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Fire
Fire is the rapid oxidation of a flammable material accompanied by the production of
light and heat. The discovery of fire has brought significant advancements to people
and industries. Aside from being used as an external source of heat and light, it is also
used as a power source. Natural fires of low intensity may benefit the environment and
restore ecological balance through the removal of pests and plants that compete with
other species for nutrients.

Elements of Fire and stages of fire

development
Fire is composed of three elements, namely heat,
fuel, and oxygen. These three elements form the
fire triangle as seen in Figure 2. A fire starts
when fuel is heated from an external source and
reaches its ignition temperature. Oxygen reacts
with the fuel to sustain the fire. Once fire has
started, it will continue to burn until an element
of the fire triangle is removed.

Figure 3 shows the four stages of fire development. It is during the incipient stage
where ignition occurs. The fire has just started and has not yet affected a large area. It
may produce a small flame and some smoke but the heat of the fire produced is still
low. It would be best to extinguish the fire at this stage while it is still small.
Figure 3: Stages of Fire Development
Source: https://firefightergarage.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/stages-of-fire.jpg

The fire reaches the growth stage when it can continue burning by itself as it uses its
own heat to burn fuel sources around it. Smoke is already visible and may start
accumulating. The temperature of the affected area will start to increase and the fire
will continuously grow bigger as it burns more fuel. When the fire reaches its hottest
point, it is now in the fully developed stage. During this stage, firefighters will likely
extinguish the fire from a distance as it is dangerous to go near or enter the vicinity.
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When the fire runs out of fuel to burn or it runs out of oxygen, it now enters the decay
stage. In this stage, no fuel must be added as it will cause the fire to reignite.

Causes of fires
Many fires start due to negligence such as leaving the stove unattended or by not
organizing the storage cabinet. The things that we find useful in our homes such as
paper, paint, cooking oil, and electrical appliances can ignite and burn easily. The
following are common causes of fire:
1. Faulty electrical wiring or connection
2. LPG-related
3. Neglected cooking or stove
4. Lighted cigarette butts
5. Left unattended open flame: torch or sulo
6. Left unattended open flame: candle or gasera
7. Matchstick or lighter kept near flammable materials
8. Direct flame contact or static electricity
9. Neglected electrical appliances or devices
10. Unchecked electrical types of machinery
11. Flammable chemicals
12. Incendiary device or ignited flammable liquid
13. Spontaneous combustion
14. Under planned pyrotechnics
15. Bomb explosion
16. Lightning
17. Others (forest fire, vehicular fire, etc.

Flammable materials could also ignite on their own in an event referred to as

spontaneous combustion. This happens when an object produces its own heat
without absorbing heat from its surroundings. When it reaches a temperature enough
for ignition, it will start a fire by itself. Everyone should be mindful of materials that
are prone to spontaneous combustion such as spilled oil, oily rags, paper, dried leaves
or hay. It is better to store them in well-ventilated areas or outdoors to prevent ignition
and to easily dissipate the heat.

Precautionary and safety measures

Uncontrolled fires, whether natural or man-made, may lead to injury, death, loss of
livelihood, and damage to property with its toxic fumes and high temperature. A
person may die of asphyxiation as fire consumes oxygen and the concentration of
carbon monoxide and other toxic gases increase. Furthermore, the heat from a hostile
fire is far from any temperature that a person is normally exposed to. This can cause
extreme pain, severe burns, and other casualties. Fire may result in black and
impenetrable smoke that may sting the eyes and block one’s vision. Once a person is
caught in a fire, it would be difficult, if not impossible to escape the area. With this,
people must participate in fire drills to be knowledgeable of the fire escape plans.
Buildings and infrastructures should have a well-planned evacuation plan showing
multiple escape routes to increase the chances of survival during a fire. Moreover, one
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should be aware of the precautionary and safety measures for fire. These include the
following:

1. Never leave a fire unattended. Whether it is a stovetop, a candle, or a bonfire, it is

never safe to leave an open flame. If you need to leave, make sure to put the fire out.

2. Always check the electrical equipment. A faulty appliance or electrical cord can
easily malfunction and ignite. Similarly, an overloaded electrical socket or extension
cords can heat up and ignite due to the overuse of electricity. Electrical wiring should
be regularly checked to make sure there is nothing wrong with the system.

3. Keep a good distance between things that can catch fire. Declutter the area and
make sure that anything that can cause ignition and serve as fuel is distant from each
other.

4. Educate children and adults about fire safety. Curious children may accidentally
set anything on fire. It is best to keep flammable materials stored in areas that are out
of reach for them. Teach them about the dangers of fire and how it can be prevented.

5. Store flammable materials properly. When fuels are exposed to ignition, they will
easily catch and spread the fire. Always label them and keep them from any heat
source. Be careful when using them. Wipeout any spills in the working space as they
can easily be forgotten and may cause a fire. Make sure there are no sources of
ignition around the area.

6. Keep a fire extinguisher of a bucket of sand handy. Before using any flammable
material, be prepared with materials that can put out the fire in case it occurs. Have a
wet cloth, a source of water, or a fire extinguisher in strategic places that everyone
knows and is easy to reach. Learn how to use a fire extinguisher. Pull the pin located
at the handle then aim its nozzle at the base of the fire. Slowly squeeze the lever while
sweeping it from side to side. The PASS acronym for using fire extinguishers means to
pull, aim, squeeze, and sweep.

7. Install fire alarms and smoke detectors. These instruments alert everyone and
signal them to escape when they can and before the fire becomes bigger.

8. Know what to do in case of fire. Participate in fire drills. Be aware of the exit
points of your house, school, or workplace. Educate yourself and the people around
you about what to do in case a fire breaks out.

9. Develop a fire preparedness plan. A fire preparedness plan is a floorplan

containing the possible sources of fire and a guide on what a person can do in the
event of a fire incident. It gives us an idea of how one can save himself in case of a fire
in their homes, workplace, and in school. It presents the location of the fire exits that
people can pass through to immediately evacuate the area. It should also show the
location of fire assembly points, designated safe areas where people can go in case of a
fire.

The key to preventing fires from occurring is to make sure that the elements of the fire
triangle do not come together. Prevent ignition by making sure that flammable
materials do not heat up and reach the ignition temperature. Fuel sources should be
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kept away from ignition sources. In case a fire breaks out, smother it to eliminate the
source of oxygen.
Concept of Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) and Disaster Risk
Reduction and Management (DRRM)
Lesson 1: Concept of Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) and Disaster Risk Reduction and
Management (DRRM)

The Fourteenth Philippine Congress passed the Republic Act 10121, or the Philippine
Disaster Risk Reduction and Management (DRRM) Act of 2010 signed by former Pres. Gloria
Macapagal Arroyo on May 27, 2010. This law strengthens and institutionalizes a disaster risk
reduction and management system at the national, regional, provincial, and local levels. This
addresses the disaster risks confronted by the Philippines which is the third most disaster-prone
country in the world. In this module, you will understand key concepts, principles, and elements
of DRRM and its importance to one’s life.
Disaster risk reduction (DRR) is a term used for reducing and preventing disaster risks. It
is founded on the principle that while hazards are inevitable, its adverse effects like lost lives
and/or destruction of property are not. There are steps that we can do to ensure reduction of
risks. DRR actions can be political, technical, social and economic.
Before we proceed to the principles to DRR, it is essential that we first understand what
a “disaster” actually entails. Defining the concepts of Disaster Risk, the terminologies and their
definitions are obtained from Republic Act 10121 or the Philippine Disaster Risk Reduction and
Management Act of 2010.
A. Disaster – the disruption of a community’s function which exceeds its ability to cope
and recover on its own. It may involve widespread losses and impacts whether human, material,
economic, or environmental.
Disasters are often described as a result of the combination of several things: the
exposure to a hazard; the conditions of vulnerability that are present; and insufficient capacity or
measures to reduce or cope with the potential negative consequences.

RISK HAZARDS VULNERABILITY CAPACITY

The word “risk” has Defined as a Vulnerability is a set Defined as the
two connotations: in “dangerous of prevailing or combination of all the
general usage the phenomenon, consequential strengths, attributes
emphasis is usually substance, human conditions arising and resources
placed on the activity or condition from various available within a
concept of chance or that may cause loss physical, social, community, society
possibility on an of life, injury or other economic and or organization that
event and its health impacts, environmental factors can be used to
negative property damage, which increase the achieve agreed
consequence, such loss of livelihoods susceptibility of a goals. Capacity may
as in “the risk of an and services, social community to the include infrastructure
accident”; whereas in and economic impact of hazards and physical means,
technical settings the disruption, or Vulnerability also institutions, societal
emphasis is usually environmental comprise various coping abilities, as
placed on the damage”. Hazards physical, social, well as human
consequences, in can be single, economic, political knowledge, skills and
terms of “potential sequential or and environmental collective attributes
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losses” for some combined in their factors that affect the such as social
particular cause, origin and effects. ability of communities relationships,
place and period. Each hazard is to respond to events. leadership and
The term disaster risk characterized by its management.
therefore refers to the location, intensity,
potential (not actual) probability and likely
disaster losses, in frequency. The
lives, health status, hazards of concern to
livelihoods, assets disaster risk
and services, which reduction are
could occur. hazards that arise
from a variety of
geological,
meteorological,
Defined as the
characteristics and
circumstances of a
community, system
or asset that make it
susceptible to the
damaging effects of a
hazard.

B. Exposure – the degree to which the elements at risk are likely to experience hazard events
of different magnitudes.

C. Disaster Risk – the potential loss in human lives, health status, livelihood, assets, and
services due to the effects of a disaster.

D. Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) – the concept and practice of analysis and management of
the causes of disasters, through reducing exposure to hazards, lessening vulnerability, wise
management of the environment, and improved preparedness for adverse events, to reduce
disaster risks

Disaster risk reduction usually requires long-term planning across sectors and must be
integrated into general national and regional development strategies. DRR strategies usually
begin with plans for assessing (a) the hazards and risks that threaten the target area, (b) the
extent of harm that would occur to communities and infrastructure, and (c) the vulnerable
people’s capacities to cope with and recover from possible disasters.

E. Disaster Risk Reduction and Management (DRRM) – the systematic process of using all
available manpower and resources to implement various methods to lessen the impacts of
hazards and the likelihood of a disaster

Principles of DRR and Management

●Disaster management is the responsibility of all spheres of government.

●Disaster management should use resources that exist for a day-to-day purpose.
●Organizations should function as an extension of their core business.
●Individuals are responsible for their own safety.
●Disaster management planning should focus on large-scale events.
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●Disaster management planning should recognize the difference between incidents and
disasters.
●Disaster management operational arrangements must recognize the involvement and potential
role of non-government agencies.
FIGURE 1. KEY ELEMENT OF DRR AND MANAGEMENT

PRE-EVENT
PREVENTION The outright avoidance of adverse impacts of hazards and related
disasters. Prevention expresses the concept and intention to
completely avoid potential adverse impacts through action taken in
advance. Can be in the form of proper land use or using suitable
engineering design. (However, oftentimes complete avoidance of
losses is not feasible and the task transforms to that of mitigation)
MITIGATION The lessening or limitation of the adverse impacts of hazards and
related disasters. While the adverse impacts of hazards often cannot
be prevented fully, their scale or severity can be substantially
lessened by various strategies and actions. Mitigation measures
involve a wide range of elements from engineering techniques to
environmental policies and even public awareness.
ADAPTATION The adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or
expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or
exploits beneficial opportunities. This definition addresses the
concerns of climate change and is sourced from the secretariat of the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC).
PREPAREDNESS The knowledge and capacities developed by governments,
professional response and recovery organizations, communities and
individuals to effectively anticipate, respond to, and recover from, the
impacts of likely, imminent or current hazard events or conditions.

POST EVENT
RESPONSE The provision of emergency services and public assistance during or
immediately after a disaster in order to save lives, reduce health
impacts, ensure public safety and meet the basic subsistence needs
of the people affected. Disaster response is predominantly focused on
immediate and short-term needs and is sometimes called “disaster
relief”.
RECOVERY The restoration, and improvement where appropriate, of facilities,
livelihoods and living conditions of disaster-affected communities,
including efforts to reduce disaster risk factors. The recovery task of
rehabilitation and reconstruction begins soon after the emergency
phase has ended, and should be based on pre-existing strategies and
policies that facilitate clear institutional responsibilities for recovery
action and enable public participation.

Four Thematic Areas of Disaster Risk Reduction and Management (DRRM)

The four thematic areas of Disaster Risk Reduction and Management (DRRM) are based on the
National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Plan (NDRRMP) for 2011 – 2028. The
terminologies and their definitions are obtained from Republic Act 10121 or the Philippine
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Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Act of 2010 and the Department of Education School
Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Manual Booklet 1.

Thematic Area 1: Disaster Prevention and Mitigation

Disaster Prevention includes the measures taken to avoid the unfavorable impacts of
hazards and related disasters. Disaster Mitigation is the lessening or limiting the adverse
impacts of hazards and related disasters
Overall responsible government agency: Department of Science and Technology
(DOST)

Thematic Area 2: Disaster Preparedness

It is the knowledge and capacity to effectively foresee, respond, and recover from the
impacts of hazard events or conditions.
Overall responsible government agency: Department of Interior and Local Government
(DILG)

Thematic Area 3: Disaster Response

This includes the availability of services to assist affected groups during or immediately
after a disaster, intending to save lives, reduce impacts, ensure safety, and meet the basic
needs of affected groups.
Overall responsible government agency: Department of Social Welfare and
Development (DSWD)

Thematic Area 4: Disaster Rehabilitation and Recovery

Rehabilitation refers to the ability of affected communities to return to their normal functions by
increasing their organizational capacity to restore livelihood and damaged facilities. Recovery
includes the actions and measures taken after a disaster to rebuild, restore, or improve the
living conditions of the affected community while reducing the risks of disaster.
Overall responsible government agency: National Economic and Development Authority
(NEDA)

The significant activities under the 4 thematic areas include:

1) Disaster Prevention and Mitigation

• Early warning systems
• Flood forecasting and monitoring
• Hazard and risk mappings
• Structural and non-structural interventions

2.) Disaster Preparedness

• Contingency planning
• Prepositioning and stock-piling
• Capacitating and organizing responders
• Training, drills and exercises
• Pre-Disaster Risk Assessment

3) Disaster Response
• Rapid Damage Assessment and Needs Analysis (RDANA)
• Issuance of advisories and situation reports
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• Activation of Response Clusters and Incident Command System (ICS)

• Mobilization of responders
• Humanitarian assistance (eg relief distribution)
• Provision of financial assistance
• Management of evacuation centers

4) Disaster Rehabilitation and Recovery

• Post-Disaster Needs Assessment (PDNA)
• Enhancement of policies and plans
• Reconstruction using “build back better” approach
• Resettlement
• Provision of new sources of livelihood

Importance of Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR)

Based on the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the implementation of
disaster risk reduction enables countries or communities to target the priorities for actions:

1. Identification, assessment, and monitor disaster risks and improve early warning systems.
2. The reduction of underlying risk factors.
3. Utilization and application of knowledge, innovation, and education to establish a culture of
safety and resilience at all levels.
4. To intensify disaster preparedness for effective response and recovery at all levels, from
national down to local levels.

Lesson 2: Community-Based Disaster Risk Reduction and

Management (DRRM)
Disaster Risk Reduction and Management (DRRM) is critical to social and economic development
and must be sustainable for the future. There are many international agreements that addressed DRRM
such as the Hyogo Framework for Action (2005 – 2015), the Sendai Framework for DRR (2016), and the
2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (2015). The countries who joined these agreements shall
continuously make DRRM as part of the government’s priorities for action. The successful
implementation of DRRM in the national level is only feasible if disaster prevention and mitigation,
preparedness, response, rehabilitation, and recovery are known, planned, and implemented in the
community or local levels.

Community-based DRRM practices

What are the community-based practices for managing disaster risk to specific
hazards?

Here are some of the possible practices that can be implemented from National to
Local levels:

Thematic Area 1: Disaster Prevention and Mitigation

Overall agency in-charge: Department of Science and Technology (DOST).
Other agencies involved: Office of Civil Defense (OCD), Department of Environment
and Natural Resources (DENR), Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH),
Department of Finance (DOF), and other government agencies.
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1. Allocating a 5% budget per agency dedicated to disaster risk reduction and

management (DRRM), and climate change adaptation (CCA).
2. Developing science-based mainstreaming tools for DRRM and CCA.
3. Integrating DRRM and CCA into various policies, plans, programs, and projects.
4. Developing a joint-work plan of the National DRRM Council (NDRRMC) and Climate
Change Commission (CCC) by reviewing DRRM and CCA laws and implementing rules
and regulations.
5. Advocating for the implementation of the building code and the utilization of green
technology.
6. Conducting inventory, vulnerability, and risk assessments and evaluations for
facilities and infrastructures with critical conditions.
7. Developing guidelines in redesigning, retro-fitting, or operational modification of
infrastructure.
8. Conducting hazard mapping and vulnerability assessments from the national level
down to the local levels.
9. Conducting research studies on disaster prevention measures or interventions.
10. Developing and institutionalizing community-based early warning systems (EWS),
information sharing, and communication systems.
11. Promoting insurance schemes among production and supply sector, and local
communities and responders.
12. Disseminating information through media partners.

Thematic Area 2: Disaster Preparedness

Overall agency in-charge: Department of Interior and Local Government (DILG).
Other agencies involved: OCD, Department of Education (DepEd), Commission on
Higher Education (CHED), Local Government Units (LGUs), and other government
agencies.
1. Developing Information, Education, and Communication (IEC) materials that
promote and advocate DRRM and CCA plans and programs from the national level
down to the local levels.
2. Conducting training and simulation exercises on disaster preparedness and
response.
3. Conducting capacity building activities on disaster resilience.
4. Integrating DRRM and CCA in school curricula and learning materials.
5. Developing a local DRRM plan.
6. Developing and simulating scenario-based preparedness and response plans.
7. Conducting contingency planning.
8. Establishing a DRRM Operations Center.
9. Developing and/or enhancing an Incident Command System (ICS) coordination and
communication systems.
10. Developing and/or enhancing a standard manual of operations for the established
operations center.
11. Developing and/or enhancing guidelines for emergency response teams.
12. Conducting an inventory of available resources and services for DRRM
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13. Developing and/or enhancing common response assessment tools and

mechanisms.
14. Creating, maintaining, and updating a directory of the database of key players and
stakeholders.

Thematic Area 3: Disaster Response

Overall agency in-charge: Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD).
Other agencies involved: Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Councils
(DRRMCs), OCD, Department of National Defense (DND), Department of Health (DOH),
Local Government Units (LGUs), and other government agencies.
1. Activating the Incident Command System (ICS) from the national level down to the
local levels.
2. Issuance of public advisories based on protocols developed.
3. Activating relief distribution centers.
4. Activating assessment teams.
5. Utilizing DRRM assessment tools.
6. Developing and implementing Search, Rescue, and Retrieval (SRR) systems.
7. Activating an evacuation system.
8. Identifying standard-based relief shelters and sites.
9. Establishing temporary learning space/areas.
10. Conducting quick damage repairs and road clearing operations.
11. Determining hospitals and clinics that can accommodate casualties.
12. Restoring lifelines immediately.
13. Conducting psychosocial programs and referrals.
14. Conducting psychological and/or traumatic stress debriefings.

Thematic Area 4: Disaster Rehabilitation and Recovery

Overall agency in-charge: National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA).
Other agencies involved: OCD, National Housing Authority (NHA), DOH, DPWH,
DSWD, and other government agencies.
1. Conducting the Post-Disaster Needs Assessment (PDNA).
2. Coordinating the development of the Strategic Action Plan for disaster-affected
areas.
3. Identifying the needed assistance and formulating/implementing appropriate
programs.
4. Identifying/Mobilizing the funding sources
5. Identifying and providing suitable and safe relocation sites
6. Designing and construction of disaster-resilient housing
7. Conducting necessary rehabilitation or repair of damaged infrastructures.
8. Conducting post-disaster analyses with affected communities
Source: National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Plan (NDRRMP) 2011 – 2028

Family and Community Disaster Preparedness Plan

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How do we develop family and community disaster preparedness plans?

Steps in making a Family Disaster Preparedness Plan. Make sure that you create
this plan as a family. All family members shall cooperate.

1. Identify and indicate the natural and human-induced hazards that could affect your
family/community.
2. For each identified hazard/potential disaster, discuss and indicate the following:
A. What must your family do before the occurrence of the disaster?
B. What must your family do during the disaster?
C. What must your family do after the disaster?
3. Discuss the structural weakness of your house and indicate how you can fix it in
preparation for a disaster.
4. indicate the plan how your family would stay in contact with each other. In case
you are all separated, indicate two possible meeting places.
5. Draw the floor plan of your home. Detail the information on escape routes, and
location of circuit breaker/s.
6. Draw a map of your community. Identify main roads/highways in your place that
will serve as your escape routes. Also, identify a safe holding/evacuation area in your
community.
7. List all people or institutions that can help your family in the event of a disaster.
List their emergency contact numbers.
8. List down all your contact numbers in the preparedness plan.
9. In case you have a family, member who is pregnant or disabled, and an elderly,
create a plan on how you can take care of them during a disaster.
10. Indicate the items to be included in your 72-hour survival kit.

Steps in making a Community (Barangay) Disaster Preparedness Plan:

1. Indicate important information about your barangay.
- Location, land area, short background about the barangay, population, and the
number of families.
- Subdivisions, compounds, or townhomes located in the barangay.
- Landmarks and establishments in your barangay (malls, churches, hospitals,
schools, markets, plaza, restaurants, health centers, police stations, etc.).
2. Make a list of emergency hotlines.

3. Provide a complete map of your barangay (You can use Google Maps)
4. Indicate the major highways or main roads, waterways, or bodies of water (river,
canal, and channel) in your barangay.
5. Identify and indicate the natural and human-induced hazards that could affect your
barangay.
6. For each identified hazard/potential disaster, discuss and indicate the following:
A. What must your barangay do before the occurrence of the disaster?
B. What must your barangay do during the disaster?
C. What must your barangay do after the disaster?
7. List down 3 to 5 possible evacuation areas in your barangay.
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