KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY

EDU 400 CLASS NOTES

Education management and
administration.
By David Miti
0973608345/ 0963337438

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MANAGEMENT
 To succeed in doing something difficult
 Management is all about humans, humans, humans - yes, YOU!
 Involves the act or skills of directing (directing who? Humans) or organizing a given work
at a school, for example; the 'given work' could involve any of the key component of
management: Planning, resourcing, evaluation
 In an education system, it refers to full utilization of available human resource (teachers,
pupils, auxiliary workers) to achieve the set goals/objectives
 So management is all about humans, humans, humans!

ADMINISTRATION
 Unlike management, administration is all about things, things, things! (the way things are
run/managed in a school. So, it's a system - a system of managing things)
 The way the affairs of a school or organization are managed and organized
 The activities that are involved in managing and organizing a particular school (these
activities are abstract)
 The way things/activities are managed in an institution (these 'things' could be human,
material, and financial resources)
 Also a group of people in charge of a given institution, and who manage it's affairs, for
example, the head teacher, deputy head teacher, etc.

MANAGEMENT VS. ADMINISTRATION

Management
 Management is the skill of getting the work done from others
 Management is executive
 Management is middle and lower level
 Concerned with policy implementation
 Works under administration
 Implements the goals and objectives set by the administration
 Puts plans into actions
 Management is action-oriented on a daily basis (meaning, the manager should be present,
involved, and be in control of events at his/her school)
 Management must be visible (meaning that the headteacher, as a manager, must be seen
running the school effectively in order to be a role model and inspire others)
 Management focuses on managing or directing people and their work,
Administration
 Administration is the process of administering an institution by a group of people
 Administration is decisive
 Administration is top level
 Concerned with policy formulation
 Has full control over the activities of the organization
 Sets goals and objectives

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  Comes up with plans
 Administration confines itself to the system which is always abstract
 Administration is not always visible
 Administration focuses on making the best utilization of the organization's resources
(human, material, and financial resources)
 Administration relates to managing of different things

FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT AND ADMINISTRATION

 Planning: looking ahead and deciding in advance the most appropriate course of action for
the achievement of predetermined goals; requires an active participation of the entire
organization; it takes the organization's available resources, and personnel into
consideration to guarantee continuity
 Organizing: making sure that human and nonhuman resources are put into place; an
institution can only function well if it is well-organized. This means that there must be
sufficient capital and staff so that the institution can run smoothly and that it can build a
good working structure
 Commanding/Directing: to determine what must be done and getting people to do it; when
given orders and clear working instructions, employee’s wiII, know exactly what is
required of them. Successful managers communicate clearly and are capable of motivating
a team and encouraging employees to take initiative
 Coordinating: when all activities are harmonized, the organization will function better
 Controlling: verifying whether everything is going according to plan, then ensuring that
activities are carried out in conformity with the plan
 Evaluation: measuring and assessing the achievement of objectives
 To ensure that human, material, and financial input is fully utilized to attain the objectives
of the educational system. The educational manager uses these resources to administer an
institution

ROLES OF AN EDUCATIONAL MANAGER

 To identify weaknesses and problems
 To find the solution for such weaknesses and problems
 To identify the needs of the institution
 To find ways of meeting those needs
 To plan objectives and policies
 strategies on how to effect those objectives and policies
 monitor day-to-day works/operations in the school
 To offer guidance in those daily works/operations at the school
 To create projects in an institution
 To evaluate the performance and progress of the school

COMPONENTS OF EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT AND ADMINISTRATION

 Forecasting: assessing the future by inference from known facts, then taking a step to plan
ahead

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  Planning: a process of deciding in advance what to do, when to do, and how to do
something; the plan should be flexible
 Decision-making: a step taken after planning; the consequences of the step to be taken must
be weighed carefully
 Motivation: the drive and the reason for doing something
 Organization: when human effort, material, and equipment are combined and brought
together to accomplish a given task
 direction (the vision and mission statement): guiding human resource and its efforts to
achieve set goals
 control and management: the administrator must be in full control of his team's
performance to ensure that it corresponds to the standards set
 coordination: harmonizing all elements of an educational system
 reporting and reviewing: keeping records of all happenings in the school
 assessment and evaluation: to find out how an activity was done

GOOD CHARACTERISTICS OF EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT AND

ADMINISTRATION
 Flexibility: a good administration must be dynamic
 Practicality: objectives and goals set must be achievable, realistic, and practicable to avoid
frustration among the staff; Practical measures must be provided by an administration in
order for an institution to achieve its desired objectives
 Efficiency: human and material resources are utilized efficiently for maximum results
 Conformity to the social, economic, and political ideology of the day: the style of
administration must conform to the social, economic, and political ideology of the
government of the day

MANAGERIAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE SKILLS

 Proper communication
 Respect
 Compromise
 Good foundation in decision-making
 Ensure that the flow of resources is smooth and transparent
 Encourage innovation, discovery, and creativity which might lead to technological
breakthrough
 have well-trained admins and managers in sufficient number to organize the public, where
technological progress is taking place
 respond appropriately to public needs by changing mode of organizing
 Service programs should be evaluated, and reviewed with precision

THEORIES AND MODELS IN EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT AND

ADMINISTRATION
In order to run the school effectively, you as the manager need to employ one of the many theories
and approaches in educational management and administration depending on the need and
problem at hand. This is known as triangulation

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It is a body of knowledge that explains how the education system in run
These theories provide leadership framework or models, (e.g. Participatory, Autocratic.)
1. THE CLASSICAL ORGANIZATION THEORY
 This theory includes the scientific management approach and the bureaucratic approach.
 more emphasis is on the organization rather than the employees working therein
 focuses on the structuring of the overall organization
 Emphasis is on specialization and coordination
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CLASSICAL
THEORY
 More concerned with the amount of output than the human beings
 Human beings are considered homogeneous and unmodifiable
 It is assumed that employees are relatively stable in terms of the change in an organization
 Human beings are just considered as a means of production
2. SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT APPROACH
 Emphasizes efficiency
 focuses on increasing productivity
 efficient division of labor
 Looks at work methods that will improve the efficiency of the workers and the organization
 For increased productivity, employers should reward workers, rather than scolding them
for every minor mistake
 productivity level increases only when there is mutual trust between management and
workers
 Encourages the use of technology for efficiency and effectiveness
PRINCIPLES OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT THEORY
 Look at each job or task scientifically to determine the "best way" to perform the job.
Rather than assigning an entire project to one individual, managers break down larger tasks
into smaller parts. These subtasks are meant to make the process more organized and
efficient, with multiple employees working on one assignment - each taking care of their
own piece. A change from the previous "rule of thumb" method where workers devised
their own ways to do the job
 Hire the right workers with the right skills and abilities for each job, and train them to work
at maximum efficiency
 Monitor worker performance, and provide instruction and training when needed
 Divide the work between management and labor so that management can plan and train,
and workers can execute the task efficiently
3. BUREAUCRATIC APPROACH

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looks at the structuring of an organization into a hierarchy (Top-low), and having clearly defined
rules that govern an organization and its members
CHARACTERISTICS OF BUREAUCRACY
 Formal rules: written guidelines that will control all the employees' behavior
 Specialization: everyone has a specific job to do and often becomes an expert at it.
 Impersonal treatment: favoritism is to be avoided; it's based on positions and not on
personalities
 Division of labor: a task is broken down into parts, and different people work on different
parts of the task. Tasks are performed by individuals with the appropriate skills
 Hierarchy: a clear chain of command. Every worker has a place in the chain, and everyone's
work is overseen by a top level authority. Power flows from the top authority to the bottom.
 Authority: decision making is determined by one's position in the hierarchy. top ones have
more authority over those in the lower ranking positions
 Selection and promotion are based on qualification
4. HUMAN RELATIONS THEORY
this theory rejects the scientific management approach and focuses instead on social
factors/conditions that exist in the working place
Task performance is greatly influenced by the way employees are treated by management and the
relationship they have with each other

HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

 Resource management: one of the functions of the school manager or organization or any
institution; it is the ability to make more sufficient use of the available resources in order
to achieve predetermined educational aims; in every institution, there are resources a head
of institution is expected to manage, such as human resource, time, financial, material/
infrastructure, and conflict
 Human resource: the workers or people at a place of work such as a school or any other
organization Human resources in schools consists of teachers, pupils, and the general
workers
 Human resource management: the way employees are managed/administered or looked
after in their daily work; it ensures effective and efficient use of human talents to
accomplish organizational goals
 The three universal or common factors/elements that are part of an organization and human
resource management are people, objectives, and structures (the administrative system or
bureaucracy)

OBJECTIVES OF HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

 good working conditions/environment at places of work
 equity among workers
 respect for workers and learners
 maintaining good human relationship at the work place

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  recognition of people's needs and expectations at work
 fairness in the treatment of all workers
 Stability of employment

FUNCTIONS OF A HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGER

 Recruitment of teachers
 Recommendation of promotion of teachers
 Transfer of teachers facilitation
 In charge of the wellbeing of staff and their development
 Appraising of teachers
 Awarding teachers
 Staff maintenance: Making the environment conducive for workers by coming up with a
good system of promotions, transfers, ensuring staff safety, and health services
 Staff relations: the manger has to see to it that there is a good communication network for
informing everyone of what is happening in the school. The head should also encourage
the workers to participate in planning and decision making
 Staff development: providing developmental programs and training courses that are
suitable for the institution. The manager should provide in-service workshops, and also be
able to send staff out for exploits
 Staff recruitment: managers also participate in the recruitment of teachers. This happens
when the school is lacking some subject teachers. It is the duty of the head to make
recommendations

IMPORTANCE OF HUMAN RESOURCE TO A MANAGER

 It helps them not to hire wrong people to do the job
 It prevents them from having people who are not doing their best
 It prevents them from treating people unfairly because of cultural issues
 The organization has a high turnover of labor

CHALLENGES OF HUMAN RESOURCE

 Poor working conditions
 Problem of staffing due to poor recruitment process (in quality and quantity)
 Little or no indication of human resource
 Frequent transfer of teachers
 Poor supervision

HOW TO MOTIVATE AS A SCHOOL MANAGER

 provide transport to workers to and fro
 give awards at Labor Day or on any other important day
 have end of year parties
 go for field trips
 provide tea
 have a canteen
 provide soft loans

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  give bonuses
 give awards to students who do well in academic or sports activities

WHY MOTIVATE AS A SCHOOL MANAGER?

 Improves morale of staff
 Improves productivity
 Promotes sense of belonging and responsibility
 Helps people to do their best, willingly and happily

FINANCIAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

 Financial resource: Money for the organization or school
 Financial resource management: the way of handling money in an institution; the planning,
organizing, controlling, and monitoring of finances with a view of achieving institutional
goals and objectives

SOURCES OF INCOME FOR AN EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

 User fees from students
 Grants from the government
 Projects (school tuck shop, production unit, etc.)
 Donations
 P.T.A. contributions

THE ROLE OF THE HEAD OF AN INSTITUTION AS A FINANCIAL CONTROLLER

 Source for funds of the school
 To monitor and control the utilization of funds
 To approve the use of funds in an institution
 To keep records of financial documents and avail them when needed
 To make a school budget
 To monitor the accounting records and prepare

FINANCIAL RECORDS THAT ARE SUPPOSED TO BE KEPT PROPERLY IN SCHOOL

 Receipt book: they show that a transaction has taken place; any money collected or received
must be acknowledged by the issuance of the receipt
 Cashbooks: records showing money received and money paid out by a particular institution
 Importance of cashbooks
 They show the standing of the school account
 They enable the school to account for all monies received and paid out
 Facilitate auditing of the school accounts
 They promote accountability
 They facilitate planning of school activities
 Bank records: for every bank transfer, a document is given (either money is deposited or
withdrawn a document is given)
 Bank statement: given monthly to audit and ensure that transactions took place accordingly

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BUDGET
 A financial plan with an estimate of the amount of money to be received and the amount
of money to be spent in order to achieve educational goals/objectives
 It is the role of the head teacher to plan, direct activities, to determine, mobilize, and acquire
financial resources in order to successfully implement the school development plan

COMPONENTS OF THE SCHOOL BUDGET

 It should have a broad statement of goals and objectives that a school intends to achieve
 It should have a brief history of the school which should state the achievement, existing
educational programs, and propose program for the financial year
 It should have a summary of the proposed expenditure and income which should be broken
into a detailed manner
 It should have a comparative analysis of previous budget to show the increase and
decreases

STEPS TO FOLLOW WHEN PREPARING A SCHOOL BUDGET

 Heads of departments prepare and submit a list of items or activities for the next school
year with the estimated cost
 A detailed list of expected expenditure should be drawn with consultation from other staff
members and the school management
 The list is assembled and reviewed during special meetings
 The head teacher, together with the accountant, should prepare a list of the sources of
income
 Balancing of income and expenditure is done. If the income is less than the expenditure,
the budget is then adjusted to balance it.
 After the balancing of income and expenditure, the budget is made
 After the budget has been made, the head teacher presents it to the school management
committee and board for approval. Then the copies are sent to the DEBS' office and the
PEO.
 Once approved, the budget can now be implemented
 Note: Even if the budget is implemented, there should be room for adjustment if need be

IMPORTANCE OF THE SCHOOL BUDGET

 Proper accountability of school funds and property
 Helps identify areas of need
 Coordinates different units and departments towards the achieving of common goals of the
school
 Helps in reconsideration of goals and objectives
 It encourages prudence in the use of money and it enhances the use of materials and
facilities
 It helps in reexamining of school operations and research on the best means of attaining
maximum results from limited resources
 It helps in ensuring efficiency in accounting procedure
 It helps in the assigning of responsibilities of the school functions to the right people

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  It helps to verify the school financial position disclosed by the balance sheet

THE PRINCIPLES OF BUDGETING

 Planning: for efficient work, planning is essential
 Research: after planning, research (meaning determine the needs and resources from
various sources)
 Balancing the budget: the expenditure should be balanced with the income
 Control: careful supervision of the financial flow to various departments
 Administrator's discretion: the management effecting/implementing a budget must enjoy
certain degree of discretion
 Annularity: money is to spent to the various departments and executives for one year. Any
amount left should not be spent until it is further approved for the nest budget year
 Executive responsibility:
 Rule of lapse:
 Classification:
 Unity:
 Be conservative not optimistic: avoid budgeting on the basis that everything will turn out
as expected. Therefore, always insert an additional expense called "contingencies" for any
emergency or need that arises
 Team work and consultation: budgeting requires teamwork and consultation
 Allow plenty of time: a good budget may be worked on for several weeks, if not months,
adding and changing figures as new information comes to light
 Excellence in documentation: the authors of a budget should strive to produce documents
that can be read and understood by anyone
 Provide training: ensure people who have a significant role in the budgeting process have
a reasonable understanding of the principles of budgeting, how it relates to the set
goals/objectives. And how everyone must live with the consequences of the finalized
budget in the year ahead
 Get sign off: ensure that all persons formally involved in the budgeting process agree to
the final iteration of the budget

MATERIAL/INFRASTRUCTURE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

 Material resources (also called movable resources): textbooks, computers, chairs, desks,
etc. (managed or maintained by recording these in a stock book (see Record Management),
index them, and code them for easy identification; offices should have an updated
inventory - a card that lists the items in that office)
 Physical/infrastructure resources (also called immovable resources): buildings such as
classrooms, teachers' houses, library, school grounds (ensuring that the grounds are free
from litter; edge the school boundary with plants to keep away from animals or trespassers,
and vandalists)

PRINCIPLES OF PHYSICAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT/ OR PRINCIPLES OF

MANAGING SCHOOL BUILDINGS
 Keep the school buildings clean

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  Keep the school buildings tidy (there must be a well arranged place for everything in a
building)
 Beautify the school buildings (flowers, tree planting, etc.)
 Look after what you have

RECORD MANAGEMENT
 The way school records are kept and stored
 Kept in the school's registry office, or in the head or deputy's office
 School records are a valuable source of information about the achievement and history of
an institution

CATEGORIES OF SCHOOL RECORDS

 Open records: can be accessed by anybody or anyone
 Confidential records: are only handled by the head of the school

TYPES OF SCHOOL RECORDS

• There are two types:
1. Ones showing attendance in a school, such as:
 the admission register (indicates the day you entered the school and the day you will leave
the school, even details for parents)
 Class register (kept by the class teacher)
 Staff attendance register
2. The other shows what goes on in the school, such as:
 The log book (shows the events that take place in the school)
 Visitors' book
 Examination records
 Timetables
 Correspondents' files (such as letters or circulars from the M.O.E.)
 Minutes' files
 Confidential files
 Stock books
 Teachers'performance file
 Supervision and inspection files

IMPORTANCE OF SCHOOL RECORDS

 Helps to locate pupils' information quickly
 Helps to explain and remove undesirable conditions
 They are a legal requirement
 Financial needs (they help in coming up with financial needs for the institution)
 Administrative needs
 Research needs
 For future reference

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  Efficient working

TIME RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

 Utilizing time to the maximum advantage

HOW TO MANAGE TIME

 Being time conscious and punctual all the time
 Working through committees
 Maintain discipline (discipline improves relationships; facilitates attainment of
institutional goals; saves time)
 Plan your activities
 By following the time table strictly (time table saves time because it helps the teacher to
know the time and location of a period; prevents collisions, frictions, and duplications; it
also facilitates the supervision of the teacher's works)
 Be a good communicator (saves time; best services are provided; ensures that all employees
understand changes in an organization, as well as plans and objectives; also allows the
teaching and learning process, and other school programs to take place on time; it also
enhances interpersonal relationships)
 Delegation of duties (the manager is relieved off of less important responsibilities in order
to concentrate on more important duties; saves time)
 Time can also be well managed by using good conflict management styles

CONFLICT MANAGEMENT
 Managing conflicts, differences that arises in the working environment by management

GOOD CONFLICT MANAGEMENT STYLES

 Accommodation: dealing the problem with an element of self-sacrifice (one person coming
down for the sake of peace and for oneself and for others)
 Avoiding: one person withdraws or keeps quiet to avoid conflict
 Collaborating: this is where you aim at finding a solution by cooperating through other
parties involved
 Compromising: involves coming up with a resolution which makes two parties calmer. It
is a mutual give and take scenario

STRUCTURES OF ORGANIZATIONS
 The approved chain of command and channel of communication in an organization
 To enhance good management in an organization such as a school, there must be clear
strategies (approaches/techniques) and ethics (dos and don'ts or code of conduct in every
organization or profession)
EXAMPLES OF DO'S
 Confidentiality
 Dependability
 Reliability

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  Punctuality
 Good rapport with pupils
EXAMPLES OF DONT'S
 Stealing
 Fighting
 Vandalism
 Sex with pupils
 Reporting for work drunk

STRUCTURES IN THE MINISTRY OF GENERAL EDUCATION

 The Permanent Secretary: found at the M.O.E. headquarters
 Directorates: the office of the P.S. has five directorates, namely: Planning and information
Standards and curriculum development Open learning and distance education Teacher
education and specialized services Human resource management and administration
 Provincial Education Offices: located in all the ten provincial capitals. Headed by the
Provincial Education Officer who is assisted by the Provincial Education Standards Officer
(PESO), the Senior Planning Officer, Accountant, the Senior Education Standards Officer
(SESO), and others.
 District Education Offices: located in all districts; headed by the District Education Board
Secretary (DEBS). He is assisted by the District Education Standards Officer (DESO), the
Education Standards Officer (ESO), an accountant, the Human Resource Officer, and
others.
 Teacher Resource Centers: these are there to support the services of all teachers, DEBS,
and PEO's offices.
 Schools: headed by head teacher > deputy head teacher > senior teachers > head of
departments > teachers > pupils > auxiliary staff

THE STRUCTURE OF THE SCHOOL

 Head teacher
 Deputy head teacher
 Head of department
 HOS
 Teacher
 Pupil
 Workers

WHY A SCHOOL IS AN ORGANIZATION

 It provides services in education
 It has a clear vision, aims, targets, and objectives
 They have management structures, and bureaucracy
 They employ various theories and motivational techniques
 They process inputs (pupils) into outputs (graduates) in response to the needs of the society

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  They provide supervisory functions needed to measure or evaluate their performance in
relation to their established goals
 In schools, teachers are entrusted with the responsibility of leading, planning, directing,
organizing, and making policies in order to attain the set goals

ADVANTAGES OF THESE STRUCTURES

 They promote specialization/division of labor
 The promote accountability
 They provide checks and balances
 They provide a clear hierarchy
 They promote bureaucracy

LEADERSHIP
 A leader is someone who guides and facilitates development

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD LEADERSHIP

 responsible
 making wise decisions
 desire for knowledge
 highly motivated
 has ability to influence others
 is original, not just an imitation
 self-confident
 flexible
 broadminded
 inspirational
 trustworthy
 has ambition and initiates projects and ideas
 completes tasks to the satisfaction of the supervisor

DUTIES OF A LEADER
 make decisions
 consultations
 coordinator
 guardian
 delegator
 human relations practitioner
 public relations officer
 symbol of authority

STYLES OF LEADERSHIPS
1. Democratic: participation by all; believes in collaboration in decision making
2. Advantages:
 makes people happy

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  gives platform for new ideas and projects
 members of the organization feel appreciated
 encourages delegation of duties
 encourages specialization
 workers may work without supervision
Disadvantages:
 Hierarchy may make things take long
 There is element of favoritism
 Promotes laziness in workers
2. Autocratic: an individual makes decisions
Advantages:
 Decisions are made quickly
 No favoritism because the leader can assign anyone for any position
 Leaders take responsibility of every decision they make
Disadvantages:
 Abuse of authority
 Gives no platform for new ideas, and projects
 Lack of creative solutions
3. Dictatorship: the opposite of democracy; it is rule by force and absolute power
Advantages:
 Things get to be done quickly Disadvantages:
 Less development
 Employees work out of fear
GOOD LEADERSHIP
 Encourages creativity among the staff
 Improves work ethics in the institution
 Brings out a sense of belonging to the institution
 Supports institutional programs
 Fosters commitment
 Provides a platform for shared vision with the staff
 Acts as an inspiration and motivation to the staff
 Trains staff in order to prepare them for leadership in the future

ORGANIZATIONAL MANAGEMENT
 The way organizations (universities, colleges, high schools, etc.) are run by corporate

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COMPONENTS OF ORGANIZATIONAL MANAGEMENT
 Organization Control: Establishing and maintaining authority over and throughout an
institution through departments
 Organizational Power: The influence a school has to the learners, workers, community, and
the nation. This results in competence, reliability, commitment, and development; it also
includes developing rules, guidelines, procedures, and limits to other protocols in order to
direct the work.
 Culture: a people's whole way of life. It includes ideas, beliefs, and practices accepted as
normal by members of a community; Work places such as the school also constitute a
community with its own working culture which may include cleanliness, punctuality,
confidentiality, reliability, dedication, honesty, and hard work; organization culture affects
the way people and groups interact with each other . It may also affect how much
employees identify themselves with the school)
 Change: the way an organization is run/managed has to eventually change after some time
to accommodate new trends and innovations; Nothing is permanent in an organization
except change; Any management system that is static is bound to fail

BENEFITS OF CHANGE
 Better utilization of resources
 Improvement in human relations
 Level of motivation is enhanced
 Meaningful participation and commitment among staff in the changing process

WHAT COULD CHANGE IN EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT?

 change in administration
 change in policy
 design of new learning and teaching materials
 Embracing the use of I.C.T.
 reviewing the school curriculum from time to time
 encouraging innovation and creativity in learning and teaching methods

SOURCES OF CHANGE
 superiors and/or subordinates
 bad economy
 fierce competition
 politics (i.e. change of government)
 new technology

MANAGEMENT OF CHANGE IN SCHOOLS

 Management of change in schools involves:
 Understanding the sources or forces of change
 Being able to recognize the need for change
 The nation developing a plan with clear strategies for change

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HOW TO IDENTIFY THE NEED FOR CHANGE
 If the organization does not carry out its specific function
 If there is need for further improvement in a certain area
 By carrying out a research/evaluation

TO ENCOURAGE ADOPTION OF CHANGE IN AN ORGANIZATION, IT IS IMPORTANT

TO:
 Inform the staff in advance about the change (Communication)
 Involve the staff in the planning process (Participation)
 Give staff sufficient time to adopt the change
 build confidence in people who would be feeling inadequate because of the change
 share the benefits of the change with the staff
 ensure availability of resources

RESISTANCE TO CHANGE IN AN ORGANIZATION

 Fear of the unknown
 Lack of information
 Threat to status
 No perceived benefits
 Poor relationships
 Fear of failing
 Peer pressure

POSSIBLE REACTIONS TO CHANGE

 Depression
 Denial
 Resistance
 Anger
 Acceptance

THE METHODS OF BRINGING ABOUT CHANGE IN AN INSTITUTION

 Forming committees (e.g. sports committee, disciplinary committee, etc.) for teachers to
discuss issues at hand
 Creating workshops, seminars, and advanced studies where staff can be sent to discuss the
pending change
 Encourage intergroup meetings (ZAFES, BETUZ, etc.)

PLANNING IN EDUCATION
 Planning: a process of focusing on the decisions mad and what will be involved and how
the implementation will be made; it is goal or objective-oriented, it actualizes the goal; it
focuses on the future, and it may include a few activities which may take place in the
present, but its main aspect is the future
 In the Ministry of Education, planning takes place from the lower level to the highest level.
The planning process is regulated with certain documents. For example, a teacher is guided

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 with documents like the syllabus, schemes of work, and the curriculum. The head teacher
uses the financial regulatory document, strategic plan, and the government policy. These
help the head teacher to plan.
 Education planning: examining the current system of education I order to identify areas
that need improvement

HOW PLANNING IS DONE

 Planning is not done only at one level and then left, but at different levels; it is a continuous
process
 There is an aspect of implementation and reimplementation process: Implementation
occurs at the beginning when you are implementing the idea for the first time. But when
you implement an idea or plan, then you discover that things did not go on right, you
reimplement
 The process of planning is as follows: formulating goals and objectives > establishing the
path of achieving the set goals and objectives > execution/implementation > evaluation of
performance

REASONS FOR PLANNING

 Because resources are not enough; to ensures that there is prudent utilization of the little
resources
 Helps us to prioritize the most important things
 It create information to be used in budgeting
 Provides checks and balances in activity implementation

THE PROCESS OF PLANNING

 Centralized planning: one body or organ makes decisions for the rest. Also called the top-
bottom approach (for example, the Ministry of Education - it makes decisions and
implements it in an authoritative kind of planning)
 Decentralized planning: powers of planning have been distributed to lower bodies of an
organization to make decisions also. This is called the bottom-up approach (for example,
in a school, teachers develop individual work plans that shows what they want to do in a
year)

APPROACHES USED IN PLANNING

1. STRATEGIC PLANNING
It is forecasting into the future by developing a long term plan which results out of critical analysis
of an institution
 There are steps that are performed:
 Conducting a situational analysis
 Developing the vision of an institution
 Developing the mission statement of an institution
 Developing the value statement of the institution
 Conducting a S.W.O.T. analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats)

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1. Situational analysis
an activity conducted to look at where the institution is located
When conducting a situational analysis, you also need to look at the history of an institution and
the contribution it has made
Looks at the performance of the institution
2. Developing the vision
 A vision is a direction
3. Mission statement
 Supports the vision
 It states the mandate of an institution
4. Value statement
 A value is something that one is ready to make sacrifices just for that particular thing
 Every institution must have values
5. The S.W.O.T. analysis
 A deep analysis of an institution. Looks at the:
 Strengths: availability of infrastructure, teachers, land, books, pupils, etc.
 Weaknesses: few teachers, or teachers who are not well trained and dedicated, small land
 Opportunities: things that are there, but have not been made use of, or utilized. For
example, parents, good will from the politicians, availability of water, etc.
 Threats: outside influences that are likely to destroy the institution. They are competitors.
For example, vandalism. After identifying the threat, there is need to find a way to curb the
threat
2. NORMATIVE PLANNING
 Planning that is done by policy makers at the highest body/organ of an institution.
 Usually it's a body of politicians
 The minister and his directory make decisions
 The decisions are anchored on two things:
 The ideology of the political party to the ministry
 The party's manifesto
 Normative planning is expense oriented
3. OPERATIONAL PLANNING
 Done over a short period of time with a focus on getting things done
 It is planning on how to implement the policies or decisions that have been made made
 Hence, the planning is action-oriented

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WHAT LEADS TO FAILURE FOR GETTING THINGS DONE
 Lack of resources
 Overambitious activities. There is need for setting attainable goals
 Lack of commitment by the human resource to their functions and tasks
CHARACTERISTICS OF EDUCATIONAL PLANNING
 it is concerned with the future development
 tries to understand the present in order to plan for the future
 it gives the organization a measure of control and influence over its destiny
THE PROCESS OF PLANNING
Three approaches to the process of planning:
1. THE SOCIAL DEMAND APPROACH
 Here the perspective is that education is a social service just like any other service like
health, provision of good roads.
 Since it's a service, it is on demand. Hence the focus is on quantity and not quality, allowing
many people to get into schools (access) and get educated
 This kind of thinking is based on the ideology of a socialist kind of government (The people
(society) demand and the government provide)
2. THE MANPOWER REQUIREMENT APPROACH
 It is based on human resource development as key in the development of education
 Human resource is needed in order to meet the demands of the country's different sector
 The main argument is that trained manpower is key to the running of an economy
 Planning focuses on the present and the future
3. THE COST BENEFIT APPROACH
 The approach is based on the view that before you embark on an activity or project, you
need to count the cost and weigh the cost against the expected benefit
 If the cost outweighs the benefit, abandon the project. If the benefits outweigh the cost,
then the activity is worth it and must continue
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN AND VISION 2030
 The first NDP was from 1966-1970
 The sixth NDP is called the sixth revised plan; it is a plan that was under the MMD
 The seventh one is focusing on the Human—
 It raises up the strategies on how the government is going to develop the economy Things
to consider when looking at the NDP:
 Theme of the plan
 Strategy
 sector

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VISION 2030
 An agreed section by all countries and guided by their themes
 Each country has its own theme
 Zambia's theme is A Prosperous Middle-Income Nation'
STRATEGIES USED IN ORDER TO ATTAIN THE PLANNED GOALS
1. Education: the focus is on the pillars of education. These are:
 Access: There should be free access to education from elementary to university
 Quality education provision: to accomplish this, the government established the Teaching
Council of Zambia
 Creation of higher education authority: these monitor higher institutions and ensure that
there is quality in these institutions
 The Zambia Qualification Authority: looks at the qualifications of Zambians and foreigners
who desire to work in the country
 Establishing more public universities to develop human resource
 Participation: everyone must be free to participate in education. To achieve this, there is
got be free education, loans at universities, and the introduction of OVC
 Introduction of special education at all levels; inclusive education is also another strategy
 Equity: the even distribution of resources
 Clearly, education is the key to the development of the nation. However, unemployment,
poverty, and illiteracy has affected the system. The government has come up with some
strategies to deal with each of them

STRATEGIES BY THE GOVERNMENT TO CURB UNEMPLOYMENT, POVERTY, AND

ILLITERACY
1. Unemployment
 Bringing up entrepreneurship (taught in secondary schools, and in Trade schools)
 The declaration of Agriculture as a compulsory subject in schools
Poverty
 For it to reduce, people must be employed or be equipped with skills for their betterment
and for their country
 Illiteracy (unable to read and write)
 Is in three dimensions: Basic, functional, and financial
HIV/AIDS
 HIV: Human Immune-deficiency Virus
 AIDS: Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

MANAGEMENT OF HIV/AIDS
 Introduce the SHIN program in schools that deals with providing food for vulnerable pupils
 AIDS education has been encouraged in schools through clubs

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  Introduction of Comprehensive Sexuality Education as a subject in schools

EFFECTS OF HIV/AIDS ON EDUCATION

It affects demand, supply, and functionality
 Demand: affects children being born, family finances, caring for parents, and it also brings
a lot of orphans
 Supply: a lot of teachers have been affected as they are directed to the sick people
 Functional: the curriculum keeps on changing because of the pandemic. Other study areas
or subjects will need to be introduced in order to control or curb the pandemic
IMPACT OF HIV/AIDS IN ZAMBIA
 Teacher absenteeism
 Pupils leave school to attend to sick relatives
 Vulnerable girls who are uneducated drop out of school to generate income through vices
that could get them HIV
 In villages, when the breadwinner is sick, children will find it difficult to engage in seasonal
farming and they will remain home
 Children drop out of school because of school fees
 Children are kept at home to care for the patient

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