GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

ENGR. DIANNE CLAIRE A. CANIBAN

Instructor
 COMPRESSIBILITY OF SOIL
 Structures such as buildings, bridges, etc. are frequently erected on soil as the founding
material. Since soil is a compressible material these structures experience downward
movement or settlement. Depending on the soil and the size of the structure these
settlements may vary from negligible amounts to several meters in extreme cases.
 The increase in stress caused by foundation and other loads compresses a soil layer. This
compression is caused by,
1) deformation of soil particles
2) relocations of soil particles
3) expulsion of water or air from the void spaces
 CONSOLIDATION – the compression of the soil mass due to expulsion of water from the
voids under a steady, static, long term pressure.
 COMPACTION – the compression of soil mass by expulsion of air from the voids under short
duration, moving or vibratory load.
 SOIL SETTLEMENT
1) Elastic / Immediate Settlement – takes place during or immediately after the construction
of the structure. Caused by elastic deformation of dry and moist soil without any change
in moisture content. (important for granular soil)
𝑩𝒒 (𝟏 − 𝝁𝟐)
𝑺𝒆 = 𝑰𝒇
𝑬𝒔
Where:
B = width of the foundation (diameter if circle)
q = net pressure at the base of the foundation
𝝁 = Poisson’s Ratio
If = Influence Factor
Es = Modulus of Elasticity of Soil

2) Primary Consolidation Settlement – caused by a volume change in saturated cohesive

soils due to expulsion of water that occupies the void spaces. (important for inorganic clays)
3) Secondary Consolidation Settlement – occurs at constant effective stress with volume
change due to rearrangement of particles. (important for organic soil)
 SOIL SETTLEMENT
 BASIC SETTLEMENT FORMULA
𝑯(𝒆𝒐 − 𝒆′ ) ∆𝒆
𝜟𝑯 = =𝑯
𝟏 + 𝒆𝒐 𝟏 + 𝒆𝒐
Where:
H = thickness of stratum
eo = void ratio before the vertical load is applied
e‘ = void ratio after the vertical load is applied
 EXAMPLE
A 10-mm thick soil sample has a void ratio of 1.8. If its void ratio is decreased to one-half,
what would be its new thickness? (6.786mm)

𝑯(𝒆𝒐 − 𝒆′ ) ∆𝒆
𝜟𝑯 = =𝑯
𝟏 + 𝒆𝒐 𝟏 + 𝒆𝒐
 SOIL SETTLEMENT
 PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT
1) For normally consolidated fine-grained soils
𝑪𝒄 𝑷𝒐 + ∆𝑷
𝜟𝑯 = 𝑯 𝒍𝒐𝒈
𝟏 + 𝒆𝟎 𝑷𝒐
Where:
H = thickness of stratum
Cc = compression index
eo = initial void ratio
Po = initial vertical effective soil stress
∆𝑃 = stress increase
𝑃𝑜 + ∆𝑃 = Pf = final vertical effective soil stress
 SOIL SETTLEMENT
 PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT
2) For overconsolidated fine-grained soils
When 𝑷𝒐 + ∆𝑷 < Pc,
𝑪𝒔 𝑷𝒐 + ∆𝑷
𝜟𝑯 = 𝑯 𝒍𝒐𝒈
𝟏 + 𝒆𝟎 𝑷𝒐
When 𝑷𝒐 + ∆𝑷 > Pc,
𝑪𝒔 𝑷𝒄 𝑪𝒄 𝑷𝒐 + ∆𝑷
𝜟𝑯 = 𝑯 𝒍𝒐𝒈 + 𝑯 𝒍𝒐𝒈
𝟏 + 𝒆𝟎 𝑷𝒐 𝟏 + 𝒆𝟎 𝑷𝒐
Where:
Cs = swell index
Pc = pre-consolidation pressure
 SOIL SETTLEMENT
 Overconsolidation Ratio, OCR
𝑷𝒄
𝑶𝑪𝑹 =
𝑷𝒐
If OCR = 1, the soil is normally consolidated.
 Compression Index, Cc
𝑪𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟗 𝑳𝑳 − 𝟏𝟎% Skempton

. 𝟏 + 𝒆𝒐 𝟐. 𝟑𝟖 Rendon-Herrero
𝑪𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟒𝟏𝑮𝒔𝟏 𝟐
𝑮𝒔

𝑳𝑳
𝑪𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟑𝟒𝟑 𝑮 Nagaraj and Murty
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒔
𝒏𝒐
𝑪𝒄 = Park and Koumoto
𝟑𝟕𝟏. 𝟕𝟒𝟕 − 𝟒. 𝟐𝟕𝟓𝒏𝒐
 SOIL SETTLEMENT
 Swell Index, CS
𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟔𝟑(𝑳𝑳%)
𝑪𝒔 = 𝑮𝒔
𝟏𝟎𝟎
Nagaraj and Murty
𝟏 𝟏
𝑪𝒔 = 𝑪𝒄 𝒕𝒐 𝑪
𝟓 𝟏𝟎 𝒄
EXAMPLE
From the figure shown, compute the consolidation settlement of the clay layer. Use Cc=1/3.
(106.7mm)

For normally consolidated fine-

grained soils,
𝑪𝒄 𝑷𝒐 + ∆𝑷
𝜟𝑯 = 𝑯 𝒍𝒐𝒈
𝟏 + 𝒆𝟎 𝑷𝒐

Soil Profile
EXAMPLE
A soil profile is shown in the figure. A uniformly
distributed load, ∆P=50 kPa, is applied at the ground
surface. Assume Cs = 1/5Cc. Determine the
settlement of the clay layer caused by primary
consolidation if:
1) The preconsolidation pressure is 210 kPa (40 mm)
2) The preconsolidation pressure is 150 kPa (152.8 mm)

For overconsolidated fine-grained soils

When 𝑷𝒐 + ∆𝑷 < Pc,
𝑪𝒔 𝑷𝒐 + ∆𝑷
𝜟𝑯 = 𝑯 𝒍𝒐𝒈
𝟏 + 𝒆𝟎 𝑷𝒐
When 𝑷𝒐 + ∆𝑷 > Pc,
𝑪𝒔 𝑷𝒄 𝑪𝒄 𝑷𝒐 + ∆𝑷
𝜟𝑯 = 𝑯 𝒍𝒐𝒈 + 𝑯 𝒍𝒐𝒈
𝟏 + 𝒆𝟎 𝑷𝒐 𝟏 + 𝒆𝟎 𝑷𝒐
 SOIL SETTLEMENT
 SECONDARY CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT

𝒕𝟐 Where:
𝑺𝒔 = 𝑪′𝜶𝑯𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝑪𝜶 = secondary
𝒕𝟏
compression index
𝑪𝜶 t2 = time after completion
𝑪′ 𝜶 = of primary settlement,
𝟏 + 𝒆𝒑 where settlement is
required
∆𝒆 t1 = time for completion of
𝑪𝜶 = 𝒕 primary settlement
𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒕𝟐 ep = void ratio at the end
𝟏
of primary consolidation
Therefore,
ep = eo - ∆𝑒
𝑪𝜶𝑯 𝒕𝟐 H = thickness of clay layer
𝑺𝒔 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈
𝟏 + 𝒆𝒑 𝒕𝟏
 SOIL SETTLEMENT
 SECONDARY CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT

𝑪𝜶𝑯 𝒕𝟐
𝑺𝒔 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈
𝟏 + 𝒆𝒑 𝒕𝟏
Where:
𝒆𝒑 = 𝒆𝒐 − ∆𝒆

𝑷𝒐 + ∆𝑷
∆𝒆 = 𝑪𝑪 𝐥𝐨𝐠
𝑷𝒐
EXAMPLE
A normally consolidated clay layer, 3 m thick, has the following properties:
Initial void ratio, eo = 0.8
𝑪𝜶𝑯 𝒕𝟐
Compression index, Cc = 0.25 𝑺𝒔 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈
𝟏 + 𝒆𝒑 𝒕𝟏
Average effective pressure, Po = 125 kPa
𝒆𝒑 = 𝒆𝒐 − ∆𝒆
Expected pressure increase, ∆𝑷 = 45 kPa
𝑷𝒐 + ∆𝑷
Secondary compression index, 𝑪𝜶 = 0.02 ∆𝒆 = 𝑪𝑪 𝐥𝐨𝐠
𝑷𝒐
Time for completion of primary settlement = 1.5 years
What is the secondary consolidation settlement of the clay layer five years after the
completion of primary consolidation settlement? (17.76 mm)
 SOIL SETTLEMENT
 TIME RATE OF CONSOLIDATION
Time t required to achieve a certain degree of consolidation U,

𝑯𝒅𝒓 𝟐
𝒕 = 𝑻𝒗
𝑪𝒗
Where:
Tv = time factor
Cv = coefficient of consolidation
Hdr = half the thickness of the sample if drained on both sides
Hdr = thickness of the sample if drained on one side only
 SOIL SETTLEMENT
 The approximate values of time factor Tv are:

For U = 0 to 60%,
𝟐
𝝅 𝑼%
𝑻𝒗 =
𝟒 𝟏𝟎𝟎
For U > 60%,
𝑻𝒗 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟖𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟗𝟑𝟑 𝐥𝐨𝐠 (𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝑼%)

 RELATION OF TIME (T) AND DEGREE OF CONSOLIDATION (U)

𝒕𝟏 𝑼𝟏𝟐
=
𝒕𝟐 𝑼𝟐𝟐
 SOIL SETTLEMENT
 Average Degree of Consolidation
∆𝑯𝒕
𝑼=
∆𝑯𝒎𝒂𝒙
Where:
∆𝐻𝑡 = settlement of the layer at time t
∆𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ultimate settlement of the layer from primary consolidation
EXAMPLE
Under a given surcharge, a 5 m thick clay layer has a consolidation settlement of 305 mm.
Assume Cv = 0.003 cm2/sec.
1) What is the average degree of consolidation for the clay layer when the settlement is
75 mm? (24.59%)
2) How long will it take for 50% consolidation to occur if the layer is drained at the top
only? (189.38 days)
3) How long will it take for 50% consolidation to occur if the layer is drained on both
ends? (47.35 days)
 SOIL SETTLEMENT
 TIME RATE OF CONSOLIDATION (THEORY OF CONSOLIDATION)
1. Compression Index (Cc)
𝒆𝟏 − 𝒆𝟐
𝑪𝒄 =
𝑷
𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝟐
𝑷𝟏
e1 = void ratio at a pressure P1
e2 = void ratio at a pressure P2
2. Coefficient of Compressibility (av) – It is the ratio between the change in void ratio and
the change in effective stress for the given increment.
𝒆𝟏 − 𝒆𝟐
𝒂𝒗 = Units: m2/kN
𝑷𝟐 − 𝑷𝟏
 SOIL SETTLEMENT
3. Coefficient of Volume Compressibility (mv)
𝒆𝟏 + 𝒆𝟐
𝒎𝒗 =
(𝟏 + 𝒆𝒂𝒗𝒆)(𝑷𝟐 − 𝑷𝟏)

𝒆𝟏 + 𝒆𝟐
𝒆𝒂𝒗𝒆 =
𝟐

𝒂𝒗
𝒎𝒗 =
𝟏 + 𝒆𝒂𝒗𝒆
Where:
e1 = initial void ratio
e2 = final void ratio
av = coefficient of compressibility, in m2/kN
 SOIL SETTLEMENT
4. Coefficient of Consolidation (Cv)
𝑲
𝑪𝒗 =
𝒎𝒗 ∙ 𝜸 𝒘
Where:
K = coefficient of permeability
mv = coefficient of volume compressibility
𝛾𝑤 = unit weight of water
EXAMPLE
The coordinates of two points on a virgin compression curve are as follows:

e1 = 1.20 P1 = 110 kPa

e2 = 0.95 P2 = 220 kPa

1) Compute the void ratio that corresponds to a pressure of 350 kPa. (0.783)
2) Compute the value of coefficient of volume compressibility. (10.95 x 10
4 m2/kN)

3) Compute the hydraulic conductivity, in cm/sec, if the coefficient of consolidation is

0.0036 cm2/sec. (3.87 x 10 cm/sec)
7
 SOIL SETTLEMENT
 Calculation of Consolidation Settlement under a Foundation
The average increase in pressure ∆P may be estimated as:

∆𝑷𝒕 + 𝟒∆𝑷𝒎 + ∆𝑷𝒃

∆𝑷𝒂𝒗𝒆 =
𝟔
Where:
∆𝑷𝒕 = increase in pressure at the top of the clay layer
∆𝑷𝒎 = increase in pressure at the middle of the clay layer
∆𝑷𝒃 = increase in pressure at the bottom of the clay layer

 TOTAL SETTLEMENT OF FOUNDATION

𝑺𝑻 = 𝑺𝒆 + 𝑺𝒑 + 𝑺 𝒔
EXAMPLE
From the soil profile shown, given B = 1.5m and L =
2.5m. The footing carries a load of 120 kN.
1) Compute the average effective pressure at mid-
height of clay layer, Po. (45.50 kPa)
2) Compute the average increase of effective
pressure in the clay layer using 2:1 Method. (5.81 kPa)
3) Compute the primary consolidation settlement of
the foundation. (16.90 mm)