................................................................... 3 Case Hardening of Steel................................................................................................. 37
Poisson‘s Ratio.................................................................................................................. 5 Case Hardening.............................................................................................................. 37
Properties of Materials...................................................................................................... 5 Nitriding ....................................................................................................................... 37
Materials Overview............................................................................................................ 6
Elastic Properties.............................................................................................................. 6
Testing of Aircraft Materials.................................................... 39
Phase Diagrams Metals.................................................................................................... 7 Hardness Testing............................................................................................................. 39
Metal General.................................................................................................................... 8 Introduction...................................................................................................................... 39
Metals of Aircraft Structure................................................................................................ 9 Moh’s Scale..................................................................................................................... 39
Crystal and Cells............................................................................................................. 10 Barcol Tester.................................................................................................................... 43
Material Development..................................................................................................... 12 Riehle Tester.................................................................................................................... 44
General ....................................................................................................................... 12 Ernst Tester..................................................................................................................... 45
Vickers Hardness............................................................................................................ 46
Aircraft Materials – Ferrous.................................................... 14 Measuring Vickers Hardness........................................................................................... 46
Calculating Vickers Hardness.......................................................................................... 46
Steel Applications.................................................................... 14 Advantages of the Vickers Hardness System................................................................. 46
Tensile Strength............................................................................................................... 48
General ....................................................................................................................... 14
Tensile Testing................................................................................................................. 50
Alloying Ingredients......................................................................................................... 17
Impact Testing................................................................................................................. 54
Material Designations...................................................................................................... 19
Introduction...................................................................................................................... 54
Heat Treatment of Steel.................................................................................................. 21
Specimens for Charpy and Izod Testing.......................................................................... 54
Tempering ....................................................................................................................... 21
Fatigue Testing................................................................................................................ 57
Hardening ....................................................................................................................... 21
Introduction...................................................................................................................... 57
Annealing ....................................................................................................................... 21
Normalising..................................................................................................................... 21
Aircraft Materials – Ferrous.................................................... 58
Phase Diagram for Carbon Steel.................................................................................... 22
Quenching....................................................................................................................... 22 Titanium ....................................................................................................................... 58
Corrosion-Resistant (Stainless) Steel............................................................................. 25 General ....................................................................................................................... 58
General ....................................................................................................................... 25 Use in Aircraft Construction............................................................................................. 58
Austenitic ....................................................................................................................... 25 Properties – Titanium...................................................................................................... 60
Ferritic ....................................................................................................................... 25 Corrosion ....................................................................................................................... 60
Martensitic....................................................................................................................... 25 Extreme Heat.................................................................................................................. 60
Advantages / Disadvantages........................................................................................... 25 General ....................................................................................................................... 62
Precipitation-Hardened Stainless Steels......................................................................... 27 Hints for Machining Titanium........................................................................................... 62
Precautions for Working Titanium.................................................................................... 62

For Training Purposes Only Page: I expert solutions, adding value
Aluminium Alloys............................................................................................................. 64 Foaming Adhesive Film................................................................................................. 113

General ....................................................................................................................... 64 Plastic Foams................................................................................................................ 113
Properties of Aluminium.................................................................................................. 66 Thixotropic Agents......................................................................................................... 113
Surface Protection / Cladding.......................................................................................... 67 Micro-Balloons............................................................................................................... 113
of Aluminium Alloys......................................................................................................... 67 Aerosil ..................................................................................................................... 113
Aluminium Alloy Designations......................................................................................... 68 Resin Adhesives............................................................................................................ 115
Non-Heat Treatable Aluminium Alloys............................................................................. 70 Mixing Resins................................................................................................................ 115
Heat Treatable Aluminium Alloys..................................................................................... 70 Thermosetting Resins................................................................................................... 115
Solution Heat Treatment.................................................................................................. 72 Thermoplastic Resins.................................................................................................... 115
Natural Ageing................................................................................................................. 74 Polymer Resins............................................................................................................. 115
Artificial Ageing or Precipitation Hardening..................................................................... 74 Epoxy Resins (Epoxide Resins).................................................................................... 117
System For Heat Treatable Alloys................................................................................... 76 Resins and Hardeners................................................................................................... 117
Magnesium Alloys........................................................................................................... 78 Resin / Hardener Ratios................................................................................................ 117
General ........................................................................................................... 78 Cold and Hot Cure......................................................................................................... 117
Heat Treatment of Magnesium Alloys.............................................................................. 80 Epoxy Hardeners........................................................................................................... 117
Glare (Fibre Metal Laminates)......................................................................................... 82 Resin / Hardener Ratios................................................................................................ 117
Glare Properties.............................................................................................................. 84 Disadvantages of Epoxies............................................................................................. 117
Applications..................................................................................................................... 84 Epoxy Resins Characteristics........................................................................................ 119
Leading Edges................................................................................................................ 84 Surface Wetting and Absorbtion.................................................................................... 121
Blast-Resistant Container................................................................................................ 84 Pre-Treatment for Bonding............................................................................................ 122
Cargo Floors and Liners.................................................................................................. 84
Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic................ 124
Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic.................. 86 General ..................................................................................................................... 124
Abbreviations................................................................................................................... 86 Damage Classification................................................................................................... 126
Conversions.................................................................................................................... 86 Non-Destructive Inspection (NDI) Techniques............................................................... 132
General ....................................................................................................................... 87 Holography.................................................................................................................... 134
Adavantages / Disadvantages......................................................................................... 87 Ultrasonics..................................................................................................................... 134
Reinforcing Materials....................................................................................................... 95 Radiography.................................................................................................................. 136
Matrix Materials............................................................................................................... 99 Repair Types................................................................................................................. 138
Core Material................................................................................................................. 101 Preparation before Repair............................................................................................. 140
Working with Composite Materials................................................................................ 103 Removal of Surface Protection...................................................................................... 142
Electrical Bonding.......................................................................................................... 103 Removal of Damaged Composite Materials.................................................................. 144
Painting ..................................................................................................................... 103 Removal of Core Material.............................................................................................. 144
Safety ..................................................................................................................... 105 Cleaning and Degreasing.............................................................................................. 144
Safety Precautions........................................................................................................ 105 Wet Lay-Up.................................................................................................................... 146
How Plastics are created............................................................................................... 107 Applicable Wet Lay-Up Sequences............................................................................... 148
Polymerisation............................................................................................................... 107 Vacuum Bagging........................................................................................................... 150
Polycondensation.......................................................................................................... 109 Bagging Principles......................................................................................................... 150
Polyaddition................................................................................................................... 109
Adhesive ......................................................................................................................111 Wooden Structures................................................................ 156
Film Adhesives.............................................................................................................. 113 Wooden Wing Construction........................................................................................... 156

For Training Purposes Only Page: II expert solutions, adding value
Inspection of Wooden Structures.................................................................................. 160 Pitting Corrosion............................................................................................................ 246

Timber Conversion – Spruce......................................................................................... 170 Intergranular Corrosion................................................................................................. 248
Repair Materials............................................................................................................ 178 Exfoliation Corrosion..................................................................................................... 250
Synthetic Resin Adhesives............................................................................................ 180 Fretting Corrosion.......................................................................................................... 252
Preparation of Surfaces................................................................................................. 182 Microbial Corrosion....................................................................................................... 254
Conditions for Gluing..................................................................................................... 182 Galvanic Corrosion........................................................................................................ 256
Crevice Corrosion.......................................................................................................... 258
Fabric Covering..................................................................... 194
Introcuction.................................................................................................................... 194 Fasteners – Screw Threads.................................................. 260
Preparation of Structure................................................................................................ 196 Thread Forms................................................................................................................ 260
Seams, Stitches and Stringing...................................................................................... 198 Standard Screw System................................................................................................ 262
Miscellaneous Methods of Fabric Attachment............................................................... 202 Thread Pitch.................................................................................................................. 264
Drainage and Ventilation............................................................................................... 204 Thread Profile................................................................................................................ 264
Inspection Panels.......................................................................................................... 206
Repairs to Fabric Coverings.......................................................................................... 208 Bolts, Studs and Screws....................................................... 266
Checking of Fabric........................................................................................................ 214 Bolts, Nuts and Screws................................................................................................. 266
Laboratory Tests............................................................................................................ 216 Identification.................................................................................................................. 268
Man-Made Fabrics........................................................................................................ 218 Installation of Bolts........................................................................................................ 270
Doping ..................................................................................................................... 220 Studs ..................................................................................................................... 272
Introduction.................................................................................................................... 220 Self-Tapp ing Screws.................................................................................................... 276
Materials ..................................................................................................................... 220 Nuts ..................................................................................................................... 278
Materials (Continued).................................................................................................... 222 Non-Self – Locking Nuts................................................................................................ 278
Safety Precautions........................................................................................................ 223 Locking Nuts.................................................................................................................. 279
Working Conditions....................................................................................................... 224 High-Temperature Self-Locking Nuts............................................................................ 282
Preparation of Prior to Doping....................................................................................... 226 Low-Temperature Self-Locking Nuts............................................................................. 283
Application to Natural Fabric......................................................................................... 228 Heli-Coil Inserts............................................................................................................. 284
Application to Polyester-Fibre Fabric............................................................................ 230
Application to Glass-Fibre Fabric.................................................................................. 231 Fasteners – Locking Devices................................................ 290
Doping Problems........................................................................................................... 232 Safety Methods............................................................................................................. 290
General Considerations................................................................................................. 233 Nuts, Bolts and Screws: Wirelocking Methods.............................................................. 292
Wirelocking.................................................................................................................... 294
Corrosion................................................................................ 234 Locking Devices – Washers.......................................................................................... 298
Electrochemical Action.................................................................................................. 234 Locking Devices – Quick-Release Fasteners................................................................ 300
Microbiological Corrosion.............................................................................................. 234 Locking Devices – Cotter Pins...................................................................................... 304
Stress Corrosion............................................................................................................ 234 Locking Devices – Keys................................................................................................ 306
Effects of Corrosion on Metals...................................................................................... 236
Influence Factors of Corrosion...................................................................................... 236 Fasteners – Aircraft Rivets.................................................... 308
Filiform Corrosion.......................................................................................................... 238 Rivets (Solid Rivets)...................................................................................................... 308
Stress Corrosion............................................................................................................ 240 Rivet Materials............................................................................................................... 310
Electrochemical Action.................................................................................................. 242 Hi-Lok and Hi-Lite.......................................................................................................... 316
Electrochemical Series for Metal................................................................................... 244

For Training Purposes Only Page: III expert solutions, adding value
The Principle of Hi-Lite Fasteners................................................................................. 318 Toothed-Wheel Gears................................................................................................... 407

Taper-Lok ..................................................................................................................... 324 Spur Gears.................................................................................................................... 409
Lockbolt ..................................................................................................................... 326 Bevel Gears................................................................................................................... 411
Cherrylock Blind Rivet................................................................................................... 330 Helical Gears.......................................................................................................................
Cherrymax Blind Rivet................................................................................................... 332 Worm Gears.................................................................................................................. 413
Determination of Fastener Length (Blind Fasteners).................................................... 338 Gear Units..................................................................................................................... 414
Blind Fasteners............................................................................................................. 343 Stepped-Pulley Drive..................................................................................................... 414
Olympic-Lok Rivets....................................................................................................... 347 Toothed-Wheel Gears................................................................................................... 414
Rivnuts ..................................................................................................................... 349 Driving-Key-Type Gears................................................................................................ 416
Infinitely Variable Rotational Speed............................................................................... 417
Pipes and Unions................................................................... 351 Friction Gears................................................................................................................ 417
Rigid and Flexible Pipes (Tubes)................................................................................... 351 Cone Pulley Drive.......................................................................................................... 417
Pipe Identification.......................................................................................................... 353 Transmission Components Control Mechanism............................................................ 419
Tube Fittings.................................................................................................................. 355 Push Rods..................................................................................................................... 421
Flareless Fittings........................................................................................................... 357 Quadrants ..................................................................................................................... 422
Flare-Type Fitting.......................................................................................................... 361 Rotary Selectors............................................................................................................ 423
Tube Damage................................................................................................................ 367
Hoses ..................................................................................................................... 369 Control Cables....................................................................... 424
Hose Installation............................................................................................................ 373 Cable Lines................................................................................................................... 424
Cable Terminals............................................................................................................. 426
Pipes and Union..................................................................... 377 Cable System Components........................................................................................... 427
Fittings ..................................................................................................................... 377 Cable Turnbuckles......................................................................................................... 429
Fuel Fittings................................................................................................................... 382 Flexible Remote Control Systems................................................................................. 431
Teleflex Controls............................................................................................................ 433
Springs................................................................................... 384 Bowden Controls........................................................................................................... 443
Properties of Common Spring Materials....................................................................... 386
Properties of Common Spring Materials....................................................................... 388
Electrical Cables and Connectors........................................ 447
Introduction.................................................................................................................... 447
Bearings................................................................................. 390 Design ..................................................................................................................... 447
General ..................................................................................................................... 390 General ..................................................................................................................... 447
Anti-Friction Bearings.................................................................................................... 392 Electrical Wires.............................................................................................................. 447
Bearing Materials.......................................................................................................... 396 Wire and Cable Types................................................................................................... 449
Radial Bearings............................................................................................................. 396 Shielded Wire................................................................................................................ 451
Coaxial Cable................................................................................................................ 451
Transmission.......................................................................... 398
Identification.......................................................................... 453
General ..................................................................................................................... 398
Control Chains, Chain Wheels and Pulleys................................................................... 400 Part Numbers................................................................................................................ 453
Chain Drives.................................................................................................................. 402 Manufacturer Wire Identification.................................................................................... 457
Couplings ..................................................................................................................... 405 System Wire Identification............................................................................................. 459
Gears ..................................................................................................................... 407 Airbus Wire Marking...................................................................................................... 461
Current Carrying Capacity............................................................................................. 471

For Training Purposes Only Page: IV expert solutions, adding value
Aromatic Polyimide (AP) Insulation............................................................................... 473
Special Wires & Cables......................................................... 475

Thermocouple............................................................................................................... 475
Fire Warning Wires........................................................................................................ 477
Electrical Connectors............................................................ 479

Introduction.................................................................................................................... 479
Contact Configuration – Numbers................................................................................. 487
Contact Configuration – Letters..................................................................................... 489
Environmental Sealing.................................................................................................. 491
Connector Alternatives.................................................................................................. 495
Coaxial Connectors....................................................................................................... 497
Polarisation Keys........................................................................................................... 499
Lockwiring of Electrical Connectors.............................................................................. 503

For Training Purposes Only Page: V expert solutions, adding value
TABLE OF FIGURES PART-66 M6 CAT B1
Table of Figures
Figure 1: Stresses............................................................................................................. 4 Figure 40: Airbus A380 CFRP Applications..................................................................... 92
Figure 2: Crystals and Cells............................................................................................ 11 Figure 41: Airbus A380 QFRP, CFRP & GFRP Applications........................................... 93
Figure 3: Material Development...................................................................................... 13 Figure 42: Advanced Composite Applications: Helicopters............................................. 94
Figure 4: Steel Application............................................................................................... 16 Figure 43: Nomex Flameproof Clothing.......................................................................... 96
Figure 5: Alloying Elements............................................................................................. 18 Figure 44: Different Styles of Re-inforcing Fabrics.......................................................... 98
Figure 6: Material Designations....................................................................................... 20 Figure 45: Prepreg Production Methods....................................................................... 100
Figure 7: Phase Diagram for Plain Carbon Steel............................................................ 23 Figure 46: Core Materials.............................................................................................. 102
Figure 8: Properties of Steel Alloys................................................................................. 24 Figure 47: Lightning Strikes........................................................................................... 104
Figure 9: Steel Components (Landing Gear).................................................................. 26 Figure 48: Composite Safety......................................................................................... 106
Figure 10: Primary Steels used in Modern Airplanes...................................................... 30 Figure 49: Plastic Creation: The Polymerisation Process............................................. 108
Figure 11: Hydrogen Embrittlement................................................................................. 32 Figure 50: Resin Applications........................................................................................ 110
Figure 12: Rework Precautions: Stress Concentrations.................................................. 34 Figure 51: Adhesive Application Example..................................................................... 114
Figure 13: Dissimilar Metals Classification...................................................................... 36 Figure 52: Resin Injection Repairs................................................................................ 116
Figure 14: Nitriding.......................................................................................................... 38 Figure 53: Typical Edge Delamination Repair............................................................... 118
Figure 15: Vickers History............................................................................................... 47 Figure 54: Surface Wetting............................................................................................ 123
Figure 16: Stress/Strain Graph........................................................................................ 49 Figure 55: Composite Damage Evaluation.................................................................... 125
Figure 17: Force-Extension Diagrams............................................................................. 51 Figure 56: Damage Classification................................................................................. 127
Figure 18: Tensile Test-Pieces......................................................................................... 53 Figure 57: Resistance to Lightning Strike...................................................................... 129
Figure 19: Standard Impact Test-Pieces......................................................................... 55 Figure 58: Repair Preparation....................................................................................... 131
Figure 20: Avery-Denison Universal Impact-Testing Machine......................................... 56 Figure 59: NDT Techniques 1........................................................................................ 133
Figure 21: Wohler Fatigue Testing Machine.................................................................... 57 Figure 60: Ultrasonics................................................................................................... 135
Figure 22: Application of Titanium Alloy........................................................................... 59 Figure 61: Radiograph of Laptop Computer.................................................................. 137
Figure 23: Application Of Titanium Alloy.......................................................................... 61 Figure 62: Typical Permitted Repair Process................................................................ 139
Figure 24: Lockheed SR- 71 Blackbird: 85% Titanium............................................. 63 Figure 63: Area Preparation.......................................................................................... 141
Figure 25: Aluminium Base Materials.............................................................................. 65 Figure 64: Removal of Surface Protection.................................................................... 143
Figure 26: Properties of Aluminium................................................................................. 66 Figure 65: Cleaning and Degreasing............................................................................. 145
Figure 27: Cladding of Aluminium Alloys......................................................................... 67 Figure 66: Wet Lay-Up.................................................................................................. 147
Figure 28: Aluminium Association Numbering System.................................................... 69 Figure 67: Wet Lay-Up Sequence................................................................................. 149
Figure 29: Alloying Elements of Aluminium..................................................................... 71 Figure 68: Typical Vacuum Bagging Operation............................................................. 151
Figure 30: Methods of Heat-Treatment........................................................................... 73 Figure 69: Truss-Type Wing.......................................................................................... 157
Figure 31: Temperature Schedule of Heat-Treatment..................................................... 75 Figure 70: Spars for Fabric-Covered Truss-Type Wings............................................... 159
Figure 32: Hardening of Aluminium Alloys....................................................................... 77 Figure 71: Wood Construction Methods........................................................................ 161
Figure 33: Magnesium Alloy Element Identification......................................................... 79 Figure 72: Glue Line Checks......................................................................................... 165
Figure 34: GLARE (GLAss REinforced Laminate).......................................................... 83 Figure 73: Check for Water Penetration........................................................................ 167
Figure 35: GLARE: Potential Aerospace Applications..................................................... 85 Figure 74: Timber Conversion....................................................................................... 171
Figure 36: Boeing 787: World’s First All-Composite Passenger Aircraft.......................... 88 Figure 75: Movement in Wood Once Dried................................................................... 173
Figure 37: Advanced Composite Applications: Primary Structure................................... 89 Figure 76: Cutting Timber.............................................................................................. 175
Figure 38: Advanced Composite Applications: Secondary Structure.............................. 90 Figure 77: Wood Defects............................................................................................... 177
Figure 39: Advanced Composite Applications: Interiors.................................................. 91 Figure 78: Sitka Spruce................................................................................................. 179

For Training Purposes Only Page: VI expert solutions, adding value
Table of Figures PART-66 M6 CAT B1
Figure 79: Observations When Gluing Wood................................................................ 181 Figure 121: Typical Heli-Coil Extractor Tool................................................................... 289
Figure 80: Wing Rib Repairs......................................................................................... 183 Figure 122: Lockwire Material Identification.................................................................. 291
Figure 81: Repair to the Trailing Edge of a Wood Wing Rib.......................................... 185 Figure 123: Typical Wirelocking Examples.................................................................... 293
Figure 82: Repair of a Longitudinal Split in a Wood Wing Spar.................................... 187 Figure 124: Locking of Screws...................................................................................... 295
Figure 83: Repair of Edge Damage to a Solid Wood Wing Spar................................... 189 Figure 125: Locking of Screws...................................................................................... 296
Figure 84: Splice for a Solid Wood Wing Spar.............................................................. 191 Figure 126: Locking of Electric Connectors................................................................... 297
Figure 85: Splice for the Web of a Built-Up Wood Box Spar......................................... 193 Figure 127: Other Locking Devices............................................................................... 299
Figure 86: Types of Machine-Sewn Seams................................................................... 195 Figure 128: Camloc Fastener........................................................................................ 301
Figure 87: Fabric Attachment........................................................................................ 197 Figure 129: Dzus and Airloc Fasteners......................................................................... 303
Figure 88: Seine Knots.................................................................................................. 199 Figure 130: Cotter Pins................................................................................................. 305
Figure 89: Typical Stringing........................................................................................... 201 Figure 131: Keys........................................................................................................... 307
Figure 90: Attachment of Fabric by Strip....................................................................... 203 Figure 132: Head Types of Solid Rivets........................................................................ 309
Figure 91: Drainage Eyelets (Grommets)...................................................................... 205 Figure 133: Rivet Head Identification Markings............................................................. 311
Figure 92: Woods Frame Inspection Panel................................................................... 207 Figure 134: Rivet Heads................................................................................................ 313
Figure 93: Repair of L-Shaped Tear.............................................................................. 209 Figure 135: Rivet Nomenclature.................................................................................... 314
Figure 94: Normal Insertion Repair............................................................................... 211 Figure 136: Part Number Example................................................................................ 315
Figure 95: Alternative Insertion Repair.......................................................................... 213 Figure 105: Hi Lok......................................................................................................... 317
Figure 96: Fabric Tester................................................................................................. 215 Figure 138: Hi-Lok / Hi-Lite Comparison....................................................................... 319
Figure 97: Dope Constituents........................................................................................ 221 Figure 139: Hi-Lok Part Number................................................................................... 320
Figure 98: Ferrous Corrosion: Rust............................................................................... 235 Figure 140: Sequence of Installation: Hi-Loks............................................................... 323
Figure 99: Chemical Corrosion...................................................................................... 237 Figure 141: Taper-Lok Stress Pattern............................................................................ 325
Figure 100: Filiform Corrosion....................................................................................... 239 Figure 142: Lockbolts.................................................................................................... 327
Figure 101: Stress Corrosion........................................................................................ 241 Figure 143: Installation Sequence................................................................................. 329
Figure 102: Electrochemical Corrosion......................................................................... 243 Figure 144: Cherrylock and Cherrylock Bulbed............................................................. 331
Figure 103: Electrochemical Reaction........................................................................... 245 Figure 145: Cherry Max................................................................................................. 333
Figure 104: Pitting Corrosion......................................................................................... 247 Figure 146: Imex / Avdel – Blind Rivets......................................................................... 334
Figure 105: Intergranular Corrosion.............................................................................. 249 Figure 147: Huck Blind Rivet......................................................................................... 335
Figure 106: Exfoliation Corrosion.................................................................................. 251 Figure 148: Jo Bolt........................................................................................................ 336
Figure 107: Fretting Corrosion...................................................................................... 253 Figure 149: Driving Sequence....................................................................................... 337
Figure 108: Microbial Corrosion.................................................................................... 255 Figure 150: Hi-Lok Grip Scale....................................................................................... 340
Figure 109: Galvanic Corrosion..................................................................................... 257 Figure 151: Fastener Length Determination.................................................................. 341
Figure 110: Crevice Corrosion....................................................................................... 259 Figure 152: Bulbed Cherrylock Rivet............................................................................. 344
Figure 111: Features of a Screw Thread....................................................................... 261 Figure 153: CherryMAX Rivet....................................................................................... 346
Figure 112: Screw Threads........................................................................................... 263 Figure 154: Olympic-Lok Rivets.................................................................................... 348
Figure 113: Screw Pitch Gauge..................................................................................... 265 Figure 155: Rivnut – Grip Length Determination........................................................... 350
Figure 114: Types of Fastener Heads and Recesses.................................................... 267 Figure 156: Table: Pipe Material / Diameter / Thickness............................................... 352
Figure 116: Bolt Installation........................................................................................... 271 Figure 157: System Contents Identification................................................................... 354
Figure 117: Stud Insertion / Removal............................................................................ 273 Figure 158: Connection Examples................................................................................ 356
Figure 118: Stud Removal............................................................................................. 275 Figure 159: Single Flare Fittings and Tools................................................................... 362
Figure 119: Heli-Coil Insertion....................................................................................... 285 Figure 160: Flared Fitting Types.................................................................................... 364
Figure 120: Heli-Coil Insertion Data.............................................................................. 287 Figure 161: Damage Tolerances................................................................................... 368

For Training Purposes Only Page: VII expert solutions, adding value
Table of Figures PART-66 M6 CAT B1
Figure 162: Flexible Hoses............................................................................................ 370 Figure 203: System Coding........................................................................................... 464
Figure 163: Re-usable Hose Fittings............................................................................. 372 Figure 204: Boeing Wire Numbering............................................................................. 466
Figure 164: Installation Example 1................................................................................ 374 Figure 205: Airbus Wire Identification............................................................................ 468
Figure 165: Installation Example 2................................................................................ 376 Figure 206: Airbus Special Regulations........................................................................ 470
Figure 166: MS Flareless Fittings.................................................................................. 379 Figure 207: Current Carrying Capacity.......................................................................... 472
Figure 167: Flared Fitting Types.................................................................................... 381 Figure 208: ARC Tracking Sensitive Wire..................................................................... 474
Figure 168: Common Spring Types............................................................................... 385 Figure 209: Thermocouple Wire.................................................................................... 476
Figure 169: Example of Spring Application 1................................................................ 387 Figure 210: Fire Warning Wires..................................................................................... 478
Figure 170: Example of Spring Application 2................................................................ 389 Figure 211: Split Shell Connectors................................................................................ 480
Figure 171: Types of Bearing Loads.............................................................................. 391 Figure 212: Split Shell Construction.............................................................................. 481
Figure 172: Common Anti-Friction Bearing Types......................................................... 393 Figure 213: Assembled Connectors.............................................................................. 483
Figure 173: Tapered Roller Bearing: Advantages.......................................................... 395 Figure 214: Contact Groove Codes............................................................................... 486
Figure 174: Radial Bearings.......................................................................................... 397 Figure 215: Contact Arrangements............................................................................... 488
Figure 175: Typical Chain Assembly Arrangements...................................................... 401 Figure 216: Contact Marking......................................................................................... 490
Figure 176: Chain Drives............................................................................................... 403 Figure 217: Environmental Seals.................................................................................. 492
Figure 177: Chains – Trim Control................................................................................ 404 Figure 218: Seal Plug Insertion..................................................................................... 494
Figure 178: Toothed-Wheel Gears................................................................................ 408 Figure 219: Examples of Part Numbers........................................................................ 496
Figure 179: Bevel Gears............................................................................................... 412 Figure 220: Coax Connector Process........................................................................... 498
Figure 180: Helical and Worm Gears............................................................................ 413 Figure 221: Polarisation Keys....................................................................................... 500
Figure 181: Stepped Pulley Drive / Toothed Wheel Gearing......................................... 415 Figure 222: Polarisation Coding.................................................................................... 502
Figure 182: Driving-Key-Type Gearing.......................................................................... 416 Figure 223: Lock-Wiring................................................................................................ 504
Figure 183: Friction Gear.............................................................................................. 418
Figure 184: Control Mechanism.................................................................................... 420
Figure 185: Rotary Selectors......................................................................................... 423
Figure 186: Build-Up of Cables..................................................................................... 425
Figure 187: Turnbuckles................................................................................................ 430
Figure 188: Typical Remote Control System................................................................. 432
Figure 189: Types of Teleflex Cable and Typical Sliding End Fittings........................... 434
Figure 190: Teleflex System Components..................................................................... 436
Figure 191: Teleflex Distributor Box............................................................................... 438
Figure 192: Teleflex Conduit Connectors...................................................................... 440
Figure 193: Assembly of Teleflex Sliding End Fitting..................................................... 442
Figure 194: Examples of Wire Categorisation............................................................... 448
Figure 195: Wire and Cable Types................................................................................ 450
Figure 196: Shielded and Coaxial Cable Design........................................................... 452
Figure 197: BMS Numbering System............................................................................ 454
Figure 198: Airbus Wire Type Coding............................................................................ 455
Figure 199: German Standard Sheet DIN 9253............................................................ 456
Figure 200: Manufacturer Wire Identification................................................................ 458
Figure 201: Wire Marking.............................................................................................. 460
Figure 202: Airbus Wire Marking................................................................................... 462

For Training Purposes Only Page: VIII expert solutions, adding value

Aviation Technical Training

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Aviation Technical Training

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Aviation Technical Training

Training Manual Fundamentals M6

An EASA Part-147 Approved Training Organisation Approval No UK.147.0046

expert solutions, adding value

Copyright by LRTT Ltd. LRTT Ltd is part of Resource Group. All

Resource Group - Aviation Technical Training

expert solutions, adding value

THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

© LRTT Ltd. Trading as Resource Group

© LRTT Ltd. Trading as Resource Group

© LRTT Ltd. Trading as Resource Group

© LRTT Ltd. Trading as Resource Group

© LRTT Ltd. Trading as Resource Group

THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

© LRTT Ltd. Trading as Resource Group

Proportional Limit (2)

Yield Strength (3)

(Ultimate) Tensile Strength (4)

Breaking Point of Sample (5)

© LRTT Ltd. Trading as Resource Group

Phase Diagrams Metals

© LRTT Ltd. Trading as Resource Group

© LRTT Ltd. Trading as Resource Group

Metals of Aircraft Structure

Material Elements Density kg/m3 Melting Point Intended Use

© LRTT Ltd. Trading as Resource Group

Crystal and Cells

© LRTT Ltd. Trading as Resource Group

Figure 2: Crystals and Cells

© LRTT Ltd. Trading as Resource Group

© LRTT Ltd. Trading as Resource Group

Figure 3: Material Development

© LRTT Ltd. Trading as Resource Group

Aircraft Materials – Ferrous

© LRTT Ltd. Trading as Resource Group

© LRTT Ltd. Trading as Resource Group

Figure 4: Steel Application

© LRTT Ltd. Trading as Resource Group

THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

© LRTT Ltd. Trading as Resource Group

© LRTT Ltd. Trading as Resource Group

Figure 5: Alloying Elements

© LRTT Ltd. Trading as Resource Group

© LRTT Ltd. Trading as Resource Group

Figure 6: Material Designations

© LRTT Ltd. Trading as Resource Group

Heat Treatment of Steel

© LRTT Ltd. Trading as Resource Group

Phase Diagram for Carbon Steel

© LRTT Ltd. Trading as Resource Group

Figure 7: Phase Diagram for Plain Carbon Steel

© LRTT Ltd. Trading as Resource Group

Figure 8: Properties of Steel Alloys

© LRTT Ltd. Trading as Resource Group

Corrosion-Resistant (Stainless) Steel Ferritic

© LRTT Ltd. Trading as Resource Group

Figure 9: Steel Components (Landing Gear)

© LRTT Ltd. Trading as Resource Group

Precipitation-Hardened Stainless Steels

High-Strength Low-Alloy Steels

© LRTT Ltd. Trading as Resource Group

Low Alloy Steels and their Applicable Strength Ranges

125-145 150-170 160-180 180-200 220 MIN 275-300