APRIL, 2023

Volume: 51 § Number: 04 § Total Pages: 76

on

https://www.irc.nic.in
 INDIAN HIGHWAYS
VOLUME : 51 § NUMBER : 04 § APRIL 2023 § ISSN 0376-7256
Indian Roads Congress
Founded : On 10th December, 1934

CONTENTS
Ø From the Editor’s Desk 4-5
Ø Advertisements 2, 6-15, 48, 75 & 76

Ø List of IRC Accredited New Materials 16-17

Ø IRC Technical Committees Meeting Schedule for the Month of April, 2023 39
Technical Papers

Ø Sustainable Strategy to Bring Social Advancement through Road Construction Activities Under Asian Development
Bank Aided Maharashtra State Road Improvement Program (MSRIP-I) Works 18
By Arundhati Sharma & Narendra Kendhe

Ø A Comparative Study of Accident Pattern and Causes Before and During Covid-19 Lockdown in Kerala- Due to
Changes in Trafc Volume and Composition 40
By Dr. Priya R & Sreenaja V P
Ø Toll Roads-Risks Involved and Mitigation Methods 49
By Dr. M.N. Dekate
Ø Modelling Structural Performance of Twin-T Girders 63
By Geetha M.P. & Girija K.
Ø MoRT&H Circulars 74

FEEDBACK
Suggestion/Observation on editorial and Technical Papers are welcome and may be sent to IRC Secretariat on
Email-indhighways@gmail.com/dd.irc-morth@gov.in

Publisher & Editor: Sanjay Kumar Nirmal, Secretary General, IRC

E-mail: secygen.irc@gov.in
Headquarter: IRC Bhawan, Kama Koti Marg, Sector-6, R.K. Puram, New Delhi-110 022.
Phone Nos.: +91-11-26171548 (Admn.), 23387140 & 23384543 (Membership, Tech. Papers and Indian Highways),
23387759 (Sale), 26185273 (Tech. Committees)

No part of this publication may be reproduced by any means without prior written permission from the Secretary General, IRC.

The responsibility of the contents and the opinions expressed in Indian Highways is exclusively of the author(s) concerned. IRC and the Editor
disclaim responsibility and liability for any statements or opinion, originality of contents and of any copyright violations by the authors. The
opinion expressed in the papers and contents published in the Indian Highways do not necessarily represent the views of the Editor or IRC.

Printed at: M/s B. M. Printing & Writing Papers Pvt. Ltd, (H-37, Sector-63, Noida), (UP) ` 20
 FORENSIC INVESTIGATION OF HIGHWAYS – A WAY FORWARD

Importance of road infrastructure is widely recognized as a potent means of socio-economic

integration and is vital for the economic development of the country. During the past two decades,
huge investments have gone into the road sector. In the last ve years there has been a signicant
growth in the road network. Being ranked as the fourth largest economy in the world, infrastructure
facility is yet to match with the world class standard because of inadequate serviceability standards
and capacity constraints which are required to meet the ever increasing and continued
transportation demand, specially by heavy commercial vehicles. The present situation is such that
even the improved facilities created/being created at huge capital cost are still falling short of
requirements and are severely overstressed. Consequently, some of the sections of the highways
recently developed are deteriorating faster than expected and have started developing
distresses/defects within two years after the road is open to trafc. The rate of pavement
deterioration is rapid showing signs of premature distress/failure, especially in the form of severe
rutting coupled with cracks and deformation/settlement etc.

It is, therefore, necessary to undertake the forensic investigations of such sections for determining
the probable causes for development of distresses/defects and to suggest suitable remedial
measures for the rectication of the defects. The detailed investigation will include both eld
investigations and laboratory evaluation.

Forensic engineering is the investigation of materials, products, structures or components, that fail
or do not operate or function as intended, causing personal injury/ accident or damage to the
property. The process also allows for the collection of data for use in developing or calibrating
performance-prediction models. This shall include checklists for use during the conduct of
investigation.

It is a strategy that follows after the pavement is partially or fully unproductive. Statistical analysis
is done to examine causes/factors that have led to their failure. The sources of failure may include
fundamental conceptual errors, design errors/omissions, fabrication/manufacturing defects,
construction defects, materials defects and/or operational errors.

The main objectives of the forensic investigation are as given below:

(i) To investigate the possible causes for the distressed sections of a road project by studying
the detailed project report, construction and quality control data, trafc data etc.
(ii) Checking the quality of the materials used during the construction of the pavement
structure, construction quality achieved in respect of the constituent layers through trial pits
during eld investigation.
(iii) Structural and functional condition evaluation of pavement towards identifying the

4 INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023

 probable causes of distresses (rutting and cracking) and other defects/distresses observed
after grouping into homogeneous sections.
(iv) Relate the quality of construction to the performance and relate the trafc loads to the
observed distresses.
(v) Suggest/recommend suitable remedial measures/rehabilitation design based on the
data/results obtained through investigation carried out for this purpose.

In India, a few case studies have been taken up including one such investigation on “Forensic
Investigation of failure of approach road in High Embankment lls near Bridge Abutment” in
2017. This investigation was triggered by the emergency like situation when the trafc was
diverted, and disruption of trafc movement was reported. Taking a serious view of the situation, it
was imperative to nd the cause of failure through forensic studies and to take immediate measures
to restore the trafc.

In conclusion, Forensic investigation of Highway Pavement could help and make the country a
safer place in transportation. Understanding 'what went wrong' and 'what didn't perform as per
expectations' is at the backbone of what drives better design, reliable operation and safer structures
and also by studying the extra ordinary performance of some highways using Forensic
investigation. It ensures cause of loss is correctly assessed both in terms of money and time and
equitable results achieved in insurance claims, court cases and investigations. Forensic engineering
helps in avoiding future failures of Highways thereby saving a lot of natural materials, cement, steel
and potential energy required for their manufacturing or getting into the shape of their use.

There are Guidelines for Forensic Engineering Practice 2012 by ASCE, USA which describes the
technical, ethical, business, and legal components of the professional practice in forensic civil
engineering in the United States. A new ASTM International Committee is creating standards that
will provide guidelines for experts who are going to investigate product defect, vehicular, electrical
and industrial process incidents.

The Flexible Pavement Committee of IRC has also taken up the task of preparation of new
Guidelines on Forensic Investigation of Pre-mature Distresses in Flexible Pavements. The
data/result obtained through forensic investigation would help in correctly recommending the
remedial measures to rectify the defects in order to improve the condition of affected
sections/project road.

(Sanjay Kumar Nirmal)

Secretary General, IRC

INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023 5

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 LIST OF IRC ACCREDITED NEW MATERIALS

LIST OF IRC ACCREDITED NEW MATERIALS/TECHNIQUES/EQUIPMENT/PRODUCTS

(Valid as on 02.02.2023)
The Committee for Accreditation of New Materials and Techniques formed under the aegis of Highway Research Board
of Indian Roads Congress (IRC) gives accreditation to patented or new materials/technologies/equipment, developed in
India/abroad for being used on trial basis. These new materials are evaluated as per recognized National/International
Specications.
The list of IRC accredited new materials/techniques/equipment/products, valid as on 02.02.2023 is as mentioned below:

16 INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023

LIST OF IRC ACCREDITED NEW MATERIALS

INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023 17

 TECHNICAL PAPER

SUSTAINABLE STRATEGY TO BRING SOCIAL ADVANCEMENT THROUGH

ROAD CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITIES UNDER ASIAN DEVELOPMENT
BANK AIDED MAHARASHTRA STATE ROAD IMPROVEMENT
PROGRAM (MSRIP-I) WORKS

ARUNDHATI SHARMA1 NARENDRA KENDHE2

ABSTRACT

The Government of Maharashtra is engaged in the development of State Highway under Maharashtra State Road
Improvement Programme (MSRIP) and as a part of this endeavor, the Authority has decided to carry out up-gradation and
expansion of the stretches of the State Highways in the state of Maharashtra. The paper discusses various activities conducted
while designing and executing the sustainable road construction works to bring about direct and indirect social advancement
of the road users.The paper aims to provide information to the Authorities who plan to execute the road works with nancial
assistance from Asian Development Bank (ADB). Insight into about the activities that can be carried out to bring about social
development and ensure that the road development works do not lead to adverse environmental impacts during and after
construction

1. INTRODUCTION - Connectivity to District Head Quarters, Taluka Head

Development of the rural road network is one critical
initiative aimed at achieving the state's agricultural growth
target. Asian Development Bank has approved 1500
Million Dollars in infrastructure development nancial
assistance to Maharashtra Government. Technical approval
from ADB for the rst phase of 215 Million Dollars for 9
EPC mode packages for the approximate length of 450
Kilometers is received. From these 9 packages, the
following 3 packages as mentioned in Table 1, are under
the jurisdiction of Public Works Circle Amravati. Packages
EPC 6 and EPC 7 are completed and EPC 8 is in progress.
These roads under consideration passes through Plain and
Rolling Terrain. The Trafc Volume along these roads
ranges from 11000 to 15000 PCU per day. As per
IRC:SP:73-2018, for Plain and Rolling terrain, Design
Service Volume for two lane with paved shoulder is 10,000
& 8,500 PCUs per day respectively. Government of
Maharashtra has also laid down some basic criteria for a
Project to be eligible for ADB aided MSRIP-I projects like
- Trafc volume
- Population Served
- Connectivity to National Highway, State Highways,
Inter State Roads, Airports, Major Railway Stations
Quarters
- Connectivity to Industrial areas, Micro and Small
Enterprise Clusters, Special Industrial Corridors
- Connectivity to Pilgrimage / Tourism Places
- Connectivity to Agricultural Places
- Connectivity to Tribal Places / Remote Places
- Impacts on Environment
- Availability of Road Width
The Asian Development Bank (ADB) is committed to
achieving a prosperous, inclusive, resilient, and
sustainable Asia and the Pacic, while sustaining its efforts
to eradicate extreme poverty. It assists its members and
partners by providing loans, technical assistance, grants,
and equity investments to promote social and economic
development. The project aims to upgrade the state roads
forming part of the Core Road Network (CRN) in
Maharashtra, which will enhance transport accessibility
and efciency, and improve the sustainability of the road
network, in line with the state's Road Development Plan
2001-2021. It will involve upgrading of state roads to two-
lane standard and performance-based maintenance
contracts to maintain the improved road assets for 5 years

1 Superintending Engineer, P.W. Circle, Amravati, Maharashtra, Email: sharma.arundhati03@gmail.com

2. Resource Engineer (ADB Aided MSRIP-I) P.W. Circle, Amravati, Maharashtra

18 INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023

 TECHNICAL PAPER

after construction. It also includes initiatives to build focusing on strengthened sustainability and road safety
institutional capacity within the Maharashtra Public Works practices.
Department (MPWD), the project executing agency,

Table 1 ADB aided MSRIP Packages Under the Jurisdiction of Public Works Circle Amravati
Sr. EPC Package Name of Work Chainage Length
No. No. From To (Km)
1 Improvement to Riddhapur Teosa Kurha Anjansingi Dhamang a on 44/800 56/250
Rly Devgaon Babhulgaon Road SH-300 Km. 40/800 to 108/00 58/100 82/150
EPC - 6 Taluka Teosa District Amravati & Yavatmal 85/700 108/300 64.66
Dhamang a on Bye pass Road km 0/00 to 6/565 0/000 6/565

2 A) Improvement to Valgaon Daryapur Akot SH 47 Road

(Daryapur to Akot) , Dist. Amaravati & Akola. Km 156/00 to 156/000 180/000
EPC - 7 180/00 41.545
B) Improvement to Amla Run mochan Asara Road. Dist. 0/000 17/545
Amravati MDR-21 0/00 to 17/500 Dist. Amaravati
3 A) Improvement to Amravati Chandur Rly Talegaon Road Km 32/200 39/100
32/200 To 49/155 Tq. Chandur Rly Dist. Amravati 40/980 49/155
EPC - 8 55.875
B) Improvement to Riddhapur Lehegaon Ner Pingalai Teosa
Road SH-300 Km. 0/00 to 40/800 Tal. Morshi Dist. Amravati 0/000 40/800

3 Packages Total 162.080

2. IMPLEMENTATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL along which the construction work is essential and

SAFEGUARDS
The approach of sustainable construction aims to use
renewable and recyclable materials while construction, as
well as reducing energy consumption and waste. The
primary goal of sustainable construction is to reduce the
industry's impact on the environment. In view to minimize
the air, water, noise and soil pollution following activities
are strategically planned at the Design and Pre-
construction stage and executed during Construction
Stage.
As per ADB safeguard policy statement 2009 Appendix 1 -
Environmental Safeguard, the Executing Agency and the
EPC Contractor has to mandatorily take care of certain
Environmental Issues during i) Design and Pre-
Construction Stage, ii) Construction Stage & iii) Operation
and Maintenance Stage. Individual Environmental
Management Plans (EMP) were prepared for each road
which covers mitigation measures for all anticipated
environmental impacts during project construction and
operation which have been approved by ADB and included
in the contract agreement.
2.1 Design and Pre-Construction Stage
Design and Pre-Construction Stage refer to the planning
stage which begins from identifying the project alignment
concludes with working out the expected expenditure
required considering various provisions necessary for the
project. Following issues considered during the Design and
Pre-Construction stage proved to be useful in ensuring the
implementation of Environmental Safeguards during the
execution of project.
2.1.1 Pavement and its alignment
As far as possible the widening or improvement work was
planned within the existing ROW avoiding land
acquisition, except the locations having inadequate width
and where provisions of short byepasses, service roads,
alignment corrections, improvement of intersections are
considered necessary and practicable and cost effective.
For the project under consideration, no additional land was
acquired. Work has been carried out within existing
available ROW which is 24 m to 30 m.
Road Alignment specic mitigation measures with details
on location, time, and responsible agency for
implementation are given in these EMPs. Accompanying
Environmental Monitoring Plans (EMOP) for each road
were also prepared to guide the monitoring various
environment quality parameters and checking the
effectiveness of the EMP. While selecting the road, due
care was taken to ascertain that the road alignment does not

INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023 19

 TECHNICAL PAPER

pass through wild life areas, core forest zones, and other and water bodies; junction improvement. EPC package
pollution sensitive zones. Project specic road treatments wise details of safety measures provided are as per Table 4.
and cross drainage works were proposed. Accordingly as
per the Environmental component of - Pavement damage Table 3 Summary of Cross Drainage Structures
and inadequate drainage, following measures were taken, Structure Type Reconstruction + Missing
i. The project road alignment at many places passes EPC-6 EPC-7 EPC-8
through Black Cotton soil. In view to prevent
damage to pavement due to water logging, at Major Bridge 0 Nos. 0 Nos. 0 Nos.
following number of locations(Table 2), the Minor Bridge 10 Nos. 15 Nos. 18 Nos.
embankment was raised
Slab / Box Culvert 45 Nos. 16 Nos. 39 Nos.
Table 2 Number of Locations where the
Pipe Culvert 22 Nos. 18 Nos. 39 Nos.
Embankment was Raised
RCC Cover Drain in 6000 m 6400 m 16000 m
EPC Package Number of locationswhere the Village / Town Portion
No. embankment was raised
Open Concrete Drain 1830 m 480 m 650 m
EPC - 6 10
Unlined Drain Along project road length excluding
EPC - 7 06 the length mentioned above
EPC - 8 10
2.1.3 Natural hazard and climate change risk
The possible locations and design of toll plaza were studied In Design Cost, Asphalt Binder specications based on the
during preparation of DPR. However during preconstruction viscosity-grade specications as per IS 73-2013 guidelines
stage it was decided that not to implement toll policy. and IS 15462-2004 for rubber modied binder and polymer
In order to minimize the possibility of pavement damage modied binders was adopted. Design of exible
and inadequate drainage provisions, as per site requirement pavement was done as per IRC:37 and IRC:81 was referred
the number and location of Hume Pipe Culverts, Slab for incorporating the provisions for strengthening of
exible pavement, to avoid damage to pavement integrity
Culverts, Box Culverts, Minor and Major Bridges were
like rutting, embrittlement, softening and migration of
precisely identied. The provision for repair and
liquid asphalt.
maintenance of cross drainage structures which might be
retained were identied. Location for Construction of In the Design of Bridges, loading combination in
earthen side drains, footpath and RCC side drain at accordance with IRC:6 were adopted to ensure the safety of
necessary locations was identied. cross drainage and other structures during natural hazards
like earthquake, oods, and seasonal climate change.
In order to minimize the possibility of pavement damage Design and drawings of sub-structure and super structure
and inadequate drainage, provisions of missing cross conrming to IRC:78 and MoRT&H Guidelines were
drainage structure made. Reconstruction of bridges, adopted in the Detailed Project Report (DPR). While
Culvert done with sufcient waterway where existing execution of EPC project, the contractor submitted his
waterway was inadequate. Existing structure having designs to the Authority Engineer and the actual
sufcient waterway and structurally stable and sound was construction was carried out as per the approved designs
retained. Summary of Cross Drainage Structures provided and drawings.
is as per Table 3.
2.1.4 Loss of land and assets
2.1.2 Safety along the project road
Social Impact Assessment and Resettlement Plan was
In order to ensure safety along the project alignment, undertaken as per the policies of Government of India - The
necessary provisions like safe design of vertical and Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land
horizontal curves; provision of speed regulators in Acquisition, Rehabilitation and Resettlement Act 2013,
habitated areas, near sensitive receptors and curves; policies of Government of Maharashtra and Asian
provision of retro-reective warning signboards near Development Bank's involuntary resettlement policy.
sensitive locations; informatory signage near habitated Throughout the corridor, affected Non-Title Holders (NTHs)
areas, footpath over the covered drain, crash barrier at were identied and livelihood assistance to the Displaced
accident prone area; pavement markers, cat eyes, vertical Persons (DPs) as per the entitlement matrix of Resettlement
delinators and retaining walls at Cross Drainage structures Plan was worked out. To aid the DPs for restoration of

20 INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023

 TECHNICAL PAPER

income, compensation and necessary assistance provision received grievances were resolved by the Grievance
was incorporated in the Detailed Project Report (DPR). The Redressal Committee from time to time.
Table 4 Following Safety Measures are Provided Along Project Road as per IRC Standards
Particulars Package Number
EPC-6 EPC-7 EPC-8
A) Road Side Furniture
i) Road Markings (Centre Line marking, edge line markings, 16582 Sqmt 14037 Sqmt 18632 Sqmt
junction markings, pedestrian crossing marking, etc.)

ii) Road Signages

a) Cautionary / Warning Sign 370 Nos. 182 Nos. 302 Nos.
b) Regulatory Sign 12 Nos. 8 Nos. 10 Nos.
c) Informatory Sign 10 Nos. 20 Nos. 20 Nos.
iii) Over Head Gantry Signage 17 Nos. 6 Nos. 12 Nos.
vi) Guard Stone / Boundary Stone 518 Nos. 340 Nos. 446 Nos.
v) 200 meter stone 258 Nos. 166 Nos. 223 Nos.
vi) Kilometer Stone 52 Nos. 110 Nos. 45 Nos.
vii) Fifth Kilometer Stone 13 Nos. 9 Nos. 11 Nos.
viii) Moulded Shank raised pavement markers / Cat's eye 17078 Nos. 11628 Nos. 15769 Nos.
ix) Road Delinator / Roadway Indicator 267 Nos. 216 Nos. 272 Nos.
x) Hazard Marker / Object Marker 234 Nos. 98 Nos. 196 Nos.
xi) Solar Blinkers {2 Nos. at each location} 23 Locations 12 Locations 24 Locations
xii) Solar Street Lights 88 Nos. 64 Nos. 80 Nos.
B) Improvement to Curves
Extra Widening at Sharp Curves 45 Nos. 25 Nos. 52 Nos.
C) Metal Beam Crash Barrier 4836 Rmt 3500 Rmt 5040 Rmt
D) Junction Improvement
Major Intersection 08 Nos. 05 Nos. 08 Nos.
Minor Intersection 33 Nos. 14 Nos. 22 Nos.

In the pre-construction i.e. design stage, Micro-Plan was Table 5 Number of Affected NTHs and Amount
prepared, wherein the number of affected House Holds Paidto Displaced Persons
were recorded and the compensation amount for the same
Package Number of Affected Amount paid to
was worked out in accordance with the policies of House Hold (Non - Displaced
No.
Government of India - The Right to Fair Compensation and Title Holders Persons
Transparency in Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation and {NTHs}) (DPs){NTHs}
Resettlement Act 2013, policies of Government of
Maharashtra and Asian Development Bank's involuntary EPC-6 74 INR 65,40,515/-
resettlement policy. Actual implementation of
Resettlement and Rehabilitation plan is as given below in EPC-7 113 INR 46,88,454/-
Table 5 and Table 6 for number of affected NTHs and
EPC-8 80 INR 49,40,264/-
CPRs respectively.

INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023 21

 TECHNICAL PAPER
Table 6 Number of Affected CPRs and the responsibility to the concern focal persons form
Resettlement Amount Paid Authority, Authority Engineer and Contractor's
Representatives and ends with Monitoring various
Package Number of Affected Amount Paid Indicators (MI).
No. Common Property
Resources (CPRs) 2.2.1 Appointment of environmental focal person
EPC-6 03 INR 8,96,580/-
(EFP)
i. The responsibility for implementing Environmental
EPC-7 00 Nil
Safeguards during the construction period lies
EPC-8 04 INR 57,47,451/- primarily with the Environmental Focal Persons
(EFPs).
2.1.5 Diversion of forest land and cutting of trees ii. Each contractor has to appoint one Environmental
Necessary Geometric adjustment was done to minimize Focal Person to ensure the implementation of
tree cutting and to avoid diversion of forest land. As per Environmental Safeguards measures as stipulated in
Government of Maharashtra's policy for compensatory the Environmental Management Plan (EMPs),
plantation for road works, the ratio of number of trees Environmental Monitoring Plan (EMoPs) and
felled to number of trees to be planted is 1:3. The same was contract document. The nancial provision for
mentioned in Contract Agreement and EMoP. The details appointment of Contractor's EFP was not considered
of plantation as as mentioned in Table 7. separately in cost estimate. However as per conditions
of Contract Agreement the Contractor was bound to
Table 7 EPC Package wise Plantation Details appoint one EFP throughout the project duration.
Package No. of trees As per Contract Total No. of iii. Contract Agreement of Authority Engineer has
actually felled Agreement No. trees provision of one Environmental Expert and one
No.
of trees to be actually Assistant Environmental Engineer. Evaluation of EFP
planted 1:3 planted was done on the basis of his qualication and
ratio experience in implementation of EMP. Man-month
wise payment for pre-decided months was made to the
EPC-6 1372 4116 6900 Authority Engineer as per the accepted offer.
EPC-7 2155 6465 6850 iv. Environmental Specialist from Project Management
Consultant (PMS) was appointed on the basis of his
EPC-8 1492 4476 4476 no. of qualication and experience in implementation of
trees are EMP. Man-month wise payment for pre-decided
planted months was made to PMS consultant as per the
1100 existing accepted offer.
plants are
v. Executive Engineer in-charge of respective EPC
transplanted
package were declared as Environmental Focal
Entire plantation and transplantation was done within the Person at Project Implementation Unit (PIU)
Right of Way (ROW) of project corridor. vi. At Project Management Unit (PMU) Retired
Superintending Engineer from Maharashtra Public
2.1.6 Shifting of utility services Works Department was working as Environmental
In order to avoid unnecessary disruption of utility services Focal Person
like telephone and electrical cables, poles, underground Mobilizing an Environmental Expert from the Authority
cables; water supply pipe lines, the provision for their Engineer, and appointment of Environmental Focal Person
shifting before the start of construction was estimated in on behalf of the Authority at Project Implementation and
consultation with the concern authority MSEB, Water Monitoring Unit. The Contractor's EFP is entrusted to
supply and telephone Department . Necessary permission prepare the Contractor's Environmental Implementation
and payments were made to relevant utility shifting Plan (EIP) based on the approved Environmental
agencies to allow quick shifting and restoration of utility Management Plan (EMP). The contractor's EFP submits to
services. Provision of utility ducts running across the the Authority Engineer (AE) for approval of an action plan
pavement was included in the cost estimate. to secure all permits and regulatory approvals to be secured
2.2 Construction Stage during the construction stage. Authority's EFP is entrusted
with a responsibility to ensure a cordial relationship
The implementation of Environmental safeguards at the between the Contractor and AE and also supervise their
construction stage is most crucial. Beginning with allotting activities.

22 INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023

 TECHNICAL PAPER
2.2.2 Setting and layout of site ofce and construction
camp
A well-planned site camp layout not only decreases the
chances of accidents, and material mismanagement, but
also reduces the contamination of the site camp and fouling
of the surrounding. The layouts of all site camps before
establishment were thoroughly evaluated. Following
considerations were considered for approving the Layout
of Site Camp.
i. Contractor's EFP submitted for approval of AE the
construction camp layout for its establishment. The
layout was approved by MPWD at the PIU level upon
satisfaction. Efforts were taken to ensure that the least
productive land is used to set camp. It was ensured that
the surrounding ecosystem is not damaged and the
land can be brought back to its initial state after the
completion of construction activities. Construction
camps were located at least 500 m away from
habitations and not within 1000 m of either side of
locations of Forest areas. Necessary NOC was
obtained from concerned local authorities and land
agreements were made.These distance criteria were
also considered by the Authorities from Maharashtra
State Pollution Control Board (MPCB) while allotting
Consent to Establish (CTE) and Consent to Operate
(CTO).In addition to above, necessary barricading
was done around Hot Mix Plant (HMP) and Ready
Mix Plant (RMC). Periodic Water spraying was done
on unpaved haulage roads and other dust prone areas
within the camp. Systematic plantation was done at
the camp site. Care was taken to avoid spillage of oil
during refueling. Fig 1 illustrates the Site Camp Plan
for package no. EPC-6
ii. Care was taken to ensure that all sites used for camps
are adequately drained and that the drainage from and
through the camps do not endanger any domestic or
public water supply. At the plant site, drums of diesel
and other petroleum products were stored on
impervious platforms to avoid soil contamination.
The used oils were stored separately in drums and
were sold to authorized vendors.
iii. Efforts were taken to minimize the cutting of trees at
the campsite. The plantation and landscaping at the
campsite are encouraged. Diesel is being procured
from nearby available consumer fuel pumps,
transported in refueling tankers and directly relled to
construction equipment.
iv. Temporary living accommodation and ancillary
facilities for labour were constructed and maintained
to ensure
a) Uncontaminated water is available for drinking,
cooking, washing and bathing.
b) Sanitary latrines and urinals for men and women are
built at camp site. Authority Engineers regularly
monitor that the cleanliness at sanitation facilities is
maintained. The camp sites were properly levelled to
ensure it is free from depressions such that water may
get stagnant and become a nuisance. The disposal of
sewage is done using septic tanks and soak-pits.
c) Garbage bins are provided at all the necessary
locations in the camp. Due care is taken that the bins
are regularly emptied. Bleaching powder or alike are
used wherever there is a possibility of nuisance.
d) Shelters of standard size at the workplace were
located to ensure its isolation from the Hot-mix and
concrete plants and from the movement of hauling
equipments. The workers were encouraged to
maintain hygiene and carry-out plantation activities
around their shelters.
e) Cooking and Dining facilities are located away from
plants and movement of hauling equipments. Given
the COVID-19 pandemic, due care was taken to
ascertain that social distancing is maintained between
different groups of workers.
f) Necessary First Aid and Health Care facilities are
assured at the campsite. In case of any emergency, the
contractor arranged for consultation with Private
Hospitals and Government Hospitals from the nearby
villages. Dedicated vehicles are employed at the camp
site to take the camp occupants to the nearby hospitals
in case of emergency.
g) Clean and Suitable Day care facility is provided to
enable women to leave behind their children during
their working hours.
h) Dust suppression techniques such as spraying water
over the hauling routes within the camp with the help
of water tankers, construction of fencing or barriers
around the dust-generating equipment at the camp,
and plantation near the habitable areas of workers are
used.
i) Construction of fencing or barriers around the noisy
equipments and systematic plantation in the camp site
prove effective in reducing the noise levels near the
habitable areas of the workers.
j) No additional provision was made in the estimate.
However, requirement was mentioned in the tender
document. The Contractor submitted his offer
considering all such expenditure during execution of
ADB aided MSRIP-I EPC projects. Accordingly, the
contractor executed all the items within the quoted
offer.
INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023 23
 TECHNICAL PAPER
Fig. 1 Site Camp Plan for EPC-6
2.2.3 Site induction
All the works were initiated by the contractors and sub-
contractors until the site induction training is carried out.
The site induction training includes
i) Discussion and review of EMP detailing how specic
environmental risks associated with their Scope of
work will be managed, legal compliance, inspection
and audits and progress tracking and reporting
ii) Environmental training and awareness needs are
determined and documented
iii) Health and Safety Awareness courses are conducted
by the Contractor and Authority Engineer
2.2.4 Air quality monitoring
Special efforts are required in order to reduce the air
pollution arising from various construction activities.
i) To reduce the adverse effects of the Dust generated
due to construction activities and transport, storage
and handling of construction materials following
measures are taken
a) The EPC contractor submits the location and layout
24 INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023
plan for storage areas of construction materials which
are approved by the AE.
b) The transportation, loading and unloading of loose
and ne materials are insisted by using covered
vehicles.
c) Care is taken to locate areas of storage the downwind
of the habitation area.
d) For dust suppression, water spraying on earthworks,
unpaved haulage roads and other dust prone areas is
done four times a day.
e) Appropriate Personal Protection Equipments (PPEs)
are provided to the workers depending on the chance
of their exposure to different types of pollutants.
f) Complaints concerning dust issues if any from the
Locals are addressed and suitable remedial measures
are adopted.
ii) Measures on the emission of air pollutants (HC, SO2,
NOX, CO, etc.) from vehicles due to trafc congestion
and use of equipment and machinery.
a) The AE ensure that the contractor maintains his
machinery and equipment regularly and none of the
machinery or equipment are responsible for the
generation of excessive emissions.
 TECHNICAL PAPER

b) While approving the locations of the Batching
Asphalt mixing plants and crushers, the AE ensures
that they are at least one kilometer downwind
direction.
c) Only crushers licensed by the Pollution Control Board
(PCB) are used. It is ensured that the PUC certicate
of equipment and machinery is up to date. All the
statutory permissions from State Pollution Control
Board are obtained and regular care is taken to
maintain the emissions within the limit.
d) Diesel Generators (DG) sets with stacks of adequate
height and use of low sulphur diesel as fuel are used.
e) In the construction camp and canteen, the use of LPG
is used as fuel source for cooking, instead of wood to
reduce emission.
f) The ambient air quality monitoring is done regularly
as in Fig. 2, by the contractor in the presence of the
Authority Engineer and Authority. Following limits
as tabulated in Table 8 are adopted to ensure healthy
air quality.

Table 8 Sample Air Quality Monitoring Observations for EPC 6

At Dhakul Gaon Village Ch. 71+400 - along Project Corridor

Sr. Test Parameter Limit as per CPCB Results during project Results after project
No. (MOEF) / 24 hr execution Dt. 03.06.2021 execution Dt. 09.12.2022
(Pre-Monsoon)
1 Particulate Matter - PM 2.5 60 µg/m3 30 µg/m3 25 µg/m3
2 Particulate Matter - PM 10 100 µg/m3 70 µg/m3 70 µg/m3
3 Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) 80 µg/m3 10 µg/m3 11 µg/m3
4 Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx) 80 µg/m3 24 µg/m3 22 µg/m3
5 Carbon Monoxide (CO) 02 µg/m3 1 µg/m3 1.2 µg/m3

As per Environmental Monitoring Plans (EMoP) prepared

by Maharashtra State Public Works Department and
approved by Asian Development Bank (ADB) the
frequency of monitoring is 3 times in a year. Aim is to
ensure that Environmental Parameters should not cross the
limit set by Pollution Control Board during execution of
project activity. Desired frequency was achieved
g) The Trafc Management and Dust Suppression Plan
prepared by the Contractor are reviewed by AE and
approved by the authority at PIU level.

Fig. 3 Noise Level Testing

2.2.5 Noise monitoring
At the construction site and camp site, the excessive noise
from construction activities and operation of equipment
and machinery creates unwanted disturbance to local
residents and camp inmates. Following remedial measures
are taken to mitigate this issue.
i) It is ensured by the Contractor's EFP and Authority
Engineer that all the equipment are timely serviced
and maintained. All the possible construction
Fig. 2 Air Quality Testing equipment and machinery are tted with silencers.

INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023 25

 TECHNICAL PAPER
ii) It is stressed upon to use only the IS approved
equipment for the construction activities.
iii) Due care is taken to ensure that near the residential
areas, the noisy construction activities are carried out
during the daytime. Efforts are also taken to
implement noisy operations intermittently to reduce
the total noise generated.
iv) Efforts are taken to ensure minimum trafc jams along
the project corridor during the construction process, so
that avoid accumulation of noise beyond standards.
v) No Horn sign board are placed even during the
constriction process near the noise sensitive areas.
vi) The workers handling noisy equipment and
machinery are equipped with appropriate PPEs.
vii) Complaints about noise issues if any from the Locals
is addressed and suitable remedial measures are
adopted.
Table 9 Ambient Noise Monitoring Parameters
Limits as per Noise Pollution (Regulation &
Area Category of Control) Rules, 2000
Area Day Time (dB) Night Time (dB)
A Industrial 75
B Commercial 65
C Residential 55
D Silence Zone 50
During the execution of project, Noise Level of Day time
58.4 dB (A) & night time 48.2 dB (A) was observed on
10.03.2022 . After execution Day time 50.4 dB (A) & night
time 48.4 dB(A) at location Asegaon village residential
area EPC 6 project.
2.2.6 Land and soil monitoring
i) Barren and Non-agricultural areas are used as borrow
areas to the extent possible. If using agricultural land,
the topsoil should be preserved and laid over either on
the embankment slope for growing vegetation to
protect soil erosion.
ii) Land for temporary facilities like construction camps,
storage areas, etc. shall be brought back to its original
state.
iii) In order to ensure minimal soil erosion, the side slopes
of all the cut and ll areas are graded. Care is taken
that the slope gradient is not greater than 2:1.
iv) The environmental aspects borrow area management
is done in following way.
a) Efforts are taken to ensure that the borrow areas are
sited away from the habited areas.
26 INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023
viii) Periodic Noise Monitoring at day time and at
midnight is carried out as in Fig. 3, by the contractor as
per EMP in the presence of the Authority Engineer and
Authority. Following limits as mentioned in Table 9
are adopted to ensure that the noise levels are not
excessive.
ix) To reduce Noise level, Noise barriers provided for
school building adjacent to the project road as in Fig. 4
Fig. 4 Noise Barrier Provided to School Building
Adjacent to the Project Road of EPC-7
Location Frequency
Ÿ Thrice in an year
70 Ÿ Base Camp Ÿ Pre - Monsoon
Ÿ Quarry Ÿ Post - Monsoon
55
Ÿ RMC Plant Ÿ One Randomly
45
Ÿ Sensitive
40 Receptors
b) Environmental Clearance (EC) is obtained from State
Environment Impact Assessment Authority (SEIAA)
or District Environmental State Environment Impact
Assessment Authority (DEIAA).
c) Depths of borrow pit is regulated and sides are not
kept steeper than 25%.
d) The top soil is stockpiled and proposed to be utilized at
the rehabilitation stage. IRC:10-1961 is used for its
operation and rehabilitation.
e) The transportation of earth materials is done through
covered vehicles.
f) The Borrow areas are not dug continuously.
g) Care is taken to ensure that the borrow areas are
levelled in environmental friendly manner.
v) Efforts were taken so that aggregate can be sourced
from existing licensed quarries. Wherever new quarry
is required, the contractor is directed to submit the
copies of consent, approval, and rehabilitation plan to
the Authority. A quarry redevelopment plan
developed by the contractor shall be in line with the
Mining Rules of the state and approved by the AE.
Environmental Clearance is obtained from State
 TECHNICAL PAPER

Environment Impact Assessment Authority (SEIAA) containers labelled 'Waste oil' and 'Hazardous is
in case of opening new quarry. Whenever in planned to be sold off to authorized vendors of the
operation, the quarry license shall be valid. State Pollution Control Board.
vi) The construction vehicles, machinery and equipment viii) Following measures are taken in order to avoid
are stationed in the designated ROW to avoid contamination of soil due to bituminous and non-
unwanted compaction of the soil. Approach roads, bituminous debris generated from demolition and
and haulage roads are designed along the barren and road construction.
hard soil areas to reduce the unwanted compaction. To a) Bituminous debris is used for paving cross roads,
restrict the wear and tear to the village and minor access roads and paving works in construction site and
roads, efforts are taken to transport to the extent camps, temporary diversion and haul roads.
possible, the quarry material to the dumping site Remaining Bituminous and non-bituminous debris
through major roads. are planned to be dumped in ditches and low lying
vii) Following measures are taken to avoid contamination areas upon approval from the State Pollution Control
of soil due to leakage or spillage of oil Board.
a) Care is taken during refuelling of construction b) Non-Bituminous wastes is being dumped in borrow
vehicles and equipments so that the oil or diesel pits and covered with a layer of topsoil conserved
spillage does not contaminate the soil. from opening the pit.
b) The fuel storage and refuelling sites are kept away Following parameters are monitored as per Indian Council
from the drainage channels. of Agricultural Research (ICAR) standards to ensure the
c) Waste oil and oil-soaked cloths are stored in health of soil Table 10.
Table 10 Parameters Monitored to Ensure the Health of Soil for Package EPC-6
Sr. No. Test Parameter Results during project execution Results after project execution
Dt. 23.04.2022 at farm adjacent plant site Dt. 09.12.2022
1) Nitrogen (N) 24.16 Kg/hac 21.30 Kg/hac
2) Phosphorous (P) 30.48 Kg/hac 58.30 Kg/hac
3) Potassium (K) 134.56 Kg/hac 157.30 Kg/hac
Heavy Metals
4) Lead (Pb) 2.16 mg/kg 0.24 mg/kg
5) Chromium (Cr) 26.32 mg/kg 18.30 mg/kg
6) Arsenic (As) < 0.1 mg/kg Not Detected
7) Zinc (Zn) 28.44 mg/kg 31.44 mg/kg
8) Cadmium (Cd) 0.52 mg/kg Not Detected
9) Boron (B) 20.15 mg/kg 20.00 mg/kg
10) Nickel (Ni) 15.61 mg/kg 11.20 mg/kg
11) Copper (Cu) 11.85 mg/kg 10.30 mg/kg

2.2.7. Water quantity and quality management
As per the Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA)
guidelines, the proposed road corridor runs through non-
notied areas for the regulation of ground water
development and management. To ensure proper Water
Quantity and Quality Management, following measures
are taken. Measures were taken to not affect the quality of
existing water sources at camp and plant site. Monitoring
was done to ascertain the same.
i) Water intensive activities are avoided to be
undertaken during Summer.
ii) In line with the design, the roadside drains are
connected with the existing nearby natural drains. The
presence of water logging over the entire project
corridor is regularly monitored and if found,
immediate suitable measures are adopted to tackle the
issue.
iii) Adequate size and number of cross drainage

INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023 27

 TECHNICAL PAPER
structures are provided in the areas where the land is
sloping towards road alignment. At all places the
actual road level is lesser than HF, the road level is
raised above HFL level.
iv) The construction of cross drainage structures is
planned during the lean ow period.
v) A total of 128 Rain Water Recharge Pits are
constructed beside the construction of Cross Drainage
Structures, to augment the groundwater condition in
the area. Rain Water Recharge Pits Sections as
illustrated in the Fig. 5 are used. Recharge Pits were
constructed in view to increase the groundwater table
by inltration of water in ground. Increase in ground
Fig. 5 Details of the Rain Water Recharge Pit
28 INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023
water table before and after construction of recharge
pit has not been quantied.
vi) Due care is taken to restrict the soil debris entering the
water bodies or the existing water harvesting
structures along the project road.
vii) Chemicals and oil are stored on concreted platform
with a catchment pit for spills collection.
viii) Construction Camp is sited away from the existing
water harvesting structure.
ix) The wastes from the site camp are collected, stored
and then disposed of safely.
x) Following limits as mentioned in Table 11 are adopted
to ensure that the water pollutants are not beyond
permissible standards.
 TECHNICAL PAPER
Table 11 Ambient Water Quality Parameters
Sr. Parameters Permissible Limit as Test as per Location Test Frequency
No. per IS 10500 : 2012
1) Odour Agreeable IS 3025 (Part 5) Ÿ Base Camp Thrice in an year
2) Taste Agreeable IS 3025 (Part 7 & 8) Ÿ RMC Plant Ÿ Pre -Monsoon
Ÿ Sensitive Ÿ Post - Monsoon
3) pH at 25° C 6.5 - 8.5 IS 3025 (Part 11)
Receptors Ÿ One Randomly
4) Turbidity NMT 5 NTU IS 3025 (Part 10)
Ÿ Surface Water
5) Total Dissolved Solids Max. 500 IS 3025 (Part 16) Bodies
(TDS) Ÿ Near Water
6) Total Alkalinity (as CaCO3) Max. 200 IS 3025 (Part 23) Harvesting
Structures
7) Total Hardness (as CaCO3) Max. 200 IS 3025 (Part 21)
Ÿ In farms along
8) Calcium (as Ca) – IS 3025 (Part 40) project corridor
9) Magnesium (as Mg) Max. 30 IS 3025 (Part 46)
10) Chloride (as Cl) Max. 250 IS 3025 (Part 32)
11) Nitrate (as NO3) Max. 45 IS 3025 (Part 34)
12) Biochemical Oxygen Max. 30 IS 3025 (Part 44)
Demand - BOD (at 20° C for
3 days)
13) Chemical Oxygen Demand - Max. 250 IS 3025 (Part 58)
COD
14) Organic Content up to 200 IS 3025 (Part 18)
15) Inorganic Content up to 3000 IS 3025 (Part 18)
16) Suspended Matter up to 2000 IS 3025 (Part 17)
17) Acidity Max. 5 ml IS 3025 (Part 22)

Frequency of Test is taken as nalized as per Environmental
Management Plans (EMP) which have been approved by
ADB. Aim is to ensure that Environmental Parameters
should not cross the limit set by Pollution Control Board
during execution of project activity
2.2.8. Flora and fauna
Only the trees up to the toe line considering the safety to
road users are cut down after procuring requisite
permission from the concerned authority. Compensatory
plantation in 1:3 ratio as per Maharashtra Government's
policy along with their maintenance is in progress along the
project corridor. For this nursery was developed at the
campsite during the monsoon. The forest department and
social forestry department were consulted before nalizing
the species of trees to be planted. Plantation of trees on both
sides of the road was feasible for almost 75% road length.
To prevent safety hazards and provide adequate sight
distance, as far as possible, the trees are planted at an offset
of 3 m back from the ultimate edge of the roadway.
2.2.9. Management of construction waste/ debris
At rst, the contractor submitted the waste disposal plan for
approval to AE. Upon evaluation by the AE, the MPWD at
PIU level was accorded the approval considering the
following aspects.
a) Unproductive and wastelands are selected for
dumping sites away from residential areas and water
bodies. It is ensured that the dumping sites are having
sufcient capacity to house amount of debris
generated.
b) In order to avoid leachate seepage into the soil which
may later affect the ground water quality, controlled
dumping sites with a non-permeable lining
incorporated in the pit design are created.
c) Consent from the village Panchayats is obtained
before nalizing the location.
2.2.10 Trafc management and safety
i) The trafc management and safety plan containing

INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023 29

 TECHNICAL PAPER
details of diversions, trafc safety arrangements
during construction, safety measures for night time
trafc and precautions for transportation of hazardous
materials, timing and scheduling to be done so that
transportation of dangerous goods is done during least
vehicles on the road is submitted by the contractor and
approved by the AE.
ii) The construction activity is restricted to only one side
of existing road.
iii) The Contractor ensures that the diversion roads are
always maintained in running condition particularly
during the monsoon to avoid disruption to trafc ow.
iv) The Contractor is entrusted with a responsibility to
inform the local community of changes to tragic
routes and pedestrian access arrangements with
assistance from AE.
v) Special attention is given to ensure that an adequate
number of road signages are deployed to ascertain
trafc management and safety.
vi) The Pre-Construction Road Safety Audit (RSA) was
carried out by Road Safety Expert from Draft Project
Report (DPR) consultant wherein the safety
assessment of the detailed aspects of the design,
operation and servicing was carried out. Potential
accident prone spots were identied and existing
accident data was studied. Necessary Prole
Corrections, horizontal curve corrections and
locations of sign boards were also reported for the
proposed project. During Construction stage, Road
Safety Audit has been carried out periodically by the
contractor in the presence of a Road Safety Expert of
Authority Engineer, where in necessary alterations to
the pre-construction RSA were highlighted
considering the actual road alignment. Road Safety
Audit was also carried out by the Project Management
Services (PMS) Consultant during Construction and
Post Construction stage. Main focus was on critical
operational safety deciencies observed during
construction. Safety Audit Report submitted by the
PMS includes aspects as Audit observations and
measures, safety concern and its remedies. Audit
briey mentioned trafc control zone and work zone
signs. Aspects related to workers safety at site were
also mentioned. Audit Report mentioned remark about
material stacking near carriageway edge, high edge
drop, proper side slopes, work methodology, advance
warning zone, safety aspect related to tree plantation,
requirement of delinators, cat's eye, crash barrier,
different sign boards, etc. After receiving Audit report
from PMS, Contractor, under the supervision of Road
Safety Expert from Authority Engineer carried out all
the necessary activities on the site to meet out
30 INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023
deciencies and submitted the Compliance report
along with photographs to the Authority
vii) Near habitation on both sides of schools, temples,
hospitals, construction sites, haulage roads, and
diversion sites, at locations after detailed consultation
of villagers and forest ofcials, Temporary access and
diversion with proper drainage facilities is assured.
The contractor and AE are instructed to provide
fencing wherever the cattle moment is expected.
Efforts are taken so that to the extent possible, the
construction activities in these sections are done
during the nighttime.
viii) To ensure the safety of workers and reduce the
accident risk from construction activities, the
following measures are adopted,
a) The contractor will not employ any person below the
age of 18 years. AE and Authority should keep close
watch to make sure that no child labour is employed by
the contractor.
b) The Safety Expert from Contractor and Authority
Engineer are entrusted with the responsibility of
training the ofcers and workers on safety procedures
and precautions, use of rst aid, and PPEs.
c) The Contractor and AE to ensure that all the
regulations regarding safe scaffolding, ladders,
working platforms, gangways, stairwells, excavations,
trenches, etc. are compiled with.
d) AE to make sure that contractor is maintaining readily
available rst aid unit, PPEs, uorescent and retro
refectory signage in local language at a construction
site.
e) Emergency plan prepared by the contractor to respond
to any accidents or emergencies is evaluated and
approved by the AE.
2.2.11 Site restoration and rehabilitation
Throughout the project corridor, construction camp site
and borrow areas; the contractor before demobilization, the
contractor will prepare site restoration plans and submit it
to the AE for approval. On reviewing the site restoration
plan, the AE will approve the same. All the construction
zones including river- beds, culverts, road side areas,
camps, hot mix plant sites, crushers, batching plant sites,
crushers, batching plant sites and any other areas used or
affected by the project will be left clean and tidy, to the
satisfaction of the Environmental Ofcer from AE and EFP
from Authority. All the excavated borrow areas as in Fig.
6are rehabilitated by converting the borrow area in water
storage pond with providing barracatig in view of safety
along the periphery.
 TECHNICAL PAPER
Fig. 6 Rehabilitation Work of Opened Borrow Area at Package No. EPC-7
2.2.12 Environmental permits and clearances
Wild life clearance was not applicable for this project.
Upon issue of Letter of Acceptance (LOA), the Authority
handed over the Project Length excluding the forest
affected length to the Contractors. Tree cutting permission
was obtained during the construction, considering the road
alignment and ROW. Tree cutting permissions were
obtained without hampering the progress of work.
Contractors then obtained necessary permission for mining
and quarrying and started the project. Consent to Establish
(CTE) and Consent to Operate (CTO) Hot Mix Plant
(HMP), Water Mix Macadam (WMM), Ready Mix Plant
(RMC), Stone Crusher and Diesel Generator (D.G.) Set
was obtained by the contractors from Maharashtra State
Pollution Control Board (MPCB) within two to three
months. Permission for extraction of ground water from
Central Ground Water Board (CGWB)/Agreeements with
local water supplier, Pollution Under Control Certicate
(PUC) for various vehicles and equipment, Consent Letter
from Land Owner/Panchayat/Land agreement for
temporary use of land, Labour License and Workmen
Compensation Insurance/Contractor's all Risk Insurance
(CAR) policy were obtained by the contractor. All
permissions renewed as and when required. All the
permissions are related to pollution and use of natural
sources, hence for this project it was part of Environmental
Monitoring Plan and implemented and monitored as
assessment.
All the necessary permissions for procuring the
construction materials like Aggregate, Natural Sand,
Murum, Water, etc are also to be obtained by the contractor
from concern authorities or procure them from already
approved sources. Contractor is also required to obtain
from concern authorities the permission to establish various
plants and Construction Camp and Labour Camp on a
particular piece of land owned or rented by him. Table 12
illustrate Essential Environmental Permits and Clearances.
2.3 Operation and Maintenance Stage
On completion of the project, following measures are taken
for Environmental Safeguards during Operation and
Maintenance stage. All the activities mentioned are part of
Environmental Monitoring Plan. It was clearly mentioned
in the EPC Contract that the cost for the same shall be borne
by the EPC Contractor.
2.3.1 Air quality - due to vehicular movement
To ensure the sound quality of air, efforts are taken to
ensure that the tree plantation is maintained with 70%
survival rate, the road maintenance works are planned at
regular interval to ensure good surface condition and
ambient air quality monitoring is scheduled at regular
intervals. Signages are provided along the project corridor
to remind the drivers to properly maintain their vehicles to
economize on fuel consumption. The cost of necessary
remedial measures is considered in operation and
maintenance cost.
2.3.2 Noise quality - noise due to movement of trafc
The road maintenance works planned at regular interval
will ensure good surface condition low level of noise due to
movement of trafc. The sign boards of speed limitation
and honking restriction and provision of noise barriers near
sensitive receptors shall ensure low noise pollution.
Moreover quality monitoring is scheduled at regular
intervals. The cost of necessary remedial measures is
considered in operation and maintenance cost.
2.3.3 Land and soil
Periodic checking is scheduled to be carried out to assess
the effectiveness of the stabilization measures to prevent
soil erosion at embankment during heavy rain. Moreover
soil quality monitoring is scheduled at regular intervals.
The cost of necessary remedial measures is considered in
operation and maintenance cost.
INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023 31
 TECHNICAL PAPER
Table 12 Essential Environmental Permits and Clearances
Sr. No. Mandatory Permission required for implementation of Environmental Authority Granting Permission / No
Monitoring Plan (EMoP) and as per Contract Agreement. Objection Certicate (NOC)

Permissions to be obtained by Authority / Executing Agency

1) Environmental Clearance Ministry of Environment, Forest and
Climate Change (MoEF&CC)
2) Wildlife Clearance Central Ministry of Forest Department
3) Forest Clearance Forest Department
4) Tree Cutting Permission Revenue and Forest Department
5) Utility Shifting · Electrical Utility - Maharashtra State
Electricity Distribution Co. Ltd.
· Water Supply Utility - Maharashtra
Jeevan Pradhikaran
· Telephone Utility - Concern
· Telephone Agency

Permissions to be obtained by EPC Contractor

6) Permission for extraction of ground water from CGWB / Agreements - Groundwater Surveys &
letters with local water suppliers Development Agency (GSDA)
- Local Authority
7) Extraction of minor minerals viz. sand and aggregates - Permission from the Mining
Department
- Revenue Department
8) Labour License - Labour License
9) Workmen compensation insurance / CAR Policy - Insurance Company
10) Certicate to Establish (CTE) and Certicate to Operate (CTO) for Hot Mix - Maharashtra State Pollution Control
Plant (HMP), Wet Mix Macadam (WMM) Plant, Ready Mix Concrete (RMC) Board (MPCB)
Plant, Stone Crusher, Diesel Generator (D.G.) Sets

2.3.4 Water resources, ooding and inundation
Regular monitoring is scheduled to check silting near the
existing water bodies and water harvesting structures along
the project road. The cost of necessary remedial measures
is considered in operation and maintenance cost. The cross
drainage structures are scheduled to be checked for water
logging to ensure that the ow is maintained. The cost for
cleaning the blockages and other remedial measures is
considered in operation and maintenance cost.
2.3.5 Flora
Provision is kept while working out the operation and
maintenance cost to ensure 70% survival rate of planted
trees. The tree survival audit is scheduled every year before
monsoon season.
2.3.6 Maintenance of right of way and safety
Following activities are planned to ensure that the Right of
Way (ROW) is well maintained during the operation and
maintenance period.
i) ROW should be maintained completely clear of
shrubs. As far as possible no obstruction in the form of
vegetation, utility services, road side hording,
encroachment, etc. shall be allowed within three meter
from the edge of carriageway. Wherever the
requirement in accordance with IRC:SP:21- 2009 is
not met with, suitable measures like providing retro-
reective band on the trees and other obstructions
shall be provided.
ii) The signage boards along the project corridor should
be well maintained. The damaged boards shall be
replaced.
iii) Periodic inspection is scheduled to ensure that all
safety provisions included in the design and
construction stage are properly maintained.

32 INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023

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3. I M P L E M E N TAT I O N O F S O C I A L
SAFEGUARDS AND GENDER ACTION
PLAN
Being a door to door mode of transportation, Roads play a
major role in bringing about social upliftment of the
society. Roads and transportation can strengthen regional
development, economic growth and improvement in the
living standards of people. No matter, at what distance a
person wants to travel, no matter what intention they serve,
roads, become the inevitable parts of their journey. The
development of road network as the development of our
society shows the relation between use of transport and the
betterment of social living standards. This will always be
our greatest achievement that we, from past few decades,
approaching the remote areas, tribes, religious places of its
kind, made accessible with our handy road network.
Working on the construction and development part of the
infrastructure, we often tend to ignore the social issues
concerning the construction staff and the actual interest of
citizens who are most likely to use the road during and post-
construction. To monitor the implementation of the Social
Safeguards and Gender Action Plan, focal persons were
appointed from Authority (Public Works Department),
Authority Engineer and Contractor. In order to bring about
comprehensive development of our society, attempts are
made to implement the social and gender safeguards in a
planned and effective way.
All the activities mentioned are part of Social Safeguard
and Gender Action Plan to be implemented by Contractor
without any extra payment except resettlement plan for
affected persons. It is mentioned in agreement that Health
awareness Program to be conducted by the Contractor on
his own cost. Social safeguard Parameters like no
demolishing or relocating Private assets before ensuring ,
that asset owner has received compensation and
resettlement assistance is mentioned in agreement and cost
required for the resettlement plan will be borne by the
Authority. The Authority encouraged the Contractor to
carry out such Social Activities and guided them how the
same can be executed with the help of existing resources.
The Authority also guided the Contractor to execute
additional activities with the help of various Government
Agencies like Health Department and NGO's.
3.1 Health Awareness and Medical Camps
Health Awareness and Medical Camps are organized
within the camp site itself for the camp inmates and also for
the villagers residing in the nearby villages. Since late
2019, entire globe was hit by successive waves of COVID-
19 pandemic. In order to spread health awareness amongst
the camp inmates, ofcials of the Public Works
Department, experts from Authority Engineer and citizens
from nearby village, Medical Camps were conducted
within the premises of the camp.
3.1.1 Health and safety (HSE) plan
HSE plan for COVID-19 was prepared by the Contractors,
reviewed with recommendation of the Authority Engineer
and approved by the Authority (Public Works Department).
The approved plan is implemented by the Contractor and
reviewed by the Authority Engineer.
3.1.2 COVID-19 Checkup and awareness camp
When the COVID-19 pandemic was new to the world and
the cases were at a peak in the district, checkup and
awareness camps were conducted within the construction
campsite. Following test and activities were conducted in
the presence of Team of Doctors from Government
Hospital at Taluka and District levels.
i) Preliminary checkup for COVID19 like (Body
Temperature, Oxygen {SPO2} Levels)
ii) Blood Pressure Checkup including advice to
maintain the levels
iii) Blood Sugar Levels including advice to maintain the
levels
iv) Awareness about HIV/AIDS, Malaria, Dengue,
Typhoid, etc.
3.1.3 Health awareness and medical camp to check the
spread of COVID-19
In the presence of Doctors from various Government
Hospitals, Real-Time - Reverse Transcription Polymerase
Chain Reaction (Real-Time RT–PCR) tests were
conducted for the symptomatic and latter for complete staff
of the Contractor. Authority Engineer took initiative for
preparing and distributing of COVID-19 Care Kits to
project staff and workers which included the following:
i) Vitamin B-Complex medicine
ii) Vitamin C medicine
iii) Inhalers
iv) Electral Powder
iv) Face Mask
v) Sanitizer
vi) Ayurvedic Kadha (Herbal Tea to boost immunity)
vii) Roasted Chickpeas (a rich source of protein)
3.1.4 Health checkup and COVID-19 vaccination
camp for villagers, camp inmates and staff of
Public Works Department and Authority
Engineer.
In the presence of Doctors of various specializations like
Medicine, ENT, Orthopedics, Ophthalmology, Women's
Health, Dentist, Pathology, Mental Health, etc. Health
Checkup camps were organized near all the EPC camp
sites. Special efforts were taken to boost the participation
of villagers by displaying banners at the camp location,
informing the village Panchayat and other local bodies, and
INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023 33
 TECHNICAL PAPER
informing and inviting public representatives. Prescribed
medicines were also distributed to the need free of cost.
Maharashtra State Cabinet Minister for Women and Child
Development Smt. Yashomati Thakur along with other
members of the Legislative Assembly not only attended the
Health Camp, but also participated actively in the camp.
Nearly 550 doses of the Covishield vaccine were
administered to men and women above 18years of age
from villagers, camp inmates and staff of Public Works
Department and Authority Engineer. Women Hygiene Kits
consisting of Sanitizer, Face Mask, Iron and Zinc Tablets
and Sanitary Pads were distributed by the hands of Minister
for Women and Child Development Smt. Yashomati
Thakur to the needy women. Special Mobile Care unit for
Fig. 7 Ration and COVID-19 Kit distribution to Elderly and Differently Abled Villagers
3.3 Road Safety Awareness Programme
Road Safety Awareness program was organized by the EPC
Contractors as in Fig. 8, wherein, the staff of the contractor
under the guidance of Team Leader, Resident Engineer and
Road Safety Engineer from Authority Engineer, Road
Safety Expert from Contractor and concern staff from
Public Works Department distributed guided the road users
about various rules, regulations, meaning of road side signs
and symbols, importance of maintaining the vehicle, etc.
Pamphlets highlighting various rules were distributed
among the road users. Believing that the importance of
safety and discipline should be integrated in the citizens
from an early age, the Team Leader, Resident Engineer and
34 INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023
Dental Health Checkup and Mammography testing were
deployed at the site of Health Camp.
3.2 Distribution of Food Packets and Ration Kits to
the villagers
During the peak days of COVID-19 pandemic, the
Authority Engineer along with the Contractor's staff
carried out an extraordinary activity by doing door-to-door
distribution of COVID care kits, food packets and Ration
Kits to the economically suffered and Elderly and
Differently Abled villagers, as in Fig. 7. The food packets
and Raton Kits included essentials like Pulses, Mustered
Oil, Soyabin Chuck, Spices, Salt, Toothpaste, Bathing
Soap, Biscuits, Bread, Banana, etc.
Road Safety Engineer from Authority Engineer, Road
Safety Expert from the Contractor visited the nearby
schools to guide the students' various rules, regulations,
meaning of road side signs and symbols, importance of
maintaining the vehicle, responsibilities and rules for
pedestrians.
3.4 Provision of Access Roads to the elds of
villagers
The dismantled Bituminious Material was used to
construct access roads for the elds of villagers. A total of
71 such roads were made which ensured better quality
access roads of the villagers and also provided an effective
medium for the disposal of Bituminous Waste.
 TECHNICAL PAPER
Fig. 8 Road Safety Awareness Program organized by the EPC Contractors in School for Students
and besides the carriageway for the Road Users
3.5 Redressal of Grievance
A Grievance Redressal Committee is established to
address the work related environment and pollution-
related complaints from the residents and road users.
Following was the composition of the Grievance Redressal
Committee (GRC) at Project Monitoring Unit (PMU)
i) Chairperson : Chief Engineer (Konkan) and Project
Director (Externally Aided Projects)
ii) Focal Safeguard Ofcer : Resource Person for
Environmental Safeguard (Redt. Superintending
Engineer, MPWD)
iii) Member - Superintending Engineer Public Works
Circle, Amravati
vi) Member - Environmental Specialist from PMS
Consultant
Following was the composition of the Grievance Redressal
Committee (GRC) at Project Implementation Unit (PIU)
i) Chairperson : Superintending Engineer, Public Works
Circle, Amravati
ii) Member Secretary : Executive Engineer in-charge
iii) Member : Environmental Expert from Authority
Engineer
iv) Member : Women Representative from the ofce of
concern Executive Engineer
v) Member : Representative from affected village :
Sarpanch from concern village
Grievance Register is maintained at the site and at the site
ofce. The received grievance is forwarded to the
Authority Engineer and Contractor for verication of facts.
The Contractor and Authority Engineer on verifying the
facts, provide solution to the ofcials of the Public Works
Department, who on examining the factual situations try to
provide rational solutions to the Grievance and inform the
same to the concern. In case the complainant is not happy
with the solution provided he may request the GRC at PIU
level to discuss the issue in the GRC meeting. If the
complainant is not satised with the decision of GRC at
PIU level, the same can be forwarded to GRC at the PMU
level before approaching the legal mechanism. All the
received grievances were addressed and documented. The
agitations raised by the villagers and Public
Representatives were immediately addressed by the
Superintending Engineer and concern Executive Engineer.
3.6 Implementation of Resettlement and
Rehabilitation (R&R) Plan
Whenever the project entail acquisition of land, structures
and other assets and causes displacement or loss of assets
within the right of way, a socio-economic baseline study
and preparation of a Resettlement and Rehabilitation
Action Plan (RAP) is to be undertaken as a part of the
project. Undertaking a social impact assessment and
preparing RAP is to be included as a part of project design
from the start and undertaken in close coordination with
environmental analysis and environmental action plan.
The Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land
Acquisition, Rehabilitation and Resettlement Act, 2013 are
to be followed. Since, the project is funded by Asian
Development Bank (ADB), guidelines of the agency are
also to be followed. Affected House Holds (HH) and
structures were identied while preparation of DPR for the
project and accordingly amount required for compensation
was worked out. During execution, positive and negative
variation was observed owning to alteration of Typical
Cross Section (TCS), shift of central line from existing
centre line, absence of structure or owner during execution,
addition of structure during execution. On a decided record
date, nal number of affected HH and structures was
preparedand amount for the same was worked out.
Following the sequence of activities were followed by the
Resettlement Plan Consultant cum Authority Engineer for
the implementation of microplan.
i) Distribution of I-Cards and No Objection Certicate
(NOC) from the Non-Title Holders (NTHs) in
INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023 35
 TECHNICAL PAPER

presence of Representative of Authority (Public Table 13 EPC Package Wise Location of Pink Toilets
Works Department) Package No. Number of Pink Toilets and School's Village
ii) Distribution of approved amount by Cheque to Name
respective NTHs in presence of Representative from EPC-6 5 Nos. (Wathoda, Shendurjana (Khurd),
Authority, the details of which are illustrated in Table 5 Ashoknagar, Asegaon, Kholi-II)
iii) Clearing of Encroachment by NTHs after receiving the EPC-7 3 Nos. (Sanglud, WadnerGangai, Thilori)
approved amount.
EPC-8 5 Nos. (Shendurjana-Khurd, Talegaon,
iv) F i n a l R e p o r t p r e p a r a t i o n a f t e r c o m p l e t e Dhamangaon, Kamlapur, Satargaon)
implementation of Micro-Plan.
Any grievance received in this regard is addressed by the
Grievance Redressal Committee. The details of execution
of Resettlement Plan for affected CPRs is illustrated in
Table 6.

3.7 Project Implementation Broachers

Project Implementation Broachers were prepared for each
package by the Contractor in English and Marathi which
has mentioned of details of project background with salient
features, benets of the project to the commuters and
industry, targeted social and environmental development,
the composition of GRC, details of Religious and
Recreational Tourism Development of the Road. These
broachers were distributed to the concern Gram
Panchayats and Public Representatives at the initial phase
of construction.

3.8 Working an Extra Mile - Addressing the

Difculties and Requests from Villagers.
To connect with the local villagers and maintain a long term
relationship with them, following are some of the works
carried out by the contractors.
3.8.1 Construction of pink toilet in schools along the
project corridor

A total of 13 Pink Toilets at locations mentioned in Table 13

and as shown in Fig. 9 were constructed in Government
Schools where there was no facility for Girls and
differently able person along the Project Corridor added
benet for road user and school going girls. Overhead
water tank was installed on the roof of the toilet blocks.
Necessary water supply arrangement like - connection of
overhead water tank with the existing or proposed well /
bore well or water supply pipe line was made. The toilets
after construction were handed over to the concern School
Authority. The maintenance of Civil Construction Work
rests with the contractor up to the Defect Liability Period.
The responsibility to maintain hygiene and regular water
supply from water source like bore well or water supply
line is agreed to rest with the School Authority. The
approximate cost of one toilet block is INR 7,00,000/-
Fig. 9 Pink Toilets Constructed in Government
Schools along the Project Corridor
3.8.2 Rebuilding the place of worship at asra
There was an old place of worship at Asra, where villagers
gathered for praying daily along the project corridor of
EPC-7 package. With the guiding tips and request from the
villagers the workship place was rebuilt.
3.8.3 Improvement of school playground
On the request from the school staff, the school at village
Amla along the project corridor of EPC-7 project was

36 INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023

 TECHNICAL PAPER

improved with the help of contractor's staff and machinery,

leading to a bright smile of the children using the
playground and planning their carrier in sports.
3.8.4 Revision of nished road level (FRL)
At some villages, the villagers requested to lower the FRL
to avoid the entry of rain water in their home. The FRL was
technically revised is line with requirement and approved
by the designer with immediate effects.
3.9 Implementation of Gender Action Plan (GAP)
To ensure that the road development project incorporates
Elderly-Women-Children-Differently Abled (ECWD)
friendly aspects, efforts as a part of the Gender Action Plan
(GAP) were taken which included the following:
3.9.1 ECWD-friendly design and safety
In the DPR preparation stage itself in was ensured that the
Road upgraded infrastructure incorporates ECWD-
friendly design and safety measures which includes
provision of necessary Over Head Portal, Cantilever
Gantry Structures, Metal Beam Crash Barriers, Guard
Stone, Pavement Markers, Cat Eyes, Vertical Delineators,
Object Markers, Regulatory Sign Boards, Cautionary
Boards, Solar Blinkers. In order to ensure safety at night, Fig. 10 Plan, Elevation, Cross Section and photographs
the provision of Solar Street Lights was also made. of ECWD-friendly Bus Shelter

3.9.2 EWCD-friendly bus shelters

Construction of Elderly - Children - Women and
Differently Abled (ECWD) friendly Bus Shelters with
solar light was part of Contract Agreement. The
construction cost for the same was considered in the cost
estimate itself while preparing the DPR. The approximate
cost of one bus shelter is INR 4,00,000/-
Design and Construction of all the Bus Shelters as in Fig. 10
are RCC and ECWD-friendly. Provision of Ramp and Solar
Light for safety at night are made along in addition to assure
the safety at the locations of Bus Shelter. The locations of
the bus shelter were carefully selected so that they are close
to educational and health facilities. Information of Women-
specic scheme, women health, and helpline number for
women and children are displayed at these bus shelters.
3.9.3 Health camps for elderly child womens and
differently abled (ECWD) category
Health Camps as in Fig. 11 were regularly organized in
which extra efforts were taken to ensure maximum
participation of citizens belonging to ECWD category.
Medical Professionals from nearby District Health Centre,
Rural Hospitals, etc. were invited for the Health Camp. In
addition to detailed check-up, prescription and distribution
of medicine, awareness on women specic health issues,
sexually transmitted infections, and breast & cervical
cancer was targeted. COVID-19 Care Kits and Women
Hygiene Kits were distributed during the camp.
Fig. 11 Health Camps for Site Camp Residents
and Villagers
3.9.4 Gender-based awareness for contractors,
consultants and authority.
The Contractors were provided with an advisory on
enhancing women's workforce participation across skilled
and unskilled categories and maintaining sex-
disaggregated data on construction workers. Authority also
ensured that women workforce is engaged at all the
hierarchical positions. The Authority Engineer and Project
Management Consultants were also encouraged to involve
the active participation of women.
3.9.5 Technical and management capacity building
trainings
Technical and Management Capacity Building Training as
in Fig. 12 were organized by Authority Engineer and
Project Management Services (PMS) Consultants for the
Maharashtra Public Works Department (Authority) project

INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023 37

 TECHNICAL PAPER
staff. Post-training assessment survey was conducted to
assess how participants evaluate acquired knowledge and
skills. In addition to this, the Contractors had arranged a
Computer Training Program in their Camp Ofce for
school and college going girls. This initiative received
splendid response from village girls.
(a) Capacity Building Training
(b) Computer Training Program for village girls
Fig. 12 (a & b) Arrangement of Training Camps
3.9.6 Gender training and GAP orientation
The Authority Engineer and Project Management Services
(PMS) Consultant organized Gender Training and GAP
Orientation for staff of Maharashtra Public Works
Department (Authority) which highlighted various laws
that ensure gender-specic safeguards and ways in which
women's participation can be encouraged. Post-training
assessment survey was conducted to assess how
participants evaluate acquired knowledge.
4. CONCLUSIONS
A total of 162.08 km road length of State Highway and
Major District Roads under the jurisdiction of Public
Works Circle Amravati was improved as a part of Asian
Development Bank (ADB) aided Maharashtra State Road
Improvement Program (MSRIP-I).
These roads provide a crucial link to Express Way;
National Highways; other State Highways and Major
District Roads; various Village Roads. The road connects
major districts of Amravati and Yavatmal district with
38 INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023
Railway stations at Dhamangaon Railway and Chandur
Railway. The Holy Pilgrimage centers of Kaundanyapur,
Runmochan and Riddhapur are connected with these
roads. Cotton, Whole Grain, Oil Seeds and Orange
cultivation is the main crops in the project highway area,
the transportation of which to other places became faster
and easy with the development of this highway.
The Road commuters have reported signicant fuel saving
owning to improved road surface and project facilities.
Improvements of cross drainage facility have assured all
weather connectivity.
The improved road facilities are proving to be benecial
for School and College going students.
Medical Facilities are reaching faster to the needy due to
improved roads.
Owning to the safety measures taken during construction
and road safety measures provided along the project road,
will reduce the possibility of road accidents.
Consideration of Environmental, Social and Gender aspect
within framework of sustainable development in linear
project like in state highway is one of the good initiatives
taken by Public Works Circle, Amravati. Where all the bus
shelters are constructed EWCD (Elderly Women Children
Differently Abled), friendly tted with solar light
considering the safety aspect of vulnerable road user and at
each bus shelter in consultation with concern Government
Department Information of Women-specic scheme,
women health, and helpline number for women and
children were displayed.
Construction of pink toilet in schools along the project road
especially for differently able person and girl student is
added benet for road user and school going girls.
Promotion of local homemade product made by female
during periodic health check-up camp, distribution of
medicines including hygiene kits related to women,
specic health check-up (like breast cancer) of women
belongs to local community, workers as well as road user
through special arrangement in construction camp has left
a mark on nearby society.
During, peak of COVID-19 pandemic, initiation taken by
Public Works Department with cooperation of Contractor
and Authority Engineer to arrange free vaccination to
construction workers, road user and local community with
distribution of immunity booster medicine and free ration
to needy is example of sensitivity as well as responsibility
towards society.
Solid noise barrier constructed along the project road at school
not only reduce the noise but also act as safety and break
unnecessary attention of school children towards the road.
Provision of rainwater recharge pit to enhance water level,
connecting it to line drain and at the location of cross
drainages and additional plantation is another aspect
 TECHNICAL PAPER
commensurate with sustainability aspect in project. Re-use
of bituminous dismantled pavement material constructing
approach road to agriculture eld, villages as well as
levelling of playground in school is added advantageous
initiatives to reduce land requirement and disguration of
ambient existing landscape along the project road.
Although, many of the aspect considered in terms of
Environmental, Social and Gender are not provisioned in
original contract, but it was the enthusiasm of the Public
Works Department and cooperation of Contractor as well as
Authority Engineer that led to achieve something different
would be an example of fruits of society-oriented thinking.
REFERENCES
1. IRC:SP:73- 2018, Manual of Specications & Standards for Two
Lanning of Highways with Paved Shoulder (Second Revision),
Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi
2. IRC:SP:84-2019, Manual of Specications and Standards for
Four Laning of Highways (Second Revision) Indian Roads
Congress, New Delhi
3. IRC:8-1980, Type Designs for Highway Kilometre Stones
(Second Revision) Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi
4. IRC:25-1967, Type Designs for Boundary Stones, Indian Roads
Congress, New Delhi
5. IRC:26-1967, Type Design for 200-Metre Stones, Indian Roads
Congress, New Delhi
6. IRC:35-2015, Code of Practice for Road Markings (Second
Revision) , Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi
7. IRC:67-2012, Code of Practice for Road Signs (Third Revision) ,
Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi
8. IRC:103-2012, Guidelines for Pedestrian Facilities (First
Revision) , Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi
9. IRC:38-1988, Guidelines for Design of Horizontal Curves for
Highways and Design Tables (First Revision) , Indian Roads
Congress, New Delhi
10. IRC:SP:23- 1983, Vertical Curves for Highways, Indian Roads
Congress, New Delhi
IRC TECHNICAL COMMITTEES MEETING SCHEDULE FOR THE MONTH OF APRIL, 2023
11. IRC:79-2019, Recommended Practice for Road Delineators (First
Revision) , Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi
12. IRC:37-2018, Guidelines for the Design of Flexible Pavements”
(Fourth Revision) , Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi
13. IRC:81-1997, Guidelines for Strengthening of Flexible Road
Pavements Using Benkelman Beam Deection Technique (First
Revision) , Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi
14. IRC:6-2017, Standard Specications and Code of Practice for
Road Bridges, Section-II Loads and Load Combinations (Seventh
Revision) , Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi
15. IRC:SP:21- 2009, Guidelines on Landscaping and Tree
Plantation, Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi
16. IRC:104-1988, Guidelines for Environmental Impact Assessment of
Highway Projects, Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi
17. IRC:SP:109-2015, Guidelines on Preparation and
Implementation of Environmental Management Plan, Indian
Roads Congress, New Delhi
18. IRC:10-1961, Recommended Practice for Borrow pits for Road
Embankments constructed by Manual Operation, Indian Roads
Congress, New Delhi
19. The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, Government of India.
20. Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981, Government of India.
21. Noise Pollution (Regulation & Control) Rules,2000, Government
of India
22. The Soil and Water Conservation Act (RCA), 1977, Government
of India
23. The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, Government of India.
24. IS 5182 (Part 24) : 2019. Methods for Measurement of Air
Pollution Part 24 Fine Particulate Matter (PM2.5)
25. IS 5182 (Part 24) : 2019. Methods for Measurement of Air
Pollution Part 24 Fine Particulate Matter (PM2.5)
26. IS 5182 (Part 2) : 2001, Methods for measurement of Air Pollution
(Sulphur Dioxide)
27. IS 5182 (Part 6) : 2001, Methods for measurement of Air Pollution
(Oxides of Nitrogen)
28. IS 5182 (Part 10) : 2001, Methods for measurement of Air
Pollution (Carbon Monoxide)
29. The Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000,
Ministry of Environment & Forests, Government of India.
INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023 39
 TECHNICAL PAPER

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF ACCIDENT PATTERN AND CAUSES BEFORE

AND DURING COVID-19 LOCKDOWN IN KERALA- DUE TO CHANGES IN
TRAFFIC VOLUME AND COMPOSITION

DR. PRIYA R1 SREENAJA V P2

ABSTRACT
This study is an attempt to model and analyse changes in the accident rates and pattern during lockdown period where there
was signicant reduction in the passenger transit resulting in changes in vehicle composition. Such an analysis is utmost
important for trafc management measures to reduce the frequency of occurrence of accidents involving various types of
vehicles with different static and dynamic factors sharing the same road stretches. Classied trafc volume data before and
during lockdown, collected from road stretches in Kerala and secondary accident data obtained from Website of Kerala Police
is adopted for the analysis. Paired t-test for mean accident rates for categories, total accidents, fatality, grievous injury and
property damage carried out showed that there is signicant reduction in the accident rates before and during lockdown.
ANOVA performed showed that, strong correlation exist between accident causes with modes involved in collision and
severity of accidents. Using envelope hierarchy technique accident severity involving different modes was quantied and it
found that motorized two wheelers (2W) are the most vulnerable, leading to fatal accidents. Negative Binomial regression
technique was used to arrive at predominant factors contributing to accident rates and fatalities. The trafc volume and
composition have signicant effect on accident rate and its severity and is high time to separate motorized two wheelers
especially in rural area from the trafc, which itself can reduce the accidents by 38%.

1. INTRODUCTION due to high density of population and overcrowding of

The Government of India has embarked upon massive
infrastructure development in the past decade. Even then
the system suffers from various deciencies of capacity
constraint, geometry, maintenance and preservation of
assets created. The situation is aggregated with an explosion
of vehicles with a vast range of performance and static
characteristics plying on the roads. As a result, Road trafc
accidents increased drastically which involved high human
suffering and socioeconomic costs in terms of premature
deaths, injuries, loss of productivity, and as a result, nation is
losing a group of enthusiastic people who can contribute to
the growth and prosperity of the country (4). According to
the report of Ministry of Road Transport and Highways,
Kerala accounts for 8.07 % of the total number of road
accidents in the country in 2021 and the huge rate misleads
Kerala to fth rank among all states in India. So, the
question of how to reduce the number and intensity of
mishaps remain unanswered.
Kerala, which accounts for a large share of road accidents
roads throughout the network, it is observed a drop in the
number of accidents and casualties to a greater extent
during Covid-19 lockdown. This may be due to depressed
activities like shopping, schooling, employment, etc.
which resulted in reduced trafc volume on roads. The
downtime activities corresponding to the lockdown period
looks into the changes in road trafc accident rate as it can
be treated as the direct effect of changes in the passenger
transit resulting in changes in vehicle composition. Hence
analysis of the situation becomes an inevitable stage for the
efcient utilization of trafc management measures.
Researchers have thoroughly worked on the formulation of
relationships among accident rates and trafc volume.
Vogel and Bester (2005), Jadaan et al., (2013), Muthusamy
et al. (2015) in their studies arrived at major factors
contributing accidents and developed relationship between
crash types and causes, disclosing the effect of multiple
human, vehicle and environmental elements using
different techniques.

1 Associate Professor, Email: priyaramakrishnan0@gmail.com

2 M-Tech Student, Email: sreenaja97@gmail.com } Department of Civil Engineering, College of
Engineering, Trivanadrum

40 INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023

 TECHNICAL PAPER
Trafc volume and accident studies on various NH were
conducted by Rao et al., (2005), Ganguly et al., (2014),
G M Mridula et al., (2016) and the study found out the main
reasons for accidents on the roads, such as edge drop of
pavement or corner in a straight road, a hidden junction on a
fast road, poor or concealed warning signs at cross-
roads,drunken driving, over-speeding, use of mobile
phones and users not obeying the trafc rules. The study
reveals that the mitigation measures such as, road
furniture's like convex mirrors, light poles and provisions
of retaining walls at the required places can reduce the risk
of accidents signicantly.
Naghawi (2017) used the quasi-induced exposure method
to study the driver behavior on crashes in Jordan and found
that young drivers crash risk increased under poor
environmental conditions. Naghawi (2018) developed a
crash severity prediction model in Jordan using Negative
Binomial Regression (NBR) technique and revealed that
severe crashes decreased signicantly as the age of both
male and female drivers increases.
Ashraf I et al., (2019) investigated the factors associated
with road accidents in South Korea and revealed that trafc
volume is the leading factor in road accidents. Retallack A
E and Ostendorf B (2020) conducted a study on analysis of
accidents at 120 intersections in Adelaide, Australia and
showed an approximately linear relationship between
trafc volume and accident frequency at lower trafc
volumes. Bhagya lekshmi and Lasitha (2020) conducted
study in Kerala by interpreting the data using trend analysis
and forecasted the annual road accident rates using the
Time Series Models such as Auto-Regressive Integrated
Moving Average (ARIMA) and Exponential Smoothing by
using SPSS.
Ajith Babu D and Dr. Sulaipher M (2021) analyzed and
modeled road trafc accident rates in Kerala over the ten
years from 2011 to 2020 and uses Time Series Models such
as ARIMA and Exponential Smoothing, as well as the
software package SPSS, to anticipate annual trafc
accident rates in Kerala. Oscar et al., (2020) analyse the
effect of Covid-19 lockdown in Tarragona province, Spain
and found out that the relative occurrence of severe
accidents declined by 74.3% as a result of 62.9% fall in
overall mobility. But in Kerala there was no attempt to
illustrate the relationship between trafc volume and
accident rate at lower trafc volumes as studied by
Retallack A E and Ostendorf B (2020) and Oscar et al.,
(2020). It is of utmost importance to study the factors
which directly inuence the accident rate and how they are
related to trafc volume and composition to effectively
implement short term trafc management measures.
This study aims to analyse the changes in the road trafc
accident rates and pattern during the lockdown period
where there was signicant reduction in the passenger
transit resulting in changes in vehicle composition. The
objectives of the study are;
Ø To analyse and compare accident rates and patterns
during lockdown due to Covid-19 pandemic with pre-
lockdown scenario as there was reduction in trafc
volume and changes in vehicle composition plying on
the highway during lockdown.
Ø To identify and quantify the effect of various causes
contributing to the accident involving different
modes, in the severity of accidents, before and during
lockdown
Ø To analyse the accident pattern for various vehicular
composition, various category of roads and type of
location using Negative Binomial (NB) regression
model.
Classied trafc volume data and accident data before and
during lockdown, collected for various categories of
selected road stretches in Kerala was analysed using
hypothesis testing to check if there is signicant reduction
in accident rates due to lockdown, by applying statistical
techniques, Paired-t test. For the preliminary analysis
district wise statistics on total accident, fatality, grievous
injury and property damage are considered. Hypothesis
testing was carried out to nd correlation accident causes
with modes involved in collision and severity of accidents
by using ANOVA technique. Envelope technique was
developed to analyse the correlation between accident
severities due to different vehicle classes. Negative
binomial regression technique was used to arrive at
predominant factors contributing to accident rates and
fatalities. The secondary accident data obtained from
Ofcial Website of Kerala Police and trafc volume and
composition data collected at selected stretches during and
before lockdown are used for the analysis.
2. DATA COLLECTION AND PRELIMINARY
ANALYSIS
Kerala state, which typically encompasses of rural and
urban road networks is considered for the present study.
Road stretches are categorized as National Highway (NH),
State Highway (SH) and Major District Road (MDR). As
per IRC:SP:19-2020 and IRC:64-1990, vehicle
classication considered for the study are Car, motorized
two wheelers (2W), Cycles, Three wheelers (3W), Truck
and Buses. Classied trafc volume count was collected
from videography and secondary sources for the selected
stretches. Since the study period was a challenging one, the
only possible source for accident data collection was from
the Ofcial Website of Kerala Police. Statistical paired-t
test was carried out, using the means of accident rates
before and during lockdown period. In order to analyse the
INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023 41
 TECHNICAL PAPER

signicant reduction on accident data, the mean difference Table 1 Peak hour Trafc Volume Composition
between accident rate before and during lockdown is along NH-66
considered as zero. Road stretch of 23.5 km NH-66 and Vehicle Pre-lockdown Lockdown Percentage
14.2 km SH-2 are considered for the study. Composition reduction
in trafc
Fig.1 shows a representative 24-hour trafc volume data
volume
along Sasthamangalam -Vattiyoorkavu road in
Thiruvananthapuram city before and during the lockdown 2W 38.1% 14.5% 61.9%
period on a weekday.
3W 10.71% 3.81% 64.4%
Car 34.3% 3.05% 91.1%
Buses 6.35% 0% 100%
Trucks 8.56% 1.9% 77.8%
Cycles 1.97% 0% 100%

Percentage reduction in trafc volume is the change in

trafc volume with respect to pre-lockdown trafc volume.
From gure 1 and Table 1, it is clear that 100% reduction
took place for modes bus and cycles, whereas car volume
reduces by 91.1% along NH-66 and SH-2.
Fig.1 Trafc Volume Comparison Before &
During Lockdown A comparative study of accident rate involving modes car,
2W, 3W, and truck are analysed before and during
Average peak hour trafc volume and composition on lockdown period. Since mode bus and cycles during
NH-66 shown in Table 1 before and during lockdown lockdown are insignicant (Table 1), these are not
condition. considered for the analysis of Paired t-test.
Table 2 Accident Comparison before and During Lockdown along NH-66
Modes Total Accident rate during Pre-lockdown, Total Accident rate during Lockdown, Percentage
involved accidents in % accidents in % reduction
in crash during Pre- during in
along lockdown, lockdown, accidents
NH in % in %

Fata l Grievous Minor Non- Fata l Grievous Minor Non-

injury injury injury injury injury injury

Car 34 1.0 10.4 2.3 0.5 39 0.5 4 0.87 0.5 50

2W 38 1.5 10.9 1.7 0.14 48 0.6 4.1 0.66 0.05 60

3W 11 0.8 11.2 1.97 0.2 8 0.3 4.2 0.75 0.08 62.5

Truck& 17 1.6 8.6 2.5 1.6 5 0.6 3.3 0.96 0.6 62.5
other
heavy
vehicle

Source: Ofcial Website of Kerala Police

Percentage reduction in accidents is the change in trafc collision, along SH for before and during lockdown
accident with respect to pre-lockdown accident rate. condition are tabulated in Table 3.
Accident comparison due to the modes involved in

42 INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023

 TECHNICAL PAPER
Table 3 Accident Comparison before and During Lockdown along SH-2
Modes Total Accident rate during Pre-lockdown, Total Accident rate during Lockdown, Percentage
involved accidents in % accidents in % reduction
in crash during Pre- during in
along lockdown, lockdown, accidents
NH in % in %

Fata l Grievous Minor Non- Fata l Grievous Minor Non-

injury injury injury injury injury injury

Car 31 0.73 10.2 2.37 0.35 39 0.36 4.6 1.07 0.16 50

2W 34 1.5 10.7 1.8 0.09 48 0.69 4.8 0.3 0.04 60

3W 13 0.58 11 2.03 0.14 8 0.27 4.94 0.38 0.51 62.5

Truck& 22 1.17 8.4 2.58 1.12 5 0.54 3.38 0.43 0.5 62.5
other
heavy
vehicle

Source: Ofcial Website of Kerala Police

From Table 1, 2 and 3, it can be seen that along NH-66 and Paired t-test was performed in SPSS software and it was
SH-2, accident rate involving each vehicle class reduces found that there is signicant reduction in accidents at 5%
signicantly due to declined trafc during lockdown. In level of signicance and the results are tabulated in Table 3.
other words, the relative occurrence of severe accidents Table 4 Results of Paired t-test
declined by 62.2% as a result of 61.9% fall in overall
mobility. Total accidents before lockdown period Mean values % Change in
involving 2W, car, 3W and heavy vehicle are 38%, 34%, Category Pre-lockdown Lockdown mean values
11% and 17% respectively (Table 2). Even though there is
reduction in trafc volume during lockdown period, Total accident 209.63 67.08 68%
accident involving 2W and car has increased to 48% and Fatality 21.32 7.16 66.4%
39% along NH-66 and SH-2 respectively (Table 2 and 3).
Further analysis done is described in the subsequent Grievous Injury 153.42 51.4 66.5%
paragraphs. Property Damage 6.53 2.63 59.7%

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In the present study paired t- test was performed to check
whether there is signicant reduction in the total accidents
and crash severity degrees during lockdown compared to
pre-lockdown period. Paired t-test was carried out to
determine whether the mean difference between two sets of
observations, during and before lockdown period is zero,
for four categories as: (i) total accidents, accident resulted
in (ii) fatality (iii) grievous injury and (iv) property
damage. Hypothesis considered for the analysis are;
Null hypothesis, H0: There is no signicant reduction on
accident rate during lockdown Vs Alternate hypothesis,
H1: There is signicant reduction on accident rate during
lockdown.
Mean difference in accident rate is the average of the
difference between Pre-lockdown and lockdown accident
rates, which can be expressed in terms of percentage
change in mean value (Table 4). Hence from Table 4, it can
be seen that mean accident rates differ considerably in
magnitude during lockdown, which implies that there is
signicant reduction in total accident, fatality, grievous
injury and property damage due to reduced trafc volume
during lockdown.
Since accident rates reduced drastically during lockdown,
it is utmost important to evaluate contribution of factors
attributing to accident severity. Hence ANOVA was
performed to analyse the correlation between observed
variance of accident data with accident causes and vehicle
modes involved in collision.
Four accident causes are considered for the analysis; (i)

INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023 43

 TECHNICAL PAPER

fault of driver of motor vehicle, (ii) fault of pedestrians,
(iii) drunken driving and (iv) defects in road condition.
Vehicle modes considered are car, 2W, 3W, bus and truck.
The collision of a mode with all other modes and also with
pedestrian are considered for the analysis. Since heavy
vehicles are more responsible for severe accidents, modes
truck and bus are also considered for this analysis even
though their volume is comparatively less during
lockdown. From the preliminary analysis, it was observed
that 95% of the accidents are due to fault of the driver of
motor vehicles and5% are due to other reasons during
lockdown (Table 5).

Table 5 Accident Due to Various Reasons During Lockdown and Pre Lockdown Along NH
Causes Total Pre-lockdown Lockdown
accidents
Fatal Grievous Minor- Non- Fatal Grievous Minor- Non-
accidents injuries injury injury accidents injuries injury injury

Fault of driver of motor vehicle 95 9.1 73.4 14 2.9 3 24.6 4.7 0.9
Fault of pedestrians 0.15 16.7 76.2 7 - 5.6 26.7 2.3 -
Drunken driving 0.3 22.4 34 29 14.6 6.7 13.3 9.7 6.6
Defect in road condition 0.14 35 62.3 2.5 - 14 21 - -
Other reasons (mobile talking, 4.41 32 35.7 29.5 2.8 12 24.9 4.7 5.2
fault of cyclist and passengers,
poor light condition, etc.)

Note: All values are expressed in percentage

From Table 4, it is clear that the percentage reduction in which is a measure of equality between observed variance
accident due to fault of pedestrian and defect in road and it can be measured as the ratio of mean squares between
condition are negligible. But the accident severity due to each mode to that of within the same modes. Higher f-value
these causes have signicant effect during pre-lockdown represents that, higher the variation between sample
scenario as their contribution on severe degree are (accident data due to modes and causes considered) means
signicant in magnitude (Table 4). relative to the variation within the samples or the model
signicance (p-value), which is tabulated in Table 6.
ANOVA results can be expressed in terms of f-statistics,
Table 6 Descriptive Statistics
Category Sum of squares Degree of freedom Mean squares F-value Signicance value Remarks
Between modes 3497.13 6 582.85 89.99 0.002 89.99>3.24
Within modes 136.02 21 6.48 Signicant
Total 3633.15 27

Between causes 1507018.95 3 502339.6 7.73 0.002 7.73>3.24

Within causes 1039696.00 16 5
Signicant
Total 2546714.95 19 64981.00

Here higher f-value indicates that there is less chance to
happen the null hypothesis becomes true (p-value=0.002).
That means, there is a strong correlation between accident
severity with vehicle modes involved in collision and
accident causes. In order to substantiate it, Post-hoc test
was carried out to study which mode or cause of accident is
signicantly related with accident severity. And the results
of Post-hoc test conducted for various modes involved in
collision are tabulated in Table 7.
ANOVA assumes that all the populations have the same
standard error, even if their means differ. The assumption is
valid for the present study (Table 7) too. The condence
interval for the difference between the means of mode
considered (Table 7) does not include zero, which indicates
that the difference between these means of modes is
statistically signicant. That means, Collision involving
motorized two-wheeler and other modes resulted in highest
severe accident during lockdown period. Post-hoc test
results for the causes considered are tabulated in Table 8.

44 INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023

 TECHNICAL PAPER
Table 7 Tukey Simultaneous Tests for Mean Differences of Modes
95% condence interval
(a) modes (b) modes Mean Difference (a-b) Std. Error Sig.
Lower Upper
Car 6.28 1.7996 0.035 0.425 12.13
3W 25.10 1.7996 0.000 19.25 30.95
2W
Bus 26.95 1.7996 0.000 21.10 32.80
Truck 27.9 1.7996 0.000 22.05 33.75
2W -6.28 1.7996 0.030 -12.12 -0.42
3W 18.82 1.7996 0.000 12.98 24.68
Car
Bus 20.68 1.7996 0.000 14.82 26.52
Truck 21.62 1.7996 0.000 15.78 27.48

Table 8 Tukey Simultaneous Tests for Mean Differences of Causes

(a) causes (b) causes Mean Difference (a-b) Std. Error Sig. 95% condence interval
Lower Upper
fault of pedestrian 634.200 161.222 0.006 172.94 1095.46
fault of driver
defect in road 634.000 161.222 0.006 172.74 1095.26
of motor condition
vehicle
drunken driving 633.600 161.222 0.006 172.34 1094.86

Table 8 shows the similar trend as that seen in modes
involved in collision, which shows that accident severity
due to fault of driver of motor vehicle are highly dependent
with fault of pedestrians, defect in road condition and
drunken driving as 95% of accidents were due to fault of
driver of motor vehicle itself.
Envelopes have been a proposed nascent methodology for
sufcient dimension reduction and efcient parameter
estimation in multivariate linear models. So, for the present
scenario, the correlation between accident severity degrees
caused due to different mode before and during lockdown are
analysed using factor analysis in SPSS software by
considering 2W, car, 3W, bus, and truck. The correlation
coefcient gives a clear picture on how the interaction of each
vehicle resulted in severe accident and is illustrated in Fig. 2.
Y-axis of Fig.2 is a representation of correlation
coefcient of modes involved in collision, which is a
pictorial representation of an envelope hierarchy. X-
axis represents the modes 1-2W, 2-Car, 3-Bus, 4-Truck
and 5- 3W respectively. Each curve point indicates
correlation coefcient resulted due to the collision
between each mode. From Fig. 2, it can be seen that the
correlation coefcient changes with collision between
modes involved in crash. Since bus volume was
insignicant during lockdown period, its inuence on

a) Before lockdown b) During lockdown

Fig.2 (a&b) Envelope Hierarchy for Different Modes –Before and During Lockdown

INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023 45

 TECHNICAL PAPER
accident severity is obtained as zero. Positive
correlation coefcient represents that the collision
between modes resulted in grievous injuries. That
means the collision of 2W and car with 3W, bus and
truck resulted in signicant correlation coefcient
(g.2). And the depressed curve shape or negative value
indicated that there exists a negative impact between
truck with other modes 2W, car and 3W on accident
severity, which eventually resulted in fatal accidents.
Both Poisson and Negative Binomial regression
models are the most popular methods that are used to
model accident data. However, the Poisson regression
model requires that both the mean and the variance of
the aggregated data are equal. When the data variance
is larger than its mean, the data is said to be Over-
dispersed, and in this case the negative binomial
regression model is the most suitable one (12. The
statistical analysis for the Over-dispersion of accident
data for the present scenario implies that the mean
value (112.14), which is less than the standard
deviation (175.368). Even though large data samples
possess normal distribution, Negative Binomial
regression model assumes that accident data doesn't
follow normal distribution and a linear relationship
between dependent and independent variables. Here
the assumption is relevant for the present accident
data. Hence the controversy on model selection and
distribution property was veried.
In order to analyse the accident pattern before and
during lockdown period, accidents involving vehicle
modes (car, 2W, 3W, bus and truck) on different road
types (NH, SH, MDR) and locality type (rural and
urban) on accident severity was modelled using
negative binomial regression model. For each ith
observation of accident count, degree of accident
severity are classied as fatal, grievous, minor-injury
as well as non-injury and each accident count yi are
assumed to be independent from each other. Then the
expected number of accidents in the negative
binomial is,
Where, Viis a random location-specic effect and λi= exp (xβ)
i
Where, Xi is a set of exogenous variables that control the
variations in the number of accidents which includes 2W,
3W, car, bus, truck, NH, SH, MDR, rural as well as urban
roads and β is the coefcient vector to be estimated for the
exogenous variables considered. To guarantee a positive
mean value for the number of crashes, it becomes
46 INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023
Then the mean equation in the negative binomial model
becomes, λ i /ε i = exp(x i β + ε i ) with the following
probability:
Eq. (3) can be used to estimate the coefcients of
exogenous variables, which represents the accident
severity due to these variables and are tabulated in Table 9.
Developed model contains a signicant set of parameters
and is of good specication, which is good in terms of
Bayesian Information Criterion (BIC=400.933) and
Akaike's Information Criterion (AIC=385.098) as it has
lower values. Since likelihood Chi-Square ratio test was
signicant (p-value = 0.000), parameter analysis was done.
It can be seen that 4 variables (2W, car, SH and rural roads)
were found to be statistically signicant and cause severe
crashes during lockdown. But in pre-lockdown scenario,
all the 10 variables considered are found to be signicant
(Table 9). Accident severity due to 2W and car increases
with increase in concentration of 2W and car along rural
roads (SH). Since due to the changes in trafc volume
composition and pattern during lockdown, severity
inuencing factors are predominated to modes car (39%)
and 2W (48%). Post-hoc test results revealed that the
collision between car and 2W resulted in severe accidents,
which is interpreted in terms of signicance value and
condence interval (Table 7). Thus, it implies that accident
rate increases when the concentration of car and 2W
increases. From envelope analysis, it was observed that
even though the truck volume is less during lockdown, its
impact on accident severity eventually resulted in fatal
accidents. Thus, it can be inferred that the accident pattern
during lockdown period were mainly due to the presence of
personalized vehicles (2W and car), especially along rural
roads (SH).
As the trafc volume composition differs during lockdown
from general situation along NH and SH as explained
earlier, the corresponding change in accident rate in terms
of vehicle modes was analysed. Since 2W contributes to a
remarkable amount of accident rate (38%) along rural
roads during lockdown rather than car, an exclusive lane
for 2W can reduce accident rate to 62%. Hence there is an
urgent need to segregate 2W from other modes.
4. CONCLUSIONS
In this study analysis on various factors attributing to
accident severity were done using SPSS 20 Software and
NB regression model was developed for the data during
lockdown period for the entire stretch of Kerala. Paired-t
tests were done to study the percentage reduction in total
accident, fatality rate, grievous injury and property damage
 TECHNICAL PAPER

during lockdown period. ANOVA tests were carried out to signicant role in accident reduction during lockdown
analyse the correlation of accident severity with respect to period with a fall in overall mobility of 61.9%. Hence
vehicle modes and accident causes. From the study trafc volume is a leading factor in road accidents.
conducted the following conclusions are deduced: v. It was observed that 95% of the accidents are due to
i. From the preliminary analysis, it was found that there fault of the driver of motor vehicles and 5% are due to
was signicant reduction in accident rate due to other reasons during lockdown.
changes in trafc volume and composition from 88% vi. Accident rate involving 2W and car have more
during pre-lockdown to 47% during lockdown period. signicant relationship with other modes 3W, bus and
ii. From the study it was observed that total accidents truck and it results in severe crashes. Thereby it can be
reduced from 14.29% during pre-lockdown to 4.57% concluded that the presence of personalized vehicle
during lockdown with 32% reduction took place on road stretch affects accident rate during lockdown.
during lockdown period. Fatality rate was changed vii. Factors attributing to accident severity during
from 10.12% of total accident during pre-lockdown to lockdown period in Kerala are vehicle modes, which
3.4% of total accident during lockdown period. mainly include private vehicles such as Car and 2W.
iii. The study reveals that grievous injuries on accident Also, accident rate along rural roads (SH) are reported
during pre-lockdown period contributes to 73.15%, as very critical.
which is reduced to 24.5% during lockdown period. viii. 2W contributes to a remarkable amount of accident (38%)
And property damage due to accidents reduced from along rural roads during lockdown rather than car, an
2.91% of total accident during pre-lockdown period to exclusive lane for 2W can reduce accident rate to 62%.
1.17% during lockdown period. ix. Hence there is an urgent need to segregate 2W from
iv. Changes in trafc volume and composition plays a other modes.
Table 9 Negative Binomial Regression Results
Parameter Estimate (lockdown) Estimate (pre-lockdown) Std. Error 95% Wald Condence Interval Sig.
(Intercept) 2.767 3.879 1.1570 0.499 5.034 0.017
Car 4.303 4.518 0.8842 2.570 6.036 0.000
2W 4.328 4.761 0.8852 2.593 6.063 0.000
3W -0.383 2.225 0.8884 1.342 4.824 0.001
Bus -0.569 1.482 0.8871 1.258 4.552 0.001
Truck -0.451 1.872 0.8872 1.235 4.233 0.000
NH -0.842 1.312 0.7118 -2.237 0.553 0.237
SH 0.238 2.452 0.7116 -2.304 -0.485 0.001
MDR -0.910 0.265 0.7112 -2.526 0.522 0.201
Rural 0.831 3.259 0.7108 -0.562 2.224 0.000
Urban -0.685 0.183 0.7102 -0.455 1.952 0.243

5. LIMITATIONS AND SCOPE FOR FUTURE REFERENCES

WORKS
i. The geometry and road conditions are assumed to
be same during and before lock down
ii. For detailed analysis, only the section of the roads
where the vehicular volume and composition
available are considered
iii. The effect of segregating the motorized two
wheelers has to be studies by using Micro
simulation
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 TECHNICAL PAPER

TOLL ROADS-RISKS INVOLVED AND MITIGATION METHODS

DR. M.N. DEKATE1

ABSTRACT
Risk, assessment, allocation and mitigation is essential key for successful implementation of projects specially toll roads.
Public Sector (Government) and Private Sector (Concessionaire) together are responsible for completion of project. However,
all other stakeholders are also important to share their contributions towards effective completion and operation of PPP/BOT
project.
This paper deals with risk involved and mitigation methods of Toll Roads, having realised that public sector and private sector
are carrying various risks. The author has suggested that the risk mitigation should be taken in advance as a preventive
measure and not as a Fire Fighting instrument. Risk at different stages should be reviewed, analysed and tackled with proper
mitigation method to ensure better output from PPP projects.
Methodology adopted by author after data collection and study through pilot questionnaire, interaction with various
stakeholders and study of various PPP/BOT projects to ascertain the risk evolved during execution and operation of the
project. Author has suggested concept of risk mitigation, followed by recommendation and conclusion so as to ensure smooth
completion and operation of PPP project.

1. INTRODUCTION are various issues which require timely and willful

If proper time bound process is not followed, or if the risks
are not handled properly, even a seemingly simple project
can fail, thereby causing great anguish and hardship to the
stakeholders. Sometimes, this may lead to prolonged
litigation. There is a need to identify risks involved in the
process of Public Private Participation (PPP) Projects. The
aim of research is to interact with all the stakeholders of
PPP Projects of toll roads and identify various risk vis-à-vis
gains. This will enable concerned stakeholders to properly
address the issues involved.
Toll roads carries different risk, pertaining to different
stakeholders like i) Public Sector (Government), ii) Private
Sector (Concessionaire), iii) Financial Institution/Bank,
iv) Independent Engineer/PMC/Consultants, v)
Commuters/users. Most of the risks are borne by Public
Sector and Private Sector for which proper assessment and
allocation of risks is essential.
Concept of risk and its relevance to PPP Projects, risk
allocation, risk management, risk mitigation measures, etc.
acceptance from the concerned appropriate authority,
stakeholder so that it would not become hazardous to the
projects during construction or operation. Any risk has
nancial implication, if not solved in time. Delay in
decision to act on risk causes delay in completion of
project.
It is much more appropriate to improve the existing road as
trafc volume on such roads increases many fold than the
capacity of existing width of roads. Old roads exhaust their
life and hence repair and maintenance of road is difcult
from the government funding. Many roads are subjected to
the process of redevelopment in respective of their age or
life span due to increased Load of motor vehicles, specially
of heavy commercial vehicle, container etc. Commercial
vehicle loads are not sustainable on existing roads due to
decient crust and geometry and such roads needs to be
improved to the required standards. Considering the cost
of operation and maintenance of motor vehicles, road
needs to be widened, strengthened with proper crust,
adequate geometrical provisions and adequate structures

1 Former Secretary (Technical), Public Works Department, Maharashtra, Email: drmndekate@gmail.com

INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023 49

 TECHNICAL PAPER
which is not possible through available state budget
provision being a welfare state. Hence, infrastructure
improvement should be with better planning, risk
assessment, risk allocation to respective stakeholders and
timely mitigation for successful completion of PPP/BOT
projects.
2. DATA COLLECTION
2.1 For the research work to know the risks involved in
PPP/BOT projects and to arrive at the questionnaire for
different stakeholders the data is collected through various
sources, viz-
(i) Newspaper articles (535), (ii) Legislative Assembly
Question (184), (iii) Comments by various political
personal (172), (iv) Public complaints and suggestions
(131), (v) Right to Information (41), (vi) Loklekha Audit
(27 works). (vii) Audit Para Report (4), (viii) General
comments (54), (ix) Field visit observation (24).
Based on above data Questionnaires are prepared for
stakeholders;
i) Public Sector (Government)
ii) Private Sector (Concessionaire)
iii) Financial Institution / Bank
iv) Consultant / PMC / Independent Engineer
v) Road Users / Commuters
2.2 Interaction with the Stakeholders
After studying risksinvolved in PPP/BOT project,
interaction was carried out with all the stakeholders of the
project at different stages of redevelopment/ improvements
(approved, under progress, completed and on hold). These
stakeholders include public sector, private sector, lenders,
Commuters/users, PMC/IE/Consultant. This interaction
was undertaken through interviews and questionnaires.
Total 45 interviews with stakeholders were conducted. The
inputs received are very vital, important and are of high
relevance.
2.3 The questionnaire was given to 300 stakeholders
(Public Sector, Private Sector, commuters/users, Financial
institution/Bank, Consultants) of projects under various
stages of redevelopment/improvement. Total 190 valid
responses were received. The analysis of data from
questionnaire was carried out. The same is described as
follows:-
Land is very scarce commodity. Also demand for better
roads always persists. The land prices are high along the
roads and Land owners are reluctant to give agriculture
land. Public sector and private sector are two active
partners and major stakeholders in venturing into process
of improvement/redevelopment of roads. Commuters may
agree for this option as it leads to the following gains:
50 INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023
a) Better transportation facilities, b) Requisite road
structure like tunnel, yover, viaduct, bridges etc.) Road
side service stations for marketing local produce with
service road, d) Parking, Food Plaza, road side
washrooms, garages etc., e) Due to trafc segregation safe
and comfortably Journey, f) Travelling time and vehicle
operation cost is minimized.
The concessionaire/entrepreneur by virtue of additional
facilities available along road sides and better mode of
transportation as per prevailing norms of constructions not
only generate funding through tolling but also create
capital assets to state/nation.
In view of above, both Public and Private Sector are
tempted to go for redevelopment / improvement and many
times ignoring risks involved in PPP/BOT projects.
3. RISKS
From the data and views of stakeholders, various risks
involved are worked out and distributed under various
stages of PPP/BOT projects.
Risk can be divided into two stages:
A) Before Award of Work
(i) From planning to Letter of acceptance
(ii) From letter of acceptance to Work Order
B) After award of work
(i) During execution of Work
(ii) During toll operation
Above Risk are categorised amongst various stakeholders
as follows :
(i) Public Sector (Government), (ii) Private Sector
(Concessionaire), (iii) Financial Institutions (FI)/Bank/
Lender, (iv) Commuters/users, (v) Project Monitoring
Consultant (PMC)/Independent Engineers (IE)/
Consultant.
Risk assessment and allocation to various stakeholders are
shown in following table as per stages of risk.
As shown in Table 1 major risk is assessed from Planning
phase to letter of acceptance and from letter of acceptance
to work order. If these risks are not tackled within
stipulated period then these risks will be carried forward
during execution of projects which is main cause of project
stoppage. Risk has long term effect on project and future
activities of project are suffered which may lead to delay in
completion resulting in nancial burden on Government.
Hence risks assessment, allocation and timely mitigation
by respective stakeholders is the essence of PPP/BOT
project for timely completion and successful operation of
project.
Risk, Effect of Risk and Mitigation described in above
table is elaborated in following paragraphs.
 TECHNICAL PAPER
Table-1 Risks and Stakeholdrs
Before Award of work After Award of work
Form Planning to Letter of From Letter of Acceptance During Execution of During Toll operation
Acceptance to work order work
Sr. Risk Stake Risk Stake Risk Stake Risk Stake
No. holders** holders** holders** holders**

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
I Planning Land Acquisition G Change of G/C Non payment FI
Scope, of interest
variation
II Land Acquisition Utility shifting G Public G/C Trafc volume C/G
resistance change

III Utility shifting Environment G/C Change in G/C Change in C

Impact Law Law
Assessment
(EIA)
IV Environmental Financial C/G Force G/C Final C/G/U
Clearance majeure, completion
Natural
calamity
V Forest clearance NOC's / C/G Delay in C/G Maintenance C/U
permissions distribution of
G viability gap
funding (VGF)
VI Trafc Volume Trafc volume G/C Delay in Loan C/FI/G Operations C/G/U
Assessment (TVA) assessment Disbursal
TVA)

VII Overall Feasibility Design, C/FI/G

Construction,
commissioning
VIII Increasing C/G/FI
completion
Period
IX Joint venture C/G/FI
failure
X Non payment FI
of interest
** i) G – Government (Public Sector), ii) a C – Concessionaire (Private Sector), iii) U – Users / Commuters,
iv) FI – Financial Institution, v) IE – Independent Engineer / Consultant / PMC

4. RISK, EFFECT OF RISK AND MITIGATION
4.1 (a) Risk of Planning
Planning is the 1st Phase which is very important for
success of PPP/BOT project. Blue print/master plan of
project should be for social, technical and nancial aspects.
Feasibility for social cause is one of the basic features in the
existing facilities to enhance the capacity for the
betterment of transport system of Road infrastructure.
Commuter must realise the difference in improved road for
easy vehicular movement, saving in time, saving in
distance, saving in vehicle operation cost, minimizing
pollution and reducing rate of accidents.
In Planning, scope of work should include all items of work

INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023 51

 TECHNICAL PAPER
required for total improvement of road. Geometrical
improvement, curve improvement, grade separator,
service road, yover, underpass, Road over bridges, paved
shoulder, junction improvement, parking facilities,
washrooms, sufcient toll lanes, sufcient ticket counters,
fast tag facilities, cash lane facilities, lane separator, central
verge with light cutter, planation, proper drainage
facilities, proper road safety measures proper information
boards at proper location, proper sign boards, Road patta
painting, arboriculture, street light provision, toll station
with proper digital and light facilities, allied road side
amenities like drinking water/ toilets/ garages etc.
Planning should include other risks like environment/ CRZ
clearance, forest clearance, Land availability, trafc
volume assessment, change of scope, variation, utilities,
permissions etc. If not assessed, allocated and mitigated in
time, it will affect the progress of project very badly.
(b) Effect of defective planning
Following paras deliberates the effect of defective
planning and other related issues which causes the risk for
the projects. PPP/BOT projects were mostly affected due to
various risks.
i) Change in scope, variation, additional scope.
ii) Delay in completion, increase in concession period.
iii) Increase in project cost.
iv) Work started without availability of full land width
causes trafc congestion at toll station and trafc
jam at village/town portion.
v) Trafc congestion within village/Town if no
yover, underpass, service road, proper road
crossing provisions, foot over bridges etc. are not
considered.
vi) Road side amenities like Toilet, Parking not
provided leading to public resistance.
vii) Utilities like electric pole, telephone pole, Water
supply line, sewerage line etc. become hindrance to
trafc if not removed in time.
viii) Road crossing without underpass after widening
from 2 lane to 4 lane or more lanes is difcult and it
leads to accidents and affect the daily activities of
locals. Local people leading to public resistance.
At the same time vehicular movements are
obstructed which leads to congestion.
ix) Site Risk arises from land interests and acquisition,
statutory approvals, environmental issues,
indigenous issues, suitability of the site / existing
infrastructure.
x) If proper access or service road to road side
facilities like petrol pump, electrical charging
point, Hotel, school, etc. is not provided, trafc
congestion and possibility of accidents increases.
52 INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023
xi) If existing 2 lane road is proposed to be improved to
4 lane road, then only widening, strengthening with
available right of way of road is not sufcient.
Provision like geometrical improvement and
central verge with proper light cutter are also
essential. If scope of geometrical improvement and
provision of central verge with light cutter not
considered in the estimate then it is the added risk
on project cost and will create issues during
progress of work. Also all other provision
described in i to ix above shall be considered.
(c) Risk of planning – Mitigation
i) Careful site selection backed by investigation of
history and characteristics.
ii) Systematic provision of road and road side
development.
iii) Addressing issues of local population.
iv) Interacting with concerned department/competent
authorities.
v) In time permissions, NOC's from competent
authorities and such cost needs to be based on the
factual ground report.
vi) Specify desired project outcomes, taking account
of Government Policy
vii) Apply 'public interest' test to the project
viii) Develop clearly dened bid criteria, clear and
informative bid documents
ix) Ensure bids are nancially robust – so that bidders
may avoid aggressively valuing the risk simply to
win the bid thereby compromising long term value
for money.
x) Identify and facilitate necessary government
approvals – planning, environment, land related,
etc.
xi) Strategic long term planning
xii) Development of economic regulator framework
4.2 (a) Risk of Land
Availability of Land prior to work order is most essential
factor to complete the project within stipulated time as per
tender. For widening of road and to provide alied road site
facilities like Parking, toilets, structures, service road,
busbays, drinking water facilities etc. extra land width is
essential. But due to habitation, villages, towns and
farming activities along road side land acquisition is
difcult, time consuming and costly.
(b) Effect of inadequate land width
Road side amenities like parking places, Toilets, service
 TECHNICAL PAPER
road, light cutter bushes in central verge, pathway in
village portion, sufcient lane at Toll station, yover,
underpasses, service road, proper drainage arrangement,
proper side shoulder etc. as per standard are not possible
due to inadequate land width. Land acquisition of extra
width is not possible due to road side villages/towns.
Hence, all required civil work needs to be accommodated
within available land width for improvement of road from
2 lane to 4 lane or more lane. Due to inadequate land width,
only strengthening, surface improvement without proper
geometrical improvements is done which leads to increase
in trafc speed and accidents and congestion at various
villages/towns and at toll station. After start of work, land
acquisition is very difcult if land owner is not ready. Most
of the works are not completed if the process of Land
acquisition is started after the work order.
(c) Risk of Land – Mitigation
i) Interacting with land owners to ensure availability
of land in place.
ii) Community consultations to ensure timely land
acquisition from local population.
iii) Interfacing with concerned department to ensure
Land approval in place or face least obstacles.
iv) Ensure required land width possession prior to start
the project.
v) Systematic provision of Land related information
to the bidders.
4.3 (a) Risk of utility shifting
Most of the electrical services, towers, cables, water supply
line etc. runs along or across the road. For widening of
road, such utilities are required to be shifted. Underground
services plan needs to be obtained from the competent
authorities and if not shifted in time then progress of work
is suffered. Proper co-ordination with the concerned
agencies is necessary.
(b) Effect of delay in utility shifting
If the work is started without shifting of existing utilities
then progress of work gets hampered and delay in shifting
will create construction defects for small portion, causes
defective work, delay in completion of project. There is
possibility even such portion could not be improved during
project life span if permission is not granted by competent
authority and can become bottleneck for commuters.
(c) Risk of utility shifting – Mitigation
i) Obtain correct layout of underground utilities and
overhead services.
ii) Appointing an independent liasaning agency to co-
ordinate with concerned competent authorities.
iii) Prescribing time frames for approval, estimation
and removal or shifting of utilities.
iv) Ensure adequate land availability for shifting of
utilities.
v) Ensure timely availability and deposition of
required funds to appropriate authorities.
vi) Ensure timely and correctly shifting of utilities.
4.4 (a) Risk of Environment clearance, Forest
clearance
PPP projects under sensitive zone, coastal zone needs
clearance from competent authorities like (i) Maharashtra
Coastal Zone Management Authority (MCZMA), (ii) State
Environmental Impact Assessment Authority (SEIAA),
(iii) Ministry of Environment Forest and Climate Change
(MOEFCC) and for Mangroves (within 50 m) buffer zone,
permission of Hon. High Court is also required. Without
clearances, work could not be started in that portion.
(b) Effect of delay in Environmental clearances
It is risk to start the work without environmental or forest
clearances. Even small stretch of road which require these
clearances will lead to incomplete work, delay in
completion, delay in toll operation and noncompletion of
project.
(c) Risk of Environment clearances –Mitigation
i) Addressing all environmental issues before the bid
process, including impact assessment with proper
competent authorities.
ii) Interfacing with concerned department at state and
central Govt. level to ensure requisite approvals are
in place.
4.5 (a) Risk of Trafc Volume Assessment (TVA)
Trafc volume assessment is the key factor of the PPP
project. Concession period mainly depends upon TVA.
Even viability Gap Funding (VGF), project feasibility is
also affectedby TVA. Hence TVA plays major role.
(b) Effect of defective Trafc Volume Assessment
Trafc Volume Assessment (TVA) is the major factor to
decide the feasibility of the PPP/BOT project. Financial
feasibility, is the main factor to decide concession period
and will affect due to defective TVA. Toll charges, cash
ow mainly depends upon TVA. Trafc count is important
factor which affect the overall feasibility of project. Actual
trafc count not matching as per growing of trafc with
original trafc may impact the project.
© Risk of TVA – Mitigation
i) Toll plaza location should be xed considering
commuters difculties and local peoples issues.
INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023 53
 TECHNICAL PAPER
ii) Shifting of toll plaza should not be allowed.
iii) TVA should be strictly at toll plaza location.
iv) At least three months digital trafc study should be
taken for feasibility for all vehicle category
considering O-D survey.
v) Trafc growth rate should be considered based on
overall development, other roads, upcoming
industrial development etc.
vi) Seasonal variation in trafc should also be
considered.
4.6 (a) Risk of overall Feasibility
Overall feasibility considering social Engineering,
technology and nancial feasibility is very much essential.
All three types of feasibility studies should be considered
for success of PPP project.
(b) Effect of overall Feasibility
If projectis based on unthoughtful feasibility (Socio-
techno-Financial) then nancial closure is difcult from
nancial institution/Bank. Without nancial clousre,
concessionaire will not be able to start the project and it is
major risk to complete the project in time.
(c) Risk of overall Feasibility – Mitigation
i) Community consultation to ensure least resistance
from local population for social feasibility.
ii) Ensure that concession agreement deals with the
approval issues e.g. making certain critical
approvals condition precedent to the agreement/
commencement of construction.
iii) Ensure technologically updated methods for latest
technical feasibility.
iv) Ensure all components of incoming revenue and
expenditure for the nancial feasibility.
4.7 (a) Risk of Design, Construction and Commissioning
i) Design, construction and commissioning risk is
attributed to concessionaire as per terms specied
in the agreement. Latest technology shall be used in
design and construction of project to keep least
maintenance in future and smooth vehicle ow
throughout the concession period. Level of service
should be same for which proper design,
construction and commissioning is expected from
concessionaire.
ii) Ensure legal ability to contract with the private party
– sometimes enabling legislation may be required.
iii) Construct the 'Public Sector Comparator' to
determine what constitutes value for money –
infrastructure and service delivery options,
technologies available, etc.
54 INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023
iv) Construction Risk is a collection of risk that faces
the project during its initial stages of design
implementation and commissioning.
(b) Effect of defective Design, Construction and
Commissioning
i) Construction Risk arises from possible design
aws, time and cost over-runs, default in meeting
construction and commissioning deadlines,
construction defects, keeping pace with
technological changes.
ii) Civil Engineering is a perfect science. If design and
construction is not as per standards and
specication then frequent repairand excessive
maintenance is required which may affect the
smooth trafc movement during operation period.
Defective construction affects to the safety of
commuters which is main cause of public
resistance.
(c) Risk of Design, Construction, Commissioning–
Mitigation
i) Specifying Concessionaires' responsibility for
design, construction and commissioning as per
terms specied in the Agreement.
ii) Proper specication of project output and of core
services to be delivered.
iii) Linking Contracted services to key performance
indicators and, in turn, to the payment mechanism.
iv) Actual review of structural design of various
components shall be carried out by Concerned
Authority before start of work.
v) Commissioning test to establish the ability of the
asset to deliver the required output to the specied
performance standards under full range of
operating standards.
vi) Ensure corrections of design and construction
defects before commencing services delivery.
vii) Prescribing agreed time frame for testing and
approvals.
vii) Having an independent commissioning agency to
ensure objectivity.
ix) Appointing a high quality project manager to
monitor.
4.8 (a) Risk of Financial Closure
Finance to the PPP project may be implemented in two
way. One is without Viability Gap Funding (VGF)
andother with VGF.In the rst case, concessionaire is fully
responsible to Finance the project through equity and debt.
(generally 30% Equity and 70% Debt). If the nancial
 TECHNICAL PAPER
closure is delayed due to some reasons, the project start
date gets hampered; also project may not start.
(b) Effect of delay in Financial Closure
If nancial closure is delayed, commencement of work
will be delayed.
(c) Risk of Financial Closure – Mitigation
i) Ensure project structure, contractual provisions
and risk sharing make the project bankable,
addressing lender related issues.
ii) Ensure credit worthiness of bidders and prima facie
credit approval from lenders.
iii) Ensure the robustness of the nancial model upon
which the private party has anticipated its
participation in the project.
iv) Avoid choosing only the lowest cost bid – rather
choose a bid with nancially robust structure and
sound business plan.
v) Providing for assignment of SPV right under the
contract to the lenders, as well as other rights such
as step-in / substitution right.
vi) Government's right to take over some or all of the
sub-contracts of the private party in case of its
failure to perform
4.9 (a) Risk of NOC/Permissions
The risk of NOC/Permissions is specically attributed to
Government and concessionaire. Noc's/Permissions from
competent authorities for quarry, utility shifting, electric
supply, water supply etc. from respective competent
authorities should be obtained within stipulated time for
starting and completing the project in time.
(b) Effect of delayed NOC/Permissions
Requisite Noc's/Permission not received prior to start of
work will delay the execution of work and overall progress
of work will be affected.
(c) Risk of NOC/Permissions - Mitigation
i) Addressing all requisite Noc's/Permissions to
competent Authorities.
ii) Co-ordination through proper Licensing Agencies.
iii) Time frame to get Noc's/Permission.
iv) Plan the activities according to receivable
Noc's/Permissions.
v) Ensure concession agreement deal with all
approval issues.
4.10 (a) Risk of change of scope, variations
Post tender change of scope, variation in PPP project is
major risk. Defective scope considered in the tender will
cause serious issues over the overall project speed and
costs.
(b) Effect of change of scope, variation.
Change of scope or any variation or additional scope
during progress of work will increase the project cost,
concession period and revision of approved cash ow,
delay in completion of project, claims of concessionaire,
arbitration, legal process and extra nancial burden over
state may affect the overall operation of project.
(c) Risk of change of scope, Variation – Mitigation
i) Careful site conditions backed by investigation of
history and characteristics.
ii) Systematic mention of land related information in
the bid.
iii) Scope of project should be properly described in
bid.
iv) Ensure concession agreement is clear with proper
justication of scope, specications and standards.
4.11(a) Risk of Public Resistance
PPP project implementation and operations of toll started
without public opinion. If commuters without previous
information required to pay toll for road transportation then
resistance starts. Commuters opined that road services
should be from general tax collected by Government/State
hence toll is presumed to be double tax. Specically
car/jeep owner (LMV) are reluctant to pay toll charges as
they are not using road for commercial purpose. Toll plaza
becomes the hot spot and always under tension zone
between concessionaire and commuters.
(b) Effect of Public Resistance
Due to inadequate lane, system failure, inadequate
operational staff, non experienced staff, exempted vehicle
and tendency to not pay toll, interchanging by commuters,
misbehavior with commuters etc. creates trafc jams at toll
station and very purpose of doing BOT is lost.
Cumulative Journey time is affected due to trafc jam at
village/town portion and toll station. Inter changing lane
specially by heavy vehicle and not following lane
discipline does not result substantial saving of time. Toll
stations are increased due to more PPP projects on different
State roads and National Highways. More time is required
to verify the toll receipt at other toll station. Due to
provision of no separate lane for exempted vehicles, auto
riksha. During peak hours, more waiting time is required.
Mixing of Fast Tag vehicles and vehicles paying cash due
to shortage of lanes, interchanging lane by commuters
result in trafc congestion at toll plaza.
Normally commuters are not fully informed about PPP
policy. They presume that road infrastructure should not be
charged separately as tax payers are already paying for it.
Commuters feel it is double taxing hence public resistance
is observed.
INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023 55
 TECHNICAL PAPER
(c) Risk of Public Resistance – Mitigation
i) Community consultations to ensure least resistance
from local population.
ii) Providing demand related information, advantages
of project information to the public at the time of
initiation of project.
iii) Communicate information regarding capacity
enhancement of existing facilities, saving of time,
saving of vehicle operation cost (VOC) and
limitation of state funds being a welfare state to the
public.
4.12 (a) Risk of Change in Law
i) Political Risk arises from possible perceived
immunity of government from legal action,
governments refusal to grant approvals, alternate
Legislation/Policy or regular changes, excessive
use of government powers, demand for change in
service scope and specication, government take-
over of project facility, etc.
ii) Change in Law is a political risk. Any change in
policy or enactment causes a risk to the project.
Political Risk is risk that government will exercise
its power and immunities including its power to
legislate and determine policy and the way in which
negatively impacts on or disadvantages of the
project.
(b) Effect of Change in Law
Any change in policy affect the overall activity of the
PPP/BOT project in terms of taxes, toll charges, royalty
charges, cash ow, concession period, recovery of project
cost, etc. Impact on project cost and concession period.
Cash ow of project is also affected.
(c) Risk of change in Law – Mitigation
i) Have clear contractual provision, on chage-in-Law,
during different stages of project to ensure that
change-in-law;is a change in policy or enactment
that impacts which requires addition to protect
project structures or systems or results in
substantial addition to operating costs.
ii) Have clear contractual provisions on 'Change-in-
law', during different stages of the project.
iii) Change-in-law does not include change in the way
Law is interpreted or applied, changes in taxes, fees
for levies, or where the concessionaire has alternate
price / fee adjustment or compensation under other
provisions.
iv) Have clear contractual provisions under 'Political
Force Majeure Events' (where this is not covered
under change-in-law) during different stages of the
56 INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023
project, covering conditions and compensation for
termination.
4.13 (a) Risk of Force Majeure
i) Force majeure is a risk that a specied event
entirely out of the control of either party will occur
resulting in delay or default by the private party in
the performance of its contractual obligations.
ii) Force majeure risk arises from natural events,
political events, non-political events which are
beyond control, preventing discharge of
obligations and unable to overcome despite
diligence and having a material adverse effect.
iii) Acts of God or events beyond the reasonable
control of the affected party which could not
reasonably have been expected to occur.
Exceptionally adverse weather conditions,
lightning, earthquake, cyclone, ood, pandemic
situation, volcanic eruption or re, strikes or
boycotts, court of competent jurisdiction or
statutory authority in India made against the
concessionaire in any proceedings, Act of war,
Industry wide or state wide strike, public agitation
etc.
(b) Effect of Force Majeure
Concession period extended by the period for which such
force majeure event shall subsist costs arising out of such
force majeure event shall be the liability of the state.
(c) Risk of Force Majeure-Mitigation
i) Minimize the consequence of the materialized
event through appropriate insurance, which
transfers the risk to the insurer.
ii) Regularly review insurance policies to ensure
coverage is adequate and effective.
iii) Draw appropriate action plan for dealing with
consequences of Force Majeure events such as
temporary service arrangements which may be
included in service specications.
iv) Suspension of performance obligations during the
occurrence of Force Majeure event with termination
provisions after an appropriate period.
v) Ensure that Force Majeure events do not include
events that may be prevented.
vi) Overcome or remedied so as to ensure vigilance on
the part of the private party to prevent a risk event
before it occurs.
4.14 (a) Risk of delay in disbursal of VGF (Viability Gap
Funding)
Many PPP project are not feasible without VGF, maximum
 TECHNICAL PAPER
40% (20% from GoI and maximum 20% from State) VGF
can be given. If there is a provision of VGF in contract then
timely distribution of VGF is essential to keep the progress
of work as per tender conditions.
(b) Effect of delay in VGF disbursal
i) Delay in VGF disbursal affect the progress of work.
ii) Concessionaire's claim will arise on delayed
disbursal of VGF.
iii) Interest burden on state for late disbursement of
VGF.
vi) Extra nancial burden on project cost.
(c) Risk of delay in VGF disbursal – Mitigation
i) Ensure budgetary provision as per tendered time
schedule.
ii) Concessionaire shall submit requisition for VGF to
Government along with all necessary records as per
tender conditions within time frame specied in
tender.
iii) GoI and State VGF should be monitored and timely
distributed to the concessionaire.
4.15 (a) Risk of delay in Loan disbursal
Timely nancial closure of Loan/debt from nancial institution
/ Bank prior to work order or start of work is expected.
(b) Effect of delay in Loan disbursal
If project proposal under PPP without Viability Gap
Funding (VGF) is submitted to Financial Institution / Bank
then such project solely depend upon the Financial
Closure.
Delay in Financial closure than expected period of tender
will cause late start of work which will affect feasibility,
cash ow of project.
(c) Risk of delay in Loan disbursal – Mitigation
i) Ensure project structure, contractual provisions
and risk sharing make the project bankable,
addressing lender related issues.
ii) Ensure credit worthiness of bidders and prima facie
rm credit approval from lenders.
iii) Ensure the robustness of the nancial case or model
upon which the private party has based its
participation in the project.
iv) Avoid considering only the lowest cost bid – rather
choose a bid with nancially robust structure and
sound business plan.
v) Provide for assignment of SPV right under the
contract to the lenders, as well as other rights such
as step-in / substitution right.
vi) Government right to take over some or all of the
sub-contracts of the private party in case of its
failure to perform.
vii) Loan amount shall be distributed to the
Concessionaire only after reverication of amount
(equity) invested on the project and work done/
progress at site of work and certied by
Independent Engineer of Government.
4.16 (a) Risk of increase inCompletion Period
The project shall be deemed to be complete and open to
trafc only when the “project completion” occurs as per
contract.
The Engineer-in-charge may at the request issue
provisional certicate of completion. But due to various
reasons, after issue of such certicate if the nal
completion certicate is not issued as per stipulated period
of contract then it will affect the project operation.
Many adverse events contribute to risk of increasein
completion period. Risk if not assessed accurately and not
properly allocated to concerned stakeholders, affect the
completion period.
(b) Effect of increase in Completion Period.
i) Concession period will increase due to late
completion.
ii) Change in cash ow
iii) Life cycle cost of project will increase
iv) Affect overall feasibility
v) Affect the nal completion and operation of project
(c) Risk of increase in Completion Period –
Mitigation
i) Concession agreement shall be executed after all
approvals are in place.
ii) Ensure concession agreement with requisite
technical scope.
iii) Ensure concession agreement is executed after
requisite timely permissions and NOCs are in place.
4.17 (a) Risk of Joint Venture failure
Joint venture is allowed in PPP bidding. Responsibility of
joint venture partner should be properly spelt to share the
project liability.
(b) Effect of Joint Venture failure
i) Responsibility is not taken by lead member.
ii) Joint venture demerger during progress of work
affect the equity sharing of concessionaire.
iii) Substitution of contract by nancial institution is
difcult as cost of project is inated.
INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023 57
 TECHNICAL PAPER

iv) Project progress and completion of project is standards, design aws, technological obsolescence,
suffered. inherent defects, default, etc.
v) Life cycle cost of project increases. iii) The concessionaire shall comply with the
vi) Project feasibility is affected. maintenance and operation procedure set out in the
agreement. The concessionaire shall take
(c) Risk of Joint Venture failure – Mitigation appropriate measures to maintain and operate the
i) Ensure equity sharing pattern of lead member and existing road/bridge facilities.
other partner of joint venture are as per agreement. (b) Effect of non Maintenance and Operation
ii) Ensure terms and conditions of joint venture are
followed during progress of work and demerger of Timely, periodical maintenance is very much essential to
joint venture should not be allowed. upkeep the services. If not, it leads to inconvenience to the
commuters. Trafc safety during operation is the main risk
iii) Lead member should take liability of completion of
for commuters. Information boards, sign boards, patta
project.
painting etc. are essential to guide commuters for safe
vi) On failure of joint venture, nancial institution / journey and to avoid accidents. Specially during nighttime,
Bank will take timely step of substitution to reective boards at proper location if not installed then
complete the project. possibility of accident may arises.
v) Enhance project cost should be borne by joint
venture. (c) Risk of Maintenance and Operation –
Mitigation
4.18 (a) Risk of non payment of Interest
i) Specifying concessionaire responsibility for
Financial Institution/Bank plays vital role in nancial operation and maintenance as per terms specied in
support to the project. Timely interest payment from the Agreement.
concessionaire is expected during operation period. ii) Draft service standards with clear outputs,
(b) Effect of non payment of Interest objectively identied and measured.
i) delay in loan disbursement iii) Address future service delivery demands also.
ii) delay in progress of work iv) Inbuilt options shall be provided for upgrading
technology as the contract terms proceeds.
iii) It affects cash ow
vi) It affects work progress and completion v) Incentivize private sector to incorporate latest
technology by making the designer/builder and the
(c) Risk of non payment of Interest– Mitigation operator part of the core consortium /SPV.
i) Ensure timely payment of interest vi) Inclusion of Operating guarantees/performance
ii) Ensure timely loan disbursement from Financial bonds to ensure service continuity and
Institution / Bank compensation for default.
iii) Ensure Loan disbursal utilization is done on same vii) Escrow mechanism that will ensure protect cash
project ows and that can be enforced in case of service /
vi) Ensure progress of work is as per Loan amount operational default.
disbursed viii) Step-in/termination rights where there is
v) Ensure progress of work is proportional to bank breakdown in service provision.
loan
ix) Ensure safe journey and safety while driving.
vi) Ensure equity spent on work before further
disbursement of loan x) Ensure proper information display at various
locations to guide driver / commuters in place.
vii) Third party audit on proportional progress of work,
equity and loan spent on project. xi) Speed limit and lane discipline according to actual
road geometry shall be strictly followed to avoid
4.19 (a) Risk of Maintenance and Operation accidents and inconvenience to the commuters.
i) Operating Risk is a collection of risk that faces the 5. CASE STUDY
project after commissioning and during its
Risk is observed in most of the PPP/BOT projects. For the
operational stage.
research purpose data is collected through site
ii) Operating Risk arises from possible increase in observations and records. Table 2 shows the project wise
operating costs, deterioration of performance issues, causes and effects on projects as a case study.

58 INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023

 TECHNICAL PAPER
Table 2 Issues and Effect
Project Issues Causes Effect
No.

1 Exemption in toll Exempted motor vehicles at initial stage of 1. Exempted vehicles affect the cash ow
charges project was 5% Later on increased to 16% 2. If exemption increases during operation
Such exemption is also allowed in operation then approved cash ow is required to be
period which is not covered in tender. reviewed along with Concession period

2 Shifting of toll
station
1. Original location of toll station having less
no. of lane.
2. Trafc congestion at original toll station
3. Land width is less at original location
4. Local public resistance at original toll
station
1. Shifting of original toll station to new
location requires new construction
2. Cost of toll station increased
3. Cash ow modication
4. Concession period increased
5. Trafc variation at old and new location

3 Financial Assistance 1. Financial institution/Bank not ready to 1. Project could not start on planned date
nance during initial period. 2. Project progress hampered
2. More lending rate 3. Life cycle cost is more due to high lending rate

4 Land 1. Land owner not ready to give land for
widening
2. Rate of land increased
3. Feasibility of project affected
4. Central government not ready to give land
cost.
5. Land cost - sole burden on state,
6. Change in feasibility due to additional cost
of land.
7. More time required for land handover to
concessionaire.
8. Increase in project costdue to above reasons
1. Incomplete project
2. Road facilities as planned could not be
provided.
3. Decient drainage arrangement.
4. Tree plantation not possible.
5. Medium/central verge width not adequate
6. Light cutter in central verge not possible.
7. Accident occur during night time.
8. Geometrical improvement for required
design speed is not possible due to
inadequate Land width.

5 Joint Venture
1. Joint venture demerges during progress of
work
2. Responsibility not taken by lead member to
complete the project as per conditions
stipulated in Tender.
3. New joint venture not possible as cost of
project increases.
4. Substitution takes longer period and cost of
project increases.
1. Project progress is suffered
2. Joint venture demerger affect the equity
share of concessionaire
3. substitution of contract by Bank/nancial
institution is difcult due to increased cost
of project.
4. Substitution failure creates non completion
of project.

6 Public Resistances
1. Public presume toll is extra tax / double tax.
2. Commuter faces difculties due to long que
at toll station
3. Trafc congestion in city/town/village
/toll station
4. No yover, underpasses, service road
provided
5. No information about concession period
6. Increase in toll rates every year/3 years
7. poor maintenance of road, no wayside
facilities, washroom, parking etc.
8. LMV commuters reluctant to pay toll as
they are not using road for commercial
purpose.
1. Toll station operation is difcult
2. Long queue at toll station resulting in more
waiting time
3. Cumulative purpose of time saving and
VOC saving defeated
4. Toll collection affected due to resistance
and commuters not willing to pay toll
(specially LMV commuters)
5. Toll station is always prone to tension
between operator and commuters
6. Political resistance, disturbance is frequently
observed at toll station.

INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023 59

 TECHNICAL PAPER

Project Issues Causes Effect

No.

7 Cutting of old trees
Road widening of existing 2 lane to 4 lane Survival rate of replanted tree is less and
necessitates cutting of grown up trees
replantation requires land which may not be
available along road side. Road side natural
plantation destroyed for widening affects
nature friendly atmosphere. Destruction of old
grower natural forest creates unhealthy
atmosphere along road side.
Land for tree plantation not adequate as most of
the road length passing through agricultural
land, village and town portion. Deforestation
observed.

8 Service Road Service road is essential in town/village portion 1. Trafc congestion

but availability of land not possible due to 2. Slower movement of vehicles
commercial or farming activities along the road 3. Aim of PPP project defeated
4. Frequently obstructed vehicular speed,
accidents, trafc jams, pollution etc. due to
mixing of local trafc.

9 Completion of
project
1. Land width in full length not in possession
2. Land required for service road, yover,
underpass etc. not in possession
3. service utilities shifting essential for
widening takes more time
4. tree cutting required for widening of road
5. land for bypass to town, village not in
possession
1. Work in part length could not be completed
2. yover, underpasses etc. could not be
constructed
3. Services, utility shifting within available
land width obstructed at various locations.
4. Replantation or new plantation requires
additional land along road but due to paucity
of land, plantation is suffered
5. Trafc congestion due to non provision or
not completion of bypass.
6. Geometrical improvement and road side
facilities not possible.

10 Trafc Congestion 1. No Flyover in city/town/village 1. Trafc congestion in city/town/village

2. No service road 2. speed of vehicle reduced
3. Land width not adequate to accommodate 3. crossing of people/locals is difcult and
service road hazardous
4. Increase in accidents
5. shops along the road causes trafc jam
6. weekly market cause heavy congestion and
the very purpose of time saving / voc saving
is defeated.

11 Toll Station 1. Requisite lane not provided 1. Public resistance

2. trafc congestion 2. Toll could not start
3. More waiting time for payment of toll 3. Toll operation stopped by commuters.
charges. 4. Long queue at toll station.
4. Maintenance not proper 5. More time required.
5. Mixing of vehicles due to Lane interchange 6. Pollution at toll station.
by commuters. 7. Purpose of time and VOC saving defeated.
6. Lane discipline not followed.

12 Financial closure 1. Delay in Financial closure 1. Delay in start of project

2. No nancial closure 2. Project could not start

60 INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023

 TECHNICAL PAPER

Project Issues Causes Effect

No.

13 Viability Gap 1. Delay in distribution of VGF 1. Late completion of project

Funding (VGF) 2. Cash ow modied 2. Cash ow needs modication
3. Claims for interest 3. Increased interest burden on State
4. Disputes, Arbitration - starts.

14 Work started 1. Partly land width in entire length not in 1. work could not be completed in total
without full land possession lengthor Work could not be completed in
width 2. land acquisition with negotiations with land time
owner started after start of work. 2. Allied facilities could not be provided
3. Increased cost of land was not incorporated
in tender.
4. Land rate increases.
5. Cost of project increased.

15 Project cost 1. Flyover in city was considered for Rs.13.5 Flyover could not be executed, due to increased
increased Crore but land for service road was available project cost, nancial feasibility affected and
after 2.5 year. Actual cost of yover was 75 concession period increased to more than 30
crore. year.
2. Cost of land increases, project cost
increases, yover affect completion of total
project.

16 Concession Period 1. Delay in distribution of VGF 1. Concession period increased.

2. Utility shifting like electric pole, Telephone 2. Cash ow needs to be modied.
cables, water supply line etc. took longer 3. Financial burden on State
period
3. Unpredicted ood
4. Delayin mining permission
5. Addition land for toll station

RECOMMENDATIONS width and land acquisition for balance land for 4

i Risk should be considered in planning phase
considering socio – Techno – Financial feasibility
of the PPP/BOT project.
ii Major risk involved in PPP/BOT project like land
acquisition, utility shifting, Noc's clearances,
permissions etc. should be with Government and
opted prior to work order/start of work.
iii Financial closure should be completed before start
of work.
iv VGF distribution should be in time supported with
sufcient budgetory provision as stipulated in
tender.
v Full land width should be available prior to start the
work for widening of road from 2 lane to 4 lane or
more lane and if full land width is not available then
phase wise implementation of project should be
executed. In rst phase strengthening of existing 2
lane with paved shoulder along full width,
development in village/town within available land
lane or more lane, bypasses, under passes, service
road, yover etc. In second phase 4 lane or more
lane widening may be executed after full width of
land is in possession.
vi Change of scope, variation, additional scope etc.
after start of work should be avoided. It will cause
additional nancial burden and hindrance in project
completion.
vii After completion of work, Notication for collection
of toll charges should be issued immediately.
viii Lead partner of joint venture should not be allowed
to change during construction of work till
completion of project. Such condition should be
incorporated in tender.
ix Proper infrastructure i.e., underpass, Flyover
should be provided within village/ town for
crossing of people and animals considering daily
farming activities, educational activities, industrial
activities etc.

INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023 61

 TECHNICAL PAPER
x Public hearing, Social Engineering and positive
opinion should be followed in planning to decide
scope of infrastructure. Local people's hearing and
thoughts become the part of development to avoid
further public resistance.
xi Proper safety precaution, reective information
and sign boards, patta painting, etc. during
execution and operation of projects should be
implemented to avoid accidents.
xii Proper geometrical improvement should be
considered and executed while widening of road
from 2 lane to 4 lane or more lane.
xiii Sufcient lanes shall be provided and information
board should be installed at toll station and
commuters must get information at proper
locations about project, toll collection and road side
facilities to avoid public resistance.
xiv Risk allocation of various items has to be
understood properly for feasibility of project.
Major risk is dependent upon growth of trafc
hence perfect digital trafc count without manual
hindrance system with accuracy should be
followed.
· If Risk is not assessed properly, not allocated to
concerned stakeholder and not mitigated in time
then it extends from planning stage to construction
and further to operation stage. Hence risks
allocation and mitigation steps should be taken
very seriously at initial and at respective stages to
resolve it within stipulated period for success of
PPP/BOT project.
· It is the responsibility of all concerned stakeholder
to act on risks within time, otherwise risks
becomes claims and part of dispute will be reason to
delay the PPP/BOT project and become the
nancial burden over the state.
· Issues like land, utilities, Viability Gap Funding,
Co-ordination within Government and other
related department, NOCs and permissions should
be handled by Government (Public Sector) and
should not be transferred to concessionaire (Private
Sector). Ensure proper timely allocation and its
mitigation of risk to the various stakeholders.
· Quality work completion, road side facilities to
commuters, proper operation and timely
maintenance of facilities till the end of concession
period should be handled by concessionaire
(Private Sector) promptly as toll charges paid by
commuter for the services.
xv nancial Institution/Bank is responsible to disbursal
of Loan on Project to the Concessionnaire. Such
Loan is not matching with the corresponding
62 INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023
progress of the work at site. It is observed that, Loan
disbursal is more and without permission of
respective Government Authority, disbursal of Loan
to the Concessionnaire is without ascertaining the
actual work done/progress at site. After learning
from various cases of Loan disbursal to PPP
Projects, it is realized that Loan amount shall be
distributed only after reverication of amount
invested (equity) by Concessionnaire on the project
and work done/progress at site and certied by
Independent Engineer of Government.
7. CONCLUSION
Risk sharing is the main spine. Risk assessment is very
critical to decide the fate of PPP projects. Public sector with
a long-term Policy can only implement PPP/ BOT projects
successfully in partnership with the Private Sector. Long
term policy will lead to evolution of strategic relations with
help of the private sector to deliver the facilities to
Commuters/users. But PPP can go wrong if home work by
the Public Sector is not done properly. It is the
responsibility of the public sector to create a conducive
environment for the furtherance and success of PPP Policy.
A correct evaluation of cost and well dened scope are the
foundation stones on which the PPP Project stands. It goes
without saying that implementation of PPP has to be
necessarily a synergetic endeavor to reap the best results.
Private sector should also not come only with the intention
to earn prot through PPP project but it should have a
nationalistic goal to create facilities for the Commuters.
Privatization is not a remedy for all ills but still it can be
harnessed to create good assets by following proper rules
and regulations with transparency.
PPPs are Impossible without honest and competent
services and stable public sector. PPPs need institutional
capacity, for which private sector should work with
principles and honesty to achieve the nationality goals.
Last but not the least, there should be a coherent policy on
PPP project which to the possible extent shall be free from
capriciousness.
REFERENCE
1. Case Studies on Public Private Partnership (PPP)
Projects.
2. Ph.D Thesis on “Critical Review and Evaluation of
Public Private Partnership (PPP) Projects for
Social Cause with Special Reference to Road
Infrastructure in the State of Maharashtra (India)”
by Dr. M.N. Dekate.
 TECHNICAL PAPER

MODELLING STRUCTURAL PERFORMANCE OF TWIN-T GIRDERS

GEETHA M.P.1 GIRIJA K.2

SYNOPSIS
Development of Prototype structures becomes very costly to study the exact behaviour of precast prestressed girders
belonging to a new form. Therefore, modelling post-tensioned bridge-girders to understand the structural performances is
necessary. The Concrete Damaged Plasticity (CDP) model of ABAQUS software was applied in modelling the structural
behaviour of Twin-T (TT) girders in the present study. The TT girder was from a research program for developing
standardized, modularized and restricted depth highway girders for making Road Over Bridges (ROBs) across railway
tracks. The authors conducted an experimental study on two specimens of girder-deck assembly having the similar features of
the developed prototype girder-deck assembly using the High Strength-high Performance Pre-stressed (post-tensioned)
concrete (HS-HP-PSC) of M55 mix. The modelling, simulating the experimental studies, was developed and, the same was
calibrated with the help of experimental results. The discussion includes various input parameters that inuenced the
accuracy of the model. The developed CDP model was conrmed to be consistent and reliable in replicating the observed
structural performances of both the TT girder-deck specimens. The Finite Element Modeling (FEM) techniques developed in
this study are expected to be valuable in developing the FEM for the real highway decks of various spans.

1. INTRODUCTION FEM. Prototype development becomes very costly to

The Concrete Damaged Plasticity (CDP) model of
ABAQUS software was applied in modelling the structural
behaviour of Twin-T (TT) girders in the present study since
found suitable in the study of pi-girders . The TT girder was
1
from a research program for developing standardized,
modularized and restricted depth highway girders for
making Road Over Bridges (ROBs) across railway tracks.
The authors developed a twin-T cross-section for post-
tensioned pre-stressed concrete bridge superstructure for
highway standard of loading, suitable for standardization,
with material High Strength-high Performance Concrete
(HS-HPC) An experimental study on two specimens of
2
girder-deck assembly of this cross-section was conducted
to observe the structural performances. The FEM
simulating the experiment was done, and the deection
result was compared with that of the experimental results
of the above two specimens to see the consistency of FEM.
The calibrated FEM was further validated by comparing
the load-strain diagram of the experiments and that of
determine the exact behaviour of precast pre-stressed
girders belonging to a new form. Hence, the FEM
techniques developed in this study are expected to be
valuable in developing the FEM for the real highway decks
of various spans.
1.2 Usefulness of the Study
i) Use of high-strength-high-performance prestressed
(post tensioned) concrete in bridge superstructure
construction is encouraged in this study.
ii) When using concrete of enhanced properties like
strength and durability, a new form of superstructure
need to be evolved instead of adopting conventional
I girders and box girders. Authors developed one
new cross section of Twin-T shape from a research
program intended to make standardized,
modularized and restricted depth highway girders
for making ROBs across railway tracks. Twin-T
girders are useful to make any highway bridge deck

1. Assistant Manager, Kerala Rail Development Corporation, Thiruvananthapuram, Email: mpgeetha@gmail.com

2. Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering Trivandrum,

INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023 63

 TECHNICAL PAPER
of shallow depth. Successful FE modelling is
helpful in studying about the performance of
prototype TT-girder-deck assembly.
iii) The completion of any highway network is always
delayed at level crossings. Hence, converting an LC
to a bridge across railways will smoothen the
highway trafc and railway trafc. The social life of
people around the existing LCs is also getting
improved by eliminating LC with an ROB. Potential
spot of accidents is eradicated due to the conversion
of LCs. Among the two types of grade separators,
ROBs are preferred than RUBs since no drainage
problem occurs during the rainy season. In brief, the
conversion of LCs to ROBs in a speedy manner is
the need of our nation. In the present study, the
modelling is successfully done to study more about
the prototype highway decks made of Twin-T
girders due to which the accelerated bridge
construction is possible.
2. BASIC CONCEPTS AND THE CRITICAL
DESIGN SITUATIONS WHILE PLANNING
AN ROB
The planning of a road bridge superstructure across an
electried and busy Railway track is based on the
following concepts or design situations;
i. The disturbances to train trafc should be
minimum during construction
ii. The speedy completion is essential for the
connectivity of road having targeted events.
iii. No compromise with the specied vertical
clearance below the bridge and no compromise
with the restricted depth of bridge superstructure
construction due to the restriction of approach
length.
iv. Safe and speedy launching of girders should be
possible during the night block of trains.
v. The structure should be stable during erection; it
should be maintenance-free, green, aesthetic, and
vi. It should be modular and standardised for availing
speedy formal sanction from the commissioner of
railway safety before launching and making the
construction economical and fast.
All these requirements are in addition to the safe,
serviceable, and durable superstructure's vital structural
requirements.
All these concepts clubbed together, a new standardised
cross-section called "Twin-T" is developed for PSC girder
conforming to the highway standard of loading with
material, High-Performance concrete of M55 grade
(preferably M75 grade). Since the developed cross-section
64 INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023
of bridge superstructure is of highway's standard, the same
is applicable for the entire highway network. Fast
completion of any Highway network is possible only by the
speedy completion of bridges. That is possible by adopting
standardized, modular, and precast constructions,
including constructions at Level Crossings (LCs).
Among the two types of bridge construction available, the
deck type is always preferred in precast constructions.
However, to satisfy the minimum depth considerations due
to site constraints, engineers are compelled to go for
through type bridges like bowstring girder bridges. Even
though the construction cost is very high compared to other
types of bridges, the steel bowstring girder bridges with
composite deck and cross beams developed by Research
Designs and Standards Organisation (RDSO) (standardised
for 30 m to 72 m) are adopted as a milestone development in
the eld of Accelerated Bridge Construction (ABC). But
there is not much advantage in this type of construction also
with regard to the time of construction. The reduced depth
of construction helps to reduce the approach length of each
ROB and hence leads to reduced land acquisition.
However, the approaches should have enough space to
accommodate the lifting cranes and other launching
arrangements. Hence, these RDSO girders can be
considered as best suitable for heavy spans above 45 m.
Deck type precast PSC girders for a range of 15 m to 45 m
spans were developed in the research program, satisfying
various site requirements of a ROB discussed previously.
The direct saving per one ROB if adopt Twin-T-girder-deck
assembly instead of conventional steel-RCC composite
girder for the crossing span and conventional PSC girders
for approach spans has arrived at approximately six crores
rupees.
3. EVOLUTION OF CROSS-SECTION
It is always advantageous if a structurally sound cross-
section satisfying all the site requirements of ROB
construction could be developed to speed up the
completion of the bridge across railways. The deck type
bridge construction is the easiest method suitable for
precast constructions which ensures the speedy completion
of any bridge project.
3.1 Concept of Multi-Girder Bridge Deck
The concept of multi-girder bridge decks is mainly
segmentalising the bridge deck in the lateral direction. The
redistribution of the load is possible if there is a lateral
connection between the girders. This lateral connection is
possible either through shear keys and metallic diaphragms
as in pi-girders developed by Federal Highways or through
integrating deck and metallic diaphragms as adopted in
double T girder AASHTO type limited to a span range up to
25m. Providing metallic diaphragms between two girders
 TECHNICAL PAPER
after erecting to the nal position is not possible and
unsuitable in the design situation of ROBs. The potential
issue of development of longitudinal cracks on overlay
concrete above the shear keys provided in between two
girders of multi-girder deck system must be tackled with a
proper solution. The method of cross prestressing is also
not feasible for ROB construction. Hence, this can be
tackled by properly designing the in-situ overlay concrete
against the shear friction effects, above the joints between
two girders of the proposed cross-section. The dead load of
the girder can be reduced by adopting the multi-girder
system. A standardised launching scheme can also be
evolved so that formal sanctions like sanction from the
commissioner of railway safety will not be delayed for each
work. Hence the multi-girder deck system is decided for
standardising the ROB superstructure. The different types
of available cross-sections for multi-girder deck system are
mainly multiple box girders, composite or non-composite,
interconnected with transverse reinforcement rods tted
later after launching to position, multiple I-girders
interconnected with precast diaphragms and integrated with
a cast in place concrete deck slab laid over stay-in-place
precast slabs, and double T girders integrated with deck slab
as in PCI bridge manual3. Figs.1 to 4 below show cross-
sections of different types of multi-girder deck system
explained above (reproduced from PCI bridge manual).
Fig.1 Box-Beam, Single Span with Noncomposite
Surface (PCI Bridge Manual 2014)
Fig.2 Deck bulb-Tee, Single Span Noncomposite
Surface (PCI Bridge Manual 2014)
Fig.3 Precast Concrete Stay-in-Place Deck Panel
System (PCI Bridge Manual 2014)
Fig.4 Double-Tee Beam, Single Span, Composite
Deck (PCI Bridge Manual 2014)
It is impossible to adopt box girders since the inner
clearance required is a minimum of 1.5 m as in IRC
standards for inspection purposes. Moreover, the
transverse connection is not advisable above a running
track. The stability is questioned in the case of I-girders,
which will also delay the launching. The depth of
construction is always more with I-girders. When the
number of girders is more, the launching time also gets
increased. These difculties are mitigated with double T
girders. Hence, among these multi-girder systems, a
modied pi-girder and double T girder without any
diaphragms and bearings was evolved in the research
program which will be the best suitable type for the design
situation of the construction of ROB.
The modication required to the pi-girder cross-section is
due to the following reasons.
i. The cross-section has made it suitable to be a pre-
tensioned and extruded type for a span range from
12 m to 41 m and use the material Ultra high-
performance concrete4, a costly one. It is difcult to
transport the factory-made girders of span more
than 16 m through curved roads of a developing
country or to make strong abutments in casting beds
at each location of ROBs situated kilometres apart.
ii. The cross-sections are different for a family of span
range and cannot be modied slightly to achieve
the next family set. Hence the standardization of
girder cross-section is not possible with slight
modications.
iii. The internal metallic diaphragms can be t before
launching girders in the position. In contrast, the
external metallic diaphragms between two girders
cannot t after launching the girders above a
running track.
iv. Even if the girders are t with metallic diaphragms,
it is found that the total capacity of the deck system
depends on the capacity of diaphragms since the
study shows that the failure of the pi-girder was due
to the prying of the metallic diaphragm joint.
The new cross section developed in the research program was
a game-changing evolution to tackle the above difculties.
Authors developed an ordinary post-tensioned type cross-
section without any diaphragms and even without any
bearings using High-strength, high-performance concrete
with a shape similar to pi-girders to facilitate formwork-free
INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023 65
 TECHNICAL PAPER

deck slab constructi [(2015)]2. If bearings are not there, the
deck will become maintenance-free totally, which is one of
the desirable requirements of an electried track.
4. E X P E R I M E N TA L P R O G R A M O F T T
GIRDER-DECK ASSEMBLY
In order to obtain the constitutive material properties, as the
requirement for CDP modelling, the authors conducted an
experimental study on two specimens of TT girder-deck
assembly in the laboratory atmosphere. The length was 4 m
and they adopted high-performance concrete of M55 grade.
The standardised shape and typical dimensional details of
the cross-section of prototype girder corresponding to the
span 15 m is shown in Fig. 5 for a general comparison.
4.1. Shape and Dimensions of Each Specimen TT
Girder-Deck Assembly
The dimensioning of the girder was done to accommodate
the minimum number of pre-stressing strands and end
anchorages. The top slab and anges had almost the same
thickness and the projection as the same required for the
prototype. The inner straight vertical dimension was 1.25
times the web thickness, the same average ratio as the
prototype. The shape and dimensions of each specimen TT
girder-deck assembly are depicted below in Fig. 6.

(a) bottom view

Fig.5 The Standardised Shape and Typical Dimensional

Details of the Cross-Section of Prototype Girder (b) Cross section view
Corresponding to the Span 15 m
Fig. 6 (a&b) Bottom View and Cross Section at
Table 1 Provides a Detailed Comparison of Dimensions Mid-Span of TT Girder
Between Prototype and Specimen Girders The total weight of each pre-stressed girder-deck slab
assembly was within the capacity of a 5T crane available in
Dimensions of Girder Specimen and Prototype Girder (mm) the laboratory. The dimensions are as shown in Figure 6 and
Sl Description Prototype Girder the materials used are depicted in Fig. 7 and in Table 2 as
No girder, Span Specimen, mentioned in section 3. The minimum steel is not required
Range15 m Span=3.8 m where the concrete is in compression due to prestressing.
to 45 m However, as depicted in Fig. 7(a), for other considerations
such as early thermal and shrinkage cracking before the
1 Top width 1700 910
prestressing application, a minimum reinforcement was
2 Web Thickness 380 160 provided as per IRC:112-20205. At the end block, the
designed reinforcement was provided as in Fig. 7 (b).
3 Diameter of semicircle 600 250
4 Depth below 150-930 200 The mix adopted for casting the girders and the deck slab is
semicircular arch given in the Table 2. The maximum possible mix strength is
desirable for the reduction of depth or the reduction of
5 Thickness of top slab 120 125 deection/vibration. The high-strength, high-performance
6 Thickness of cantilever slab 130 130 concrete is efcient in structural performance. It has high
durability due to the usage of silica fume conforming to
7 Cantilever projection 170 170 IS:153386 (2003) in the mix design, as evident from various
8 Depth of girder 720-1500 600 available literature. In this study, various trial mixes were
including slab done to obtain a mix of strength M75. However, due to the
non-availability of good quality silica fume, the mix obtained
9 Size of Diamond shear key 40x40 40x40 was of grade M55 only.

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(a) Cross section of deck at midspan
(Overall span 4000 mm)
Fig. 7 The Details of Passive Reinforcement, Pre-stressing Cable at Mid-Span and
end Block Reinforcement
Table 2 The Mix Design of the Study
Cement Crush sand Silica Fume Coarse aggregate (Kg/m3)
(Kg/m3) (Kg/m3) (Kg/m3)
20 mm
440 657 40 671
• The mean compressive strength of the mix
adopted was 65MPa.
• The corresponding characteristic strength was
55MPa.
4.2. Stages of Casting and the Test Setup
The girders were cast on the test oor of laboratory.
After 14 days of curing all the side shutters were
removed and each strand from each cable was stressed
from one end to a jacking force of 0.7 UTS (Ultimate
Tensile Strength). The girders were kept at an elevated
position below the loading frame supported by ISMB
250 tted over steel cribs at both ends. The Linear
Variable Differential Transformers (LVDTs) having
length of 1.2 m were tted below the webs at the mid-
span of girders to measure the displacement of each
web. The Fig. 8 shows the stages of casting in
sequential order.
The FEM proposed in this paper was generated by
simulating the experimental pattern of TT girder.
4.3 Instrumentation Adopted in Load Testing
Each specimen girder-deck assembly named PTGR1 and
PTGR2 is tested against two point loading applied through
column type jack with a load capacity of 75t attached with a
load cell capacity of 50t. The strain gauges were xed to the
bottom and top of each web at mid-span to measure the
tensile and compressive strains. Four numbers of Linear
(b) End block reinforcement
Plasticizer W/C ratio Compressive
(Auromix 500) Strength (MPa)
12 mm
445 2.26 0.31 67
Variable Differential Transformers (LVDTs) of travel length
0-200 mm were xed at the bottom of each web to measure
the deections. One LVDT of travel range 0-5 mm arranged
at the midsection could assess the spread of the same. The
loading frame uplift and support settlement of the deck were
measured using another two LVDTs of the range 0-5 mm.
All the measurements were recorded by a data logger having
48 channels attached to the laptop with Lab view software.
The two point load test was conducted eccentrically for
individual girder deck assembly one by one. The eccentric
loading created up and down forces and caused to reach the
peak load of failure at the earliest. This testing was
conducted with two jack assembly (Figures 8 (i) & (j)).
When total load of 50t was reached, the rst crack was
observed. PTGR1 was tested up to a peak load of 66t (load
kept above web 2- test PTGR115) and PTGR2 was tested
up to a peak load of 77.35t (load kept above rst web- test
PTGR215).
5. MODELLING
5.1 Parts Created for Modeling
The different parts created are mainly the TT girder, slab to
assemble above the girder, end block reinforcements, shear
reinforcements suitable to account for differential shrinkae
also, all longitudinal, transverse and haunch rebars gof girder
and slab including shear friction reinforcements, and two
cables (one on each web) made of two strands of 12.7 mm in
diameter. The cable part was done with a square of equivalent
area4, using a parabolic prole in elevation and plan.
INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023 67
 TECHNICAL PAPER

(a) (b)

(c) (d) (e)

(f) (g) (h)

(i) (j) (k)

Fig. 8 Stages of casting (a) & (b) Arrangement of Reinforcements and Sheathing , Top and side view, (c) Girder
concreting completed, (d) Wet sack curing, (e) Pre-stressing, (f) Removal of interior shutter after stressing one
strand from each cable, (g) Grouting, (h) Launching of Girders at 25mm gap, (i) Enlarged view of load testing
on PTGR1, (j) Load testing on PTGR2 and (k) Arrangement of LVDTs and Strain gauges at mid span.

68 INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023

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5.2. Material Models
The different materials used to cast the specimen girders-
deck assembly are HS-HPC of M55 mix, Pre-stressing
strands and passive reinforcements. The rst order non-
linear analysis was adopted in modelling by considering
the material non-linearity but without the geometrical non-
linearity.
The arrangements for test setup was as given in the Fig. 9
below.
(a) Setup diagram of load testing
(b) Plan and end view
Fig. 9 (a & b) The Arrangements for Test Setup
5.2.1. Concrete
The equation of stress-strain relation from IRC:112-20205
was applied in modelling the concrete. The schematic
representation of the same for non-linear structural
analysis is shown in Fig. 10, reproduced from IRC:112-
2020. The corresponding equations are also quoted.
Fig 10 Schematic Representation of the Stress-Strain
Relation for Non-linear Structural Analysis.
Stress-strain Relation for Non-Linear Structural
Analysis
The Stress-Strain relation shown in Fig. 10. (compressive
stress and shortening strain shown as positive values) for
short term uni-axial loading is described by the Equation
below:
The detailed input calculation of the inelastic strain is given
below. In the rst trial modeling, the value of secant
modulus of elasticity of concrete Ecm was applied from the
Table 6.5 of IRC:112. By various trial and error analyses
during calibration of the model, the value of Ecm has been
arrived as 32GPa, which was the same in cylinder test
conducted. The revised inelastic strain in compression was
calculated further. The corresponding calculation is given
in Table 3.
Input calculation for arriving inelastic compressive strain
The adopted values of tensile stresses of concrete were
based on beam tests and split tensile tests conducted in the
laboratory. The ultimate tensile strain applied is around
1/10 of the maximum compressive strain of the material.
Various trial runs of the software were done by varying the
values of ultimate tensile strain and the secant modulus
INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023 69
 TECHNICAL PAPER

during the calibration. After getting converging values of
the deection results with respect to the secant modulus,
the value of ultimate strain controlling the results was tried.
The converging value of the ultimate tensile strain obtained
was 0.000238 against the ultimate tensile stress of 2.7MPa.
The above inputs are in addition to the other regular inputs
like density, elastic properties, mainly the Young's modulus
and Poisson's ratio. The density applied was 2.487E-006
kg/mm3, the average weight of three sample cubes, and the
Poisson's ratio applied was 0.19.

Table 3 Calculation of Inelastic Compressive Strain in Concrete

Strain η η2 Stress Elastic strain Inelastic Starin

0.0013 0.541 667 0.293 403 41.804 34 0.001 306 -6.38552E-06

0.0014 0.583 333 0.340 278 44.741 11 0.001 398 1.84037E-06
0.0015 0.625 0.390 625 47.602 03 0.001 488 1.24365E-05
0.0016 0.666 667 0.444 444 50.372 52 0.001 574 2.58586E-05
0.0017 0.708 333 0.501 736 53.034 01 0.001 657 4.26871E-05
0.0018 0.75 0.562 5 55.562 46 0.001 736 6.36733E-05
0.0019 0.791 667 0.626 736 57.926 19 0.001 81 8.98066E-05
0.002 0.833 333 0.694 444 60.082 64 0.001 878 0.000122418
0.0021 0.875 0.765 625 61.973 15 0.001 937 0.000163339
0.0022 0.916 667 0.840 278 63.514 67 0.001 985 0.000215167
0.0023 0.958 333 0.918 403 64.585 51 0.002 018 0.000281703
0.0024 1 1 65 0.002 031 0.00036875
0.0025 1.041 667 1.085 069 64.459 99 0.002 014 0.000485625
0.0026 1.083 333 1.173 611 62.454 57 0.001 952 0.000648295
0.0027 1.125 1.265 625 58.028 97 0.001 813 0.000886595
0.0028 1.167 1.361 49.169 0.001 537 0.001263471

The plasticity behavior of concrete depends upon four Fe500 were directly taken from Book by Shah and Karve
8

parameters as Dilation angle (υ), ow potential (same as in IS code).

eccentricity (υ), the ratio of initial equi-biaxial 5.2.3 Pre-stressing strand
compressive yield stress to initial uni-axial compressive
yield stress (fbo/fco), the ratio of the second stress invariant Stress-relieved, multi-ply, low-relaxation strands
conforming to IS 14268 of the nominal diameter 12.7 mm
9
on the tensile meridian to that on the compressive meridian
(Kc) and viscosity parameter (υ). The default values of were adopted in this study for the pre-stressing. The
plastic properties adopted in this study are listed in the mechanical properties of the strands were available from
Table 5 below7. the test results of the original coil. The weight was 775g/m,
and the breaking strength was 185.61kN. The Elastic
Table 5 Concrete Damaged Plasticity Model (CDPM) Modulus was 1.97x105N/mm2. Based on the test results the
Parameters values of density, Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio are
7.7361E-006 kg/mm3,197000MPa and 0.3, respectively.
Dilation Eccentricity fbo/fco Kc Viscosity The stress-strain behavior of the low relaxation stress-
angle (υ) (υ) parameter (υ) relieved strand was taken from IRC:112-2020, and the
150 0.1 1.16 0.667 0 stresses and corresponding plastic strains were applied as
input.
5.2.2 High yield strength reinforcements
5.3. Meshing and Element Selection
The values of density, Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio
were applied as 7.85E-006 kg/mm3, 2E005MPa and 0.3. All parts were meshed with global seeds of 65 mm size after
The yield strength and corresponding plastic strain of suitable partitioning. Further, the mesh consistency study was

70 INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023

 TECHNICAL PAPER

conducted by reducing the global seed size to 45 mm and experiment and the corresponding result of modeling
found the results were converging by 95%. Since the results on a single plot for the comparison purposes.
of 45 mm mesh were more accurate than that of 65 mm mesh, The Fig.12 and 13 show the Load versus deection of web
the same was adopted for comparing with the experimental below load on PTGR1 and the load versus deection of
results. The elements were selected for each part. A web away from load on PTGR1, respectively.
continuum solid element (8 noded brick element) with
reduced integration, C3D8R, was used for strands and
concrete. The hourglass control was enhanced in the element
module. All the reinforcements were modelled as wire
element (T3D2, Truss- 3 dimensional 2 nodded). The view of
meshing is shown in Fig. 11.

Fig 12 Load-Deection Curve for Girder 1 (PTGR1),

of Web Below Load
Fig 11 View of Meshing Part-Girder
5.4 Step Module of Analysis and Interaction
Properties

The steps required for analysis was provided with an

automatic type of incrementation. A customized frictional
coefcient of 0.3 was adopted to dene the interaction
between the girder and the deck slab. All the reinforcements
and the strands were considered embedded in concrete1
instead of modeling the bond between the concrete and the
strands using the hard contact normal behavior .
10

5.5. Load and Boundary Conditions

The three types of load applied are;
i. The gravity load
ii. The pressure generated below the plates of two
point loading calculated as 5.8N/mm2
iii. The nal pre-stress after all losses was calculated as
870N/mm2 and applied as predened eld stress.
The slip loss was very high since the specimen was
of very small length, 4 m.
The boundary condition was applied as displacement
control created in initial step and propagated in step-1. At
one end the displacements in three directions are not allowed
where as rotations in all the directions are allowed. At the
other end the displacements in lateral and vertical directions
are not allowed, but allowed in longitudinal direction where
as rotations in all the directions are allowed11.
Fig 13 Load-Deection Curve for Girder 1 (PTGR1),
of web away from Load
The Fig.14 (a & b) show the Load versus deection of web
below load on PTGR2 and the load versus deection of
web away from load on PTGR2, respectively.
The above gures show that there is excellent agreement
between the FEM and modied experimental results. There
was an initial lag found in all the graphs of experimental
results which was due to the support settlement. The
modication of experimental results was done through
extrapolation method based on an ASCE approved method
referred in journal of structural engineering12 .
6.1. Validation of Results

6. CALIBRATION AND VALIDATION OF THE The graphs of load versus compressive strain C1, on top of
web away from loaded web of PTGR1and the load versus
FE MODEL DEVELOPED compressive strain C2, on top of loaded web of PTGR1 are
The graph was drawn for load versus deection of the shown in Figs.15 and 16, respectively.

INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023 71

 TECHNICAL PAPER

The graphs of load versus compressive strain C1, on top of

loaded web of PTGR2 and the load versus compressive
strain C2, on top of web away from loaded web of PTGR2
are shown in Figs. 17 and 18, respectively.

(a) Load-deection curve for PTGR2 of web below load

Fig 17 Load V/s Compressive Strain C1, on top of

Loaded web of PTGR 2

(b) Load-deection curve for PTGR2 of web away

from load
Fig. 14 (a & b) Load-Deection Curve for PTGR2

Fig. 18 Load V/s Compressive Strain C2, on Top of

Web away From Loaded web of PTGR2
There is good agreement between experimental result and
FEM result as seen above.
Fig. 19 shows the maximum spread of webs during peak
load which is only 1.56 mm. This spread is counteracted by
the radial pre-stressing pressure generated due to the plan
Fig 15 Load V/s Compressive Strain C1, on top of
prole of cables, under service load, and hence it helps to
web away from Loaded web of PTGR1
avoid internal diaphragms.

Fig 16 Load V/s Compressive strain C2, on top of

loaded web of PTGR1 Fig. 19 Spread of Webs at Peak Load.

72 INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2023

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7. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK
i. The CDP model implemented herein replicated
moderately well the experimental results of strain and
deection.
ii. The maximum tensile stress and the ultimate plastic
tensile strain of HPC was arrived as 2.7 MPa and
0.000238 respectively which produced reasonable
results. Also, the Young's modulus of 32 GPa was a
reasonable estimate for the HPC of characteristic
compressive strength 55 MPa.
iii. The requirement of internal diaphragms to arrest the
spreading outward laterally during external loading
was eliminated by providing tendons suitably curved
in plan.
iv. The mesh sensitivity of this model was quite low. A 45
mm seeded mesh showed structural behaviour
reasonably well. The results were converging by 95%
when compared between the results of 45 mm seeded
mesh and 65 mm seeded mesh.
v. The interaction between the girder and deck slab was
done by using contact to model and also by applying a
customized friction of low value 0.3.
vi. M75 grade of concrete has to be tried for experimental
study and corresponding modelling in the future
study.
It is demonstrated that the current CDP model of TT-
girders are effective in replicating the corresponding
experimental result. Hence, it is useful to develop FEM
studies about proto-type TT-girders of medium spans.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The experimental study of this research was funded by
Technology Development and Transfer programme,
Department of Science and Technology, India.
REFERENCES
1. Chen, L., & Graybeal, B. A. (2012, July 27). Modelling
Structural Performance of Second-Generation
Ultrahigh-Performance Concrete Pi-Girders(2012a).
ASCE, Journal of Bridge Engineering, 17(4), 634-643.
doi:http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1061/(ASCE)BE.1943-
5592.0000301
2. K . Girija., & M.P., Geetha. (2015). A standardized Cross
Section for Restricted depth Girder for Road Bridges
over Railway Track. SEWC 2015, (pp. 19-22).
Singapore.
3. PCI Bridge Design Manual. 2014. 3rd Edition ed.
Chicago: Precast/Prestresses Concrete Institute.
4. Zhang, G., & Graybeal, B. (2015). Development of
UHPC Pi-Girder Sections for Span Length up to 41m.
ASCE, Journal of Bridge Engineering, 20(3).
doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)BE.1943-
5592.0000653
5. IRC:112-2020. “Code of Practice for Concrete Road
Bridges.”. Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi.
6. IS 15388: 2003. "Silica Fume Specication”
7. Chen, L., & Graybeal, B. A. (2012, July 27). Modelling
Structural Performance of Ultrahigh-performance
Concrete I -Girders(2012b). ASCE, Journal of Bridge
Engineering, 17(5), 754-764. doi:http://dx.doi.org/
10.1061/(ASCE)BE.1943-5592.0000305
8. Shah, V. L. & Karve, S. R., 2003. Limit State Theory and
Design of Rienforced Concrete. Fourth Edition ed.
Pune: Structures Publication, Pune
9. IS:14268, 2003. " Uncoated Stress Relieved Low
Relaxation Seven-Ply Strand for Prestressed Concrete.".
Nerw Delhi: Bureau of Indian Standards.
10. O. Yapar, P. K. Basu, N. Nordendale, "Accurate Finite
Element Modeling of Pretensioned Prestressed
Concrete Beams," Engineering Structures 101 (2015)
163-178.
11. Abaqus 6.14/ CAE User's Guide
12. Mojtabaei, S. M., Becque, J. & Hajirasouliha, I., 2020.
"Local Buckling in Cold-Formed Steel Moment-
Resisting Bolted Connections: Behavior, Capacity, and
Design". Journal of Structural Engineering,146(9).
h t t p s : / / d o i . o r g / 1 0 . 1 0 6 1 / ( A S C E ) S T. 1 9 4 3 -
541X.0002730.
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