UNIT IV

PART – A
1. What is the purpose of economic dispatch?

The purpose of economic dispatch is to minimize the fuel costs for the power system.

2. Define the term “ Economic Dispatch”.

The purpose of economic dispatch is to minimize the fuel costs for the power system. By
economic load scheduling, we mean to find the generation of different generators ,so that the total
fuel cost is minimum and at the same time the total demand and losses at any instant must be met by
the total generation.

3. Define Demand.
The demand of an installation or system is the combined continuous rating of all the receiving
apparatus on consumers‟ premises, which is connected to the system under consideration.
4. Name the methods of finding economic dispatch.
The two methods to find economic dispatch are :

 Load scheduling

 Unit commitment
5. Define unit commitment.(May 2007)
To select the generating units that will supply the forecasted load of the system over a required
period of time at minimum cost as well as provide a specified margin of the operating reserve ,
known as the spinning reserve .This procedure is known as unit commitment
6. Define Incremental efficiency.
The incremental efficiency is defined as the reciprocal of incremental fuel rate or incremental
production cost and is given as ,

(output) dP
Incremental efficiency =
(input) dF

7. Define Cost function.

Let ci means the cost, expressed for example in dollars per hour, of producing energy in the
generator unit i. The total controllable system production cost therefore will be

C= ci $ / hr
i1
 The generated real power PGi accounts for the major influence on ci
The Individual production cost ci of generator unit I is therefore for all practical purposes a function
only of PGi, and for the overall controllable production cost, we thus have
n

C= ci (PGi ) c1 (PG1 ) .... cn (PGn ) $ / hr

i1

8. Write the condition for the optimal power dispatch in a lossless system.(Nov 2013)
The condition for the optimal power dispatch in a lossless system:
n
dCi
; PGi PD
dPGi i1

Is known as equality constraints.

9. What are the factors affecting the cost of generation? or List the various constraints in the
modern power system.
The cost of generation depends on operating constraints or system constraints. They are,
(i) Equality constraint
(ii) Inequality constraint
(a) Generator constraints
(b) Voltage constraints
(c) Running spare capacity constraints
(d)Transformer tap settings
(e)Transmission line constraints
10. Write an optimal dispatch equation.
For optimum dispatch we must make sure that that all the individual controllable generators
operate at equal incremental production costs. In addition
They must individual add up to the demand PD
(IC )1 (IC ) 2 ..... (IC ) n
11. Write the co-ordination equation taking the effect of losses.(May 2006)
1 B0i i 2 Bij Pj
ji
Pi (Or)
2 i
Bii
k
k i
Pi k
2 i B ii

Where i - Slope of incremental production cost curve

 i - Intercept of incremental production cost curve
Bi j - Loss coefficients
P j - Power in the previous iteration

12. Write the co ordination equation without losses.

C1 C2 CN
.......
PG1 PG2 PGN
Ci
Where Incremental cos t of the unit i
PGi
13. Draw incremental cost curve for a thermal plant?(Nov 2014,May 2009,Nov 2010)

14. What is meant by incremental cost criterion?(Nov 2012)

The cost function is ci i i PGi i P 2Gi $/hr

The incremental cost criterion is obtained by differentiated the above equation with respect to PGi .

The incremental cost criterion

dci
(IC)i = i 2 i PGi $/Mwh
dPGi

15. Define participation factor.(Nov 2009,Nov 2008,Apr 2008)

Participation factor
1
PGi Fi ''
N
PD 1
''
i1 F i
Suppose PD increases to PD0 + PD .The new value of generation is calculated using ,

PGi
Pnew,i Pbase,i PD ; i 1,2,3, ....... N
.
PD
Where PD =Change in load demand
Pbase,i = Old value of generation

16. What are base point and participation factor with respect to economic load dispatch?(May
2009)
The economic dispatch problem has to solved repeatedly by moving the generators from one
economically optimum schedule to another as the load changes by a reasonably small amount we start
from a schedule obtained from equal incremental cost as base point.
17. Write the condition for the optimal power dispatch in a lossless system.(Nov 2008)
The necessary condition for the existence of a minimum cost operating condition is that the
incremental cost rates of all units be equal to some undetermined value
dci
dPGi
N

Power balance equation is PGi PD

i1

18. Mention the assumptions made in the formation of loss formula matrix B (Apr 2008)
a) Assume generators are identical.
b) Assume generators have identical incremental cost curves.
c) Neglect the shunt capacitance of the line.
19. List the unit commitment constraints. Or State the different constraints in unit commitment
problem.(Nov 2014,Nov 2007,Nov 2010)
1. Spinning reserve
2.Thermal unit constraints
i. Minimum up time.
ii. Minimum down time
iii. Crew constraints
3. Hydro constraints
4. Fuel constraints
20. Define spinning reserve.(Apr 2015 ,May 2014 ,Nov 2013,Apr 2011)
Spinning reserve is the term used to describe the total amount of generation available from all
units synchronized (i.e., spinning) on the system, minus the present load and losses being supplied.
Spinning reserve must be carried so that the loss of one or more units does not cause too far a drop in
system frequency Quite simply, if one unit is lost, there must be ample reserve on the other units to
make up for the loss in a specified time period.
21. Define minimum up time and down time. (Apr 2011)
Minimum up time:
Once the unit is running, it should not be turned off immediately.
Minimum down time
Once the unit is decommitted, there is a minimum time before it can be recommitted.
22. List the unit commitment solution methods.
The most talked-about techniques for the solution of the unit commitment problem are:
• Priority-list schemes,
• Dynamic programming (DP),
• Lagrange relation (LR).
23. Name some thermal constrains in unit commitment problem.(Nov 2012)
Thermal constrains in unit commitment problem are
i. Minimum up time.
ii. Minimum down time
iii. Crew constraints
24. What is meant by Priority-list method?(Nov 2009)
Priority list method is the simplest unit commitment solution method which consists of creating a
priority list of units.
25. What is meant by FLAC?(Nov 2013)
FLAC is the Full Load Average Production Cost. Priority list method is the simplest
unit commitment solution method which consists of creating a priority list of units. This list can be
obtained by noting the Full Load Average Production Cost of each unit.
Full Load Average Production Cost = Net heat rate at full load x Fuel cost
Ci (PGi ) K.Hi (PGi )
FLAPC
PGi PGi
 PART –B

1. What is unit commitment problem? And discuss its constraints.(Nov 2011,Apr 2011, May
2009,Apr 2008)
Unit commitment problem:
To select the generating units that will supply the forecasted load of the system over a required
period of time at minimum cost as well as provide a specified margin of the operating reserve , known
as the spinning reserve. This procedure is known as unit commitment.
Unit commitment constraints :
Spinning Reserve:
Spinning reserve is the term used to describe the total amount of generation available from
all units synchronized (i.e., spinning) on the system, minus the present load and losses being supplied.
Spinning reserve must be carried so that the loss of one or more units does not cause too far a drop in
system frequency Quite simply, if one unit is lost, there must be ample reserve on the other units to
make up for the loss in a specified time period.
Thermal Unit Constraints
Thermal units usually require a crew to operate them, especially when turned on and turned off.
.A thermal unit can undergo only gradual temperature changes, and this translates into a time period
of some hours required to bring the unit on-line. As a result of such restrictions in the operation of a
thermal plant, various constraints arise, such as:

• Minimum up time: once the unit is running, it should not be turned off immediately.

• Minimum down time: once the unit is decommitted, there is a minimum time before it can be
recommitted.

• Crew constraints: if a plant consists of two or more units, they cannot both be turned on at the
same time since there are not enough crew members to attend both units while starting up.

Hydro-Constraints:
Unit commitment cannot be completely separated from the scheduling of hydro-units. In this, we
will assume that the hydrothermal scheduling (or "coordination") problem can be separated from the
unit commitment problem. We, of course, cannot assert flatly that our treatment in this fashion will
always result in an optimal solution.
Must Run
Some units are given a must-run status during certain times of the year for reason of voltage support
on the transmission network or for such purposes as supply of steam for uses outside the steam plant
itself.
Fuel Constraints
A system in which some units have limited fuel, or else have constraints that require them to
burn a specified amount of fuel in a given time, presents a most challenging unit commitment
problem.

2.Explain the priority list method using suitable numerical example.( Apr 2015 , Apr 2011,Nov
2009)
The simplest unit commitment solution method consists of creating a priority list of units. The
priority list could be obtained in a much simpler manner by noting the full-load average production
cost of each unit, where the full-load average production cost is simply the net heat rate at full load
multiplied by the fuel cost.
Suppose one had the three units given here:
Unit 1:
Min = 150 MW
Max = 600 MW

H1= 510.0 + 7.2P1 + 0.00142P 12 MBtu/h

Unit 2:
Min = 100 MW
Max = 400 MW
H 2 = 310.0 + 7.85P2 + 0.00194P 22 MBtu/h

Unit 3:
Min = 50 MW
Max = 200 MW
H 3 = 78.0 + 7.97P3 + 0.00482P3 2 MBtu/h

with fuel costs:

Fuel cost 1 = 1.1 $/MBtu

Fuel cost 2 = 1.0 $/MBtu
Fuel cost 3 = 1.2 $/MBtu
 Construct a priority list for the units of Example. First, the full-load average production cost will
be calculated:
Unit Full Load Average Production Cost(R/Mwh)

1 9.79
2 9.48
3 11.188

A strict priority order for these units, based on the average production cost, would order
them as follows:
Unit R/Mwhr Min MW Max MW
2 9.48 100 400
1 9.79 150 600
3 11.188 50 200

and the commitment scheme would (ignoring min up/down time, start-up costs, etc.) simply use only
the following combinations.
Combination Min MW from combination Max MW from combination
2+1+3 300 1200
2+1 250 1000
2 100 400

where unit 2 was shut down at 600 MW leaving unit 1. With the priority-list scheme, both units
would be held on until load reached 400 MW, then unit 1 would be dropped.
Most priority-list schemes are built around a simple shut-down algorithm that might operate as
follows.
At each hour when load is dropping, determine whether dropping the next unit on the priority
list will leave sufficient generation to supply the load plus spinning-reserve requirements. If
not, continue operating as is; if yes, go on to the next step.
Determine the number of hours, H, before the unit will be needed again. That is, assuming that
the load is dropping and will then go back up some hours later.
If H is less than the minimum shut-down time for the unit, keep commitment as is and go to
last step; if not, go to next step.
 Calculate two costs. The first is the sum of the hourly production costs for the next H hours
with the unit up. Then recalculate the same sum for the unit down and add in the start-up cost
for either cooling the unit or banking it, whichever is less expensive. If there is sufficient
savings from shutting down the unit, it should be shut down, otherwise keep it on.
Repeat this entire procedure for the next unit on the priority list. If it is also dropped, go to the
next and so forth.
3. A generating unit has two 200MW unit whose input cost data is as follows:
F1 0.004P12 2.0P1 80 Rs / hr
2
F2 0.006P2 1.5P2 100 Rs / hr
For the total load of 250 MW ,find the load dispatch between the two units for
economic operation.(Nov/Dec 2012, Nov/Dec 2007)
Solution:
dF1
1 2 0.004P1 2.0 0.008P1 2.0
dP1
dF2
2 2 0.006P2 1.5 0.012 P2 1.5
dP2

1 2
From equal incremental cost basis,

0.008P1 2.0 0.012 P2 1.5

0.008P1 0.012 P2 0.5 (1)
P1 P2 250 (2)
By solving equation (1) and (2)
P1 =125MW
P2 =125MW
5. Explain the iteration method for finding the solution of economic dispatch without
transmission losses with a neat flowchart.(Nov/Dec 2012,Nov/Dec 2009 Nov/Dec 2007)
Case 1: Operating limits for power generations are not specified
Step 1: Assign initial trial value of or calculate using
N
i
PD
i 1 2 i
N
1
i12 i
Step 2: Compute PcGo
i rresponding to

i
PGi
2i
 Step 3: Compute
Step 4: Check the power balance equation.
N
PGi
i1
N
PGi PD
i1

The power balanced equation is satisfied . Then Optimum solution is obtained , otherwise
go to next step.
N
Step 5: If PGi PD Assign and goto step 2
i1
N
PGi PD Assign and goto step 2
i1

where PD
N
1
i1 2 i

Case 2 :Operating limits for power generations and production cost functions are given.
N
Step 1: Compute PD i

i 1 2 i
N
1
i12 i

Step 2: Compute PGiusing equal incremental cost basis

The economic schedules PGi i

2i

Step 3:If the computed PGsiatisfy the operating limits,

PGi,m in PGi
PGi,m ax i 1,2,......, N
Then the optimum solution is obtained , otherwise go to next step .
Step 4: If PGi violates the operating limits , then fix the generation at the respective limits.

PGi PGi,m in , f ix PGi PGi,m in

PGi PGi,m a x , f ix PGi PGi,m a x
Step 5:Redistribute the remaining system load
PD new PD old Sum of the fixed generations to the remaining units
Step 6:Compute new u sin g PD na
e wnd compute the remaining generations using

new i
PGi
2 i

Step 7:Check whether the optimality condition is satisfied. i.e

 dFi (PGi ) PGi PGi
new for PGi,m in ,max
dPGi
dFi (PGi )
new for PGi PGi,m ax
dPGi
dFi (PGi )
new for PGi PGi,m in
dPGi

If the condition is satisfied , then stop. Otherwise release the generation schedule fixed at
PGi,m in Or PGi,maxof those units not satisfying optimality Condition . Include these units in the
remaining units and modify the new power demand.
PD new PD old Sum of the fixed generations to the remaining units
and go to step 6
6. Explain unit commitment solution using priority list method.(Nov 2012,Apr 2008)
It is the simplest unit commitment solution method which consists of creating a priority list of
units.
The priority list can be obtained by noting the full load average production cost of the
each unit.
Full Load Average Production Cost = Net heat rate at full load x Fuel cost
Ci (PGi ) K.Hi (PGi )
FLAPC
PGi PGi
Assumptions
• No – load costs are zero.
• Unit input – output characteristics are linear between zero output and full load.
• Start up costs are fixed amount.
• Ignore minimum up time and minimum down time.
Steps to be followed
Step 1: Determine the full load average production cost for each units.

Ci (PGi ) K.Hi (PGi )

FLAPC
PGi PGi

Step 2 : Form priority order based on average production cost(ascending order)

Step 3: Commit no. of units corresponding to the priority order.
Step 4: Calculate PG1 , PG2 , .....PGN from economic dispatch problem for the feasible
combinations only.
Step 5:For the load curve , each load is varying . Assume load is dropping or decreasing , determine
whether dropping the next unit will supply generation and spinning reserve.
 If not , continue as it is.
If yes , go to next step.
Step 6 :Determine the number of hours H , before the unit will be needed again.
Step 7: Check H < Minimum shut down time.
If yes , go to last step.
If not , go to next step.
Step 8:Calculate two costs
i. Sum of hourly production cost for the next H hours with the unit up.
ii. Recalculate the same for the unit down +start up cost for either cooling or banking.
If the second case is less expensive , the unit should be on.
Step 9 : Repeat this procedure until the priority list.
Merits:
 No need to go for „N‟ combinations.
 Take only one constraints
 Ignore minimum uptime and minimum down time.
 Complications reduced.
Demerits:
 Startup cost are fixed amount.
 No load cost are not considered.
7. Construct the priority list for the units given below: (Nov 2014,Nov 2009)
Unit Heat rate (MBtu/hr) Pmin (MW) Pmax (MW) Fuel cost (Rs/MBtu)
2
1 0.00142 P1 7.2P1 510 150 600 1.1

2 0.00194 P 2 7.85P 310 100 400 1.0

2 2

3 0.00482 P 2 7.97 P 78 50 200 1.2

31 3

Solution:
Step 1:First, the full-load average production cost will be calculated:
FLAPC1 =(K1 x H1(PG1max)) / PG1max
=(1.1 x (510 + 7.2 x 600 + 0.00142 x 600 2) ) / 600 =9.79
FLAPC2 =(K2 x H2(PG2max)) / PG2max
=(1.0 x (310 + 7.85 x400 + 0.00194 x 400 2) ) / 400 =9.48
FLAPC3 =(K3 x H3(PG3max)) / PG3max
 =(1.2 x (78 + 7.97 x200 + 0.00482 x 200 2) ) / 200 =11.188
Unit Full Load Average Production Cost(R/Mwh)

1 9.79
2 9.48
3 11.188

Step 2:
A strict priority order for these units, based on the average production cost, would
order
them as follows:
Unit R/Mwhr Min MW Max MW
2 9.48 100 400
1 9.79 150 600
3 11.188 50 200
Step 3: The commitment scheme would (ignoring min up/down time, start-up costs,
etc.) simply use only the following combinations.
Combination Min MW from combination Max MW from combination
2+1+3 300 1200
2+1 250 1000
2 100 400

where unit 2 was shut down at 600 MW leaving unit 1. With the priority-list scheme,
both units would be held on until load reached 400 MW, then unit 1 would be dropped.
For demand of 550 MW ,unit 2 &1 would be o