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Positive
~~ Displacement
~ Compressors
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 PILOT FIVE - COMPRESSORS
UNIT 2 - POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSORS

Section 1
Principles of Positive Oisp.. c.......nt Compreaon
The Reciprocating Compressor. .
Rotary Compressors and Blowers.
Lobed Blowers. . . . .
-2
8
8
Sliding-Vane Compressors. 11
Screw Compressors' . . . .' 13
Liqu id·Piston Compressors 16
Review . . . . . 19
Controlling Compressor Output 20
Throttling . . . . 26
Control by Clearance 29
Unloading . . . 36
Control of Speed . 39
Review and Summary . 43

Section 2
Construction of Reciprocation Co~rs

Compressor Units 46
Construction Details . . . 48
Compressor Valves . . 48
Cyl inder Bore and Liner 52
Pistons . . . . . 53
Piston Rings. . . . . 55
Metallic Rod Packing . 57
Rods, Crossheads, and Bearings 63
Lubrication. . 67
Cooling . . . . 80
Safety Controls . 81
Safety Valves 81
Governors and Overspeed Trips 84
Oil Pressure and Water Temperature Controls. 85

Section 3
Operation

Startup and Shutdown 87

Prestart 87
Startup 89
Shutdown 92
Normal Operation 92
 POSITIVE
DISPLACEMENT
COMPRESSORS

Section 1

Principles of Positive Displacement

Compressors
In the petroleum industry, gas is compressed for transportation to
consuming markets and for refining processes. This program is about
the construction and operation of com pressors.

In Unit 2 of Compressors, you will learn the construction, principal

parts, and operation of reciprocating compressors and the types of
rotary compressors.
INSTRUCTIONS

This is a programed learning course.

Programed learning gives information in a series of steps

called frames. Each frame gives some information and asks
you to make use of it.

Here is how it works. First, cover the response column at the

right with a mask.

Read this frame and use the information it gives to fill in the
blank.

A micrometer is an instrument designed to measure in

thousandths of an inch.
A micrometer is a good tool for measuring very _ _ __ small
differences in size.

Move the mask down to uncover the word at the right of the
frame. If you lJave filled the blank with that word or a word
that means the same, you are ready to go ahead to the next
frame.

The drawing of a micrometer provides information that will

help you fill in the next blanks.

Seven major parts are shown in the drawing, but only

the and the _ _ _ _ _ _ _ contact the anvil; spindle
object to be measured.
The next frame calla for a choice. Circle or underline the ap-
propriate word.

Of the two parts that contact the object, only the (anvil!
spindle) moves. spindle
A program is a series of frames that work like the ones you
have just done:

Read the frame.

Use the information to fill in the blanks or make a choice.
Move the mask down and check the response column.
Go on to the next frame.

Remember to cover the response column with a mask before

you begin each page.

Notice that the left-hand pages from here on are printed upside
down. The program is designed so that you will go through all
the right-hand pages first, and then turn the book upside down
and go through the other pages.
SECTION 1
PRINCIPLES OF POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSORS

1. Pressure increases when gas is forced to occupy a (larger/

smaller) volume. smaller

2. This is the operating principle of a positive displacement

compressor.

A positive displacement compressor first traps a volume of

_______ in a cylinder or casing. gas

3. Then the gas is displaced into a smaller _ _ _ _ _ __ volume, or space

4. The greater the reduction in volume, the greater the increase

in _ _ _ _ _ __ pressure

5. A compressor that operates by volumetric displacement is

called a compressor. positive displacement

6. Most positive displacement compressors operate with recip-

rocating motion, but some use rotary motion.

In a rotary compressor or blower, the part that displaces the

gas (rotates/moves back-and-forthl. ·rotates

1
 7. Gas is displaced with back-and-forth or up-and-down motion
in a (rotary/reciprocating) compressor. reciprocating

8. Both rotary and reciprocating compressors operate by first

trapping a volume of gas and then the displacing, or forcing,
gas into a smaller volume. or compressing

THE RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR

9. In a reciprocating compressor, a volume of gas is drawn into

a cylinder.

DISCHARGE
LINE

SUCTION - -
LINE

The gas is trapped inside the _ _ _ _ _ __ cylinder

10. The gas is compressed when the _______ forces piston

it into a smaller volume.

11. Then the compressed gas is discharged into the _ _ __ discharge

line

2
12. The flow of gas through the cylinder is controlled by the
cylinder valves.

~ILlI ...... n'''..,c LIN E

DISCHARGE
VALVE

SUCTION
VALVE

Gas enters the cylinder through the _______ valve. suction

13. Gas leaves the cylinder through the_______ valve. discharge

14. Cylinder valves act as check valves.

They permit flow in (both directions/only one direction). only one direction

15. A compressor valve opens because of pressure differences.

CYLINDER

- - SUCTION LINE

For the valve to open, the pressure of the gas in the suction
line must be (higher/lower) than the pressure of the gas in higher
the cylinder.

16. When the pressures across the valve are equal, the valve
_______ and prevents backflow. seats, or closes

3
17. Suction valves open when cylinder pressure is lower than the
pressure of the gas in the suction line.
Discharge ,valves open when cylinder pressure is _ _ __ higher, or greater
than the pressure of the gas in the discharge line.

18. In a reciprocating compressor, one forward stroke and one

backstroke is one revolution.

If gas is discharged on only the forward stroke or only the

backstroke, the compressor is singk acting.
A single-acting compressor has _____ discharge per one, or a single
revolution.

19. In the single-acting compressor, the forward stroke is the

compression stroke.

FORWARD STROKE

BACKSTROKE

The backstroke is the _ _ _ _ _ _ stroke. suction, or intake

4
20. Most heavy-duty reciprocating compressors are double acting.

SUCTION LINE
SUCTION

DlljOlJ~RG;E LINE
DISCHARGE GAS JACKET

In a double-acting compressor, gas is compressed on (one

side/both sides) of the piston. both sides

21. The double-acting compressor has _ _ _ _ discharge two

strokes per revolution.

22. This drawing shows the piston moving away from the crank
end of the cylinder.

END OF CYLINDER

On its forward stroke, the piston compresses gas at the

(head / crank) end of the cylinder. head

23. When head-end pressure is slightly greater than the pressure

of the gas in the discharge gas jacket, the head-end discharge
valve (opens/closes) and gas is (drawn into/discharged from) opens; discharged from
the head end of the cylinder.

5
24. At the beginning of the forward stroke, some gas at discharge
pressure is trapped at the crank end of the cylinder, between
the piston and the crank-end head and in the valve recesses.

SUCTION VALVE

As the piston begins its forward stroke, this crank-end clear-

ance gas (expands/contracts) and its pressure (increases/ expands
decreases) . decreases

25. Whim the pressure of this clearance gas drops below the pres-
sure of the gas in the suction gas jacket, the crank-end
suction valve (opens/seats) and a volume of gas is (drawn opens
into/discharged from) the crank end of the cylinder. drawn into

26. As gas expands, its temperature decreases.

At the end of the forward stroke, the clearance gas in the
crank end of the cylinder has about the same pressure and
_ _ _ _ _ _ as the fresh gas being brought into that end temperature
of the cylinder.

27. The crank-end suction valve seats when the pressure ci the
. gas in that end of the cylinder begins to equal the pressure of
the gas in the (suction/discharge) gas jacket. suction

28. When the pressure of the gas in the head end of the cylinder
begins to equal the pressure of the gas in the discharge gas
jacket, the head-end valve seats. discharge

29. At the end of the forward stroke, the end of crank

the cylinder is fully charged and the end of the head
cylinder contains only clearance gas at discharge pressure.

6
30. Then the piston begins its backstroke.

On the backstroke, gas is compressed in the _ _ _ __ crank

end of the cylinder.

31. At the same time, a fresh charge of gas is being drawn into
the end of the cylinder. head

32. Name the lettered parts of this compressor.

A. A. suction gas jacket

B. B. suction valve
C. C. piston
D. D. cylinder
E. E. discharge valve
F. F. discharge gas jacket

7
33. It is a (single-acting/double-acting) compressor. double-acting

34. Trace the flow of gas through both ends of the cylinder as
piston moves in direction shown.

ROTARY COMPRESSORS AND BLOWERS

35. Compressors are often called blowers when they are used for
moving large volumes of air or gas through low R's (ratios
of compression).
A blower is a (high-/low-) ratio compressor. low-

Lobed Blowers

36. A lobed blower has two impellers.

PORT

Each impeller has two or more _ _ _ _ __ lobes

8
37. The lobed impellers rotate inside a _ _ _ _ _ __ casing

38. They rotate in (the same direction/opposite directions). opposite directions

39. The lobes of the rotating impellers displace gas from the
suction port into the ______________ discharge port

40. As gas is displaced into the discharge port, the pressure there
increases.

SUCTION PORT

DISCHARG E PORT

DISCHARGE LINE

Gas leaves the blower when the pressure in the discharge port
is (higher /lower) than the pressure in the discharge line. higher

41. In the lobed blower, there is a small clearance space between

the lobes and the _ _ _ _ __ casing

42. A lobed blower (requires/dQes not require) internal lubri- does not require
cation.

43. But because of the clearance space, some gas always

_____ backwards between the lobes and the casing. leaks, or slips

44. For this reason, lobed blowers (can/cannot) be used to cannot

develop a high discharge pressure.

9
45. Name the lettered parts of this blower.

A. A. suction port
B. B. casing
C. C. lobe
D. D. discharge port

46. Trace the flow of gas.

10
Sliding-Vane Compressors

47. In the sliding-vane compressor, a set of vanes is mounted in

the slots of a rotor.

ROTOR

SLIDING
VANE

The vanes _______ in and out of the rotor. slide, or move

48. Centrifugal force is the force that moves a body outward

from the center of its rotation.
Centrifugal force tends to move the vanes (in/out) while the out
rotor is turning.

49. The rotor is mounted off center in the casing.

01 SCHARGE - - " " I!!'f""""'- SUCTION

PORT PORT

ROTOR

CASING
SLIDING
VANE

As the rotor turns, centrifugal force moves the vanes out

against the wall of the _ _ _ _ _ _, casing

11
50. Gas is trapped in the pockets between each pair of sliding
vanes

51. Because of the off-center mounting, the size of the pockets

gets as the gas nears the discharge port. smaller

52. The rotor and vanes force the gas into a continuously
smaller _______, volume, or pocket

53. Displacing the gas into a smaller volume _ __ the increases

pressure of the gas.

54. In some sliding-vane compressors, springs in the rotor slot

help hold the vanes against the casing wall.
The vanes make a gas-tight seal against the wall of the
casing

55. Internal lubrication (is/is not) needed in a sliding-vane is

compressor.

56. Name the lettered parts of this compressor.

A. A. discharge port
B. B. suction port
C. C. rotor
D. D. sliding vane
E. E. casing

12
57. Trace the flow of gas.

Screw Compre5Sors

58. In this compressor, gas is displaced by helically lobed rotors.

This is often called a screw compressor because the rotors

resemble a set of _ _ _ _ _ __ screws

13
59. Gas enters the compressor through the suction port.

This suction gas is immediately sealed off by the rotation of

the _ _ _ _ __ rotors, or lobes, or screws

60. Each charge of gas is trapped between the lobes and the
casing.
The gas is displaced by the rotating _ _ _ _ __ lobes, or screws

61. In the screw compressor, gas volume decreases as the gas is

displaced toward the discharge port.
This reduction in volume _______ the pressure of increases
the gas.

62. Because the rotors are driven by gears, there is no metal-to-

metal contact between rotors or between the rotors and the
casing.
The screw compressor (requires/does not require) internal does not require
lubrication.

63. A screw compressor may be used when the discharge gas

must be absolutely free of _ _ _ _ __ oil, or lubricant

14
64. Name the lettered parts of this com pressor.

A. A. screws, or rotors, or lobes

B. B. suction port
c. C. discharge port

65. Trace the flow of gas.

15
Liqu id-Piston Compressors

66. In a liquid-piston compressor, cupped blades are mounted on

a rotor.

The casing is partially filled with _ _ _ _ _ __ liquid, or water

67. Examine the shape of the rotor and casing.

The (rotor Icasing) is perfectly round. rotor

68. The _______ is elliptical, or egg-shaped. casing

69. The liquid used in this compressor is normally water, but for
special applications other may be used. liquids

16
 70. While the compressor is not operating, the liquid settles to
the bottom of the casing.

ROTOR

But as the rotor turns, centrifugal force throws the

_______ out against the wall of the casing. liquid

71. The liquid assumeS the shape of the (rotor leasing). casing

72. Near the center of the rotor is a stationary port chamber

with four compartments.
Two of the compartments lead to the suction port and two
lead to the port. discharge

73. AIl the rotor turns, gas enters from the two inlets in the
stationary port chamber.

The incoming gas is trapped between the blade ring and the
whirling _ _ _ _ __ liquid

17
74. The blades displace the gas toward the discharge ports in the
stationary port chamber.
Because of the shape it assumes, the liquid helps to compress
the gas and force it into the outlets in the _ _ _ _ _ __ stationary port
chamber

75. The liquid piston compressor compresses (one stream/two

separate streams) of gas at the same time. two separate streams

76. Since the piston is a liquid, there (is/is no) need for internal is no
lubrication in this compressor.

77. Some liquid is always carried out with the discharge gas.
A separator in the discharge line is used to _ _ _ _ the separate, or remove
liquid from the gas.

78. This compressor requires a means of keeping sufficient

_ _ _ _ _ _ in the casing. liquid, or water

79. Name the lettered parts of this compressor.

A. A. suction port
B.. B. liquid, or water
C. C. discharge port
D. D. blades

18
80. Trace the flow of gas.

I.vlew

81. Identify these rotary compressors and blowers.

A. A. lobed blower

B. B. liquid-piston
compressor

19
81. (cont.)

c. C. sliding-vane compressor

D. D. screw compressor

CONTROLLING COMPRESSOR OUTPUT

82. The performance of a reciprocating compressor can be repre-

sented by a pressure-volume (p-v) diagram.

B ,...--____

A ----"------"-C

CYLINDER VOLUME-

The diagram indicates the pressure in the cylinder of the

compressor in relation to cylinder _ _ _ _ _ __ volume

20
83. As the piston of a compressor moves back and forth in the
cylinder, the volume of the cylinder (changes/remains con-
stant). changes

84. The horizontal line in a p-v diagram, shown above as A to C,

represents the change in volume produced by the movement
of the in the cylinder. piston

85. A vertical line on the diagram represents ______ in the pressure

cylinder.

86. This piston has displaced all the gas it can and is as far to-
ward one end of the cylinder as it can go.

1-- CLEARANCE SPACE

The pressure in the clearance space is equal to the (suction/

discharge) pressure. discharge

87. This is what the p-v diagram looks like at the start of a stroke
cycle in a positive displacement compressor.

DISCHARGE
PRESSURE

CLEARANCE
SPACE--..i

The pressure in the cylinder and the position of the piston are
shown by point (A/B). A

88. As the piston begins to move back in the cylinder, the gas in
the clearance space (expands/contracts). expands

89. As the gas expands, pressure in the cylinder _ __ decreases

21
90. When the pressure in the cylinder drops slightly below the
suction line pressure, the valve opens. suction

91. Curve AB on this p-v diagram shows the movement of the

piston and the pressure decrease.

N VALVE

A
DISCHARGE

SUCTION
B

The opening of the suction valve is represented on the p-v

diagram by point (A/B). B

92. As the piston moves further back into the cylinder, gas
flows in.
The pressure in the cylinder (increases/decreases/remains
relatively constant). remains relatively constant

93. Here, the p-v diagram shows the point at which the piston has
moved as far in one direction as it can go.

A
-.-+~.:....----------

The end of the piston's suction or intake stroke is repre-

sented by point (A/B/C). C

22
94. As soon as the piston begins to move in the opposite direction,
the gas begins to be compressed

95. Compression of the gas causes the pressure of the gas in the
cylinder to _ _ __ increase

96. The gas pressure increases until it is slightly above (suctionl

discharge) pressure. discharge

97. Here, pressure in the cylinder is slightly above discharge

pressure.

DISCHARGE
PRESSURE
-t--.-t'''-.- -ic------

SUCTION
PRESSURE+'--+-~~==~--~~----

This condition is represented on the p-v diagram by point

(AlBIC/D). D

98. As the piston continues its stroke, the gas is _ _ _ __ discharged

through the proper valve.

99. During the discharge stroke, the gas pressure in the cylinder
(increasesldecreases/remains relatively constant). remains relatively constant

100. This p-v diagram:

A D

B C

shows (one or more complete cycles/less than one cycle) of one or more complete cycles
the compressor.

23
 101. Label the four lines on the p-v diagram as COMPRESSION,
DISCHARGE, EXPANSION, and SUCTION.

DISOIARGE ~

~\\ ~~~Q
'" SUCTION ~

y. 102. Work is force times distance.

WORK

DISTANCE

On a p-v diagram, change in the horizontal (volume) position

indicates (force/distance). distance

103. Change in the vertical (pressure) position indicates (force/

distance). force

104. Length times width equals area.

You can calculate the amount of work done in one cycle
by a reciproeating compressor by measuring the _ _ __ area, or space
enclosed by the lines of a p-v diagram.

105. The HP required by a compressor depends on the work done

in a given time and on the compressor's mechanical efficiency.
Mechanical efficiency is the ratio of the HP applied to the gas
to the HP received from the _ _ _ _ _ __ driver, or prime mover

106. The ratio of the actual capacity of the compressor to the

volume of gas that it should theoretically handle is the com-
pressor's volumetric efficiency.
Volumetric efficiency is the ratio of the compressor's (actual/
theoretical) capacity to its (actual/theoretical) capacity. actual; theoretical

107. As volumetric efficiency decreases, the actual capacity of the

compressor (increases/decreases). decreases

108. Since slippage increases at higher R's, a compressor tends to

have a higher volumetric efficiency when it is operating
through a (higher/lower) R. lower

24
 109. On a p-v diagram, the distance from A to C (AC) represents
the full length of the piston's stroke.

The actual intake of gas to the compressor is indicated by

distance (AC/BC). BC

110. The ratio of distance BC to distance AC indicates volumetric

efficiency.

Diagram (A/B) shows a hiOgher volumetric efficiency. A

111. Compressor (A/B) does more work. A

112. As volumetric efficiency decreases, the work done by a com-

pressor _ _ _ _ _ __ decreases

113. As the compressor does less work, it requires _____ HP. less

114. Volumetric efficiency does not significantly affect the mechan-

ical or work efficiency of the compressor.
As volumetric efficiency decreases, _ _ _ _ efficiency mechanical
is not significantly changed.

1..115. As Volumetric efficiency decreases:

actual capacity (decreases/remains essentially the same) ; decreases
total HP required (decreases/remains essentially the
same); decreases
mechanical efficiency (decreases/remains essentially the
same); and remains essentially the same
HP required per MSCFD of gas (decreases/remains es-
sentially the same). remains essentially the same

25
ThroHling

116. Sometimes it is necessary to change the capacity or rate of

flow through the compressor. This can be done by suction-
line throttling.

Throttling is partially closing or pinching a _____ in valve

the compressor's suction line.

117. Less gas enters the compressor when a suction block valve is
throttled, or pinched

118. Since throttling reduces suction pressure without affecting

discharge pressure, it always acts to (increase/decrease) R. Increase

119. This increase in R tends to _____ the compressor's HP increase

requirements.

120. But throttling also reduces volumetric efficiency and so acts

to compressor capacity. decrease, or reduce

121. This decrease in capacity tends to _ _ _ _ __ the HP decrease

required for the compressor.

122. The area inside a p-v diagram indicates HP requirements.

The more area there is inside the diagram, the (more/less) more
HP is required.

26
123. These p-v diagrams show the performance of a compressor
at three suction pressures.

W
<II:
:::0
'"
'"
W
...
<II:

VOLUME

The diagram with the highest suction pressure is (1/2/3). 1

124. As the compressor is throttled, suction pressure (increases/

decreases), decreases

125. Diagram 2 shows that the piston travels a (greater/smaller) greater

distance before the suction valve opens.

126. When the compressor is throttled, the portion of the piston

stroke in which gas flows into the compressor is (greater/
smaller) than when the compressor is unthrottled. smaller
•
127. When the compressor is throttled, (more/less) gas flows less
through the compressor.

128. The work area enclosed by diagram 2 is (greater/less) than greater

the work area enclosed by diagram 1.

129. Even though the volume of gas handled by the compressor is

less when it is throttled, as in diagram 2, the horsepower
required is _ _ _ _ _ __ greater

130. Diagram 3 shows what happens when suction pressure is

further (increased/decreased), decreased

131. Diagram 3 shows that the volume of gas that the compressor
handles has (increased/decreased). decreased

27
132. Ai; the suction pressure is further decreased, below the
pressure shown in diagram 2, horsepower requirements
decrease

133. These p-v diagrams show that when a compressor is throttled

by lowering suction pressure, the volume of gas that passes
through the compressor (increases/decreases). decreases

134. When the compressor is first throttled, the horsepower re-

quirements (increase/decrease). increase

135. As the compressor is further throttled, horsepower require-

ments (continue to increase/reach a maximum). reach a maximum

136. Further throttling of the compressor results in (an increase /

a decrease) in" horsepower requirements. a decrease

137. When R is low (below about 2.0), throttling acts to increase

power requirements.
Throttling acts to decrease power requirements when R is
(above/below) about 2.5. above

138. Throttling usually has little significant effect on power re-

quirements when R is between __ ~~_ and ___ ~ __ . 2.0; 2.5

139. The temperature of the gas leaving the compressor depends

on suction temperature, on the kind of gas, and on R.
Since throttling always increases R, it always acts to
_______ the temperature of the discharge gas. increase, or raise

140. The maximum allowable discharge temperature from most

compressors moving hydrocarbons is usually specified as
350°F.
Throttling should not be used if it causes the gas to go above
its maximum allowable _ _ _ _ _ __ discharge temperature

141. Throttling may create a partial vacuum that could permit air
from the atmosphere to enter the compressor.
There must be no air leaks in the suction system when
throttling is used because hydrocarbons can ignite in the
presence of _ _ _ __ air, or oxygen

142. Since it always increases R and may increase power require-

ments, throttling is normally used as a (permanent/tempor-
ary) method of rate control. temporary

143. Throttling is an (efficient/inefficient) method of control. inefficient

28
Control by Clearance

144. At the end of each compression stroke, some gas is left in a

clearance space in the cylinder.

CLEARANCE
'y--SPACE

The clearance is made up of the spaces in the valve recesses,

plus the space that exists between the piston and cylinder
end at the (start/finish) of the stroke. finish

145. On the return stroke, this clearance gas expands against the
piston.

The energy of this expansion (adds to/resists) the force of the adds to
return stroke.

146. On the compression part of the cycle, the compressor spends

work on clearance gas.
But the expansion of the clearance gas during the return
stroke returns this work to the _ _ _ _ _ __ compressor, or piston

29
147. Since all work spent on the clearance gas is returned to the
compressor, the amount of clearance space in a reciprocating
compressor (affects/does not affect) the power required to does not affect
compress a given MSCFD of gas.

148. However, the .olumetric efficiency of the compressor is affected

by the amount of clearance.
As clearance increases, volumetric efficiency (increases/
decreases) . decreases

149. As volumetric efficiency decreases, actual capacity (increases!

decreases) . decreases

150. The capacity of a reciprocating compressor can be controlled

by varying the amount of in the cylinders. clearance

15l. These p-v diagrams show the performance of a compressor

with a clearance p<)cket.

DISCHARGE
I
1
I
I
SUCTIO~
I - -1-
I --:.......-
I I
I .....j
--I
~
r+ CLEARANCE VOLUME
CLEARANCE POCKET
TOTAL CLEARANCE VOLUME

The work done by the compressor with the clearance pocket

closed is the area enclosed by the (shaded/unshaded) p-v unshaded
diagram.
,
152. With the clearance pocket closed, the gas in the compressor
reaches suction pressure at point on the diagram. C

153. The amount of gas that flows into the compressor is repre-
sented by the line (CD/CE). CE

154. When the clearance pocket is opened, the additional gas

expands in the cylinder and causes the suction valve to open
(sooner Ilater) in the piston stroke. later

155. When the clearance pocket is open, the suction valve opens
at point on the diagram. D

156. Now the volume of gas that flows into the compressor is
represented on the diagram by the line (CEIDE). DE

30
157. Opening the clearance pocket has caused the volume of gas
handled by the compressor to (increase/decrease). decrease

158. With the clearance pocket closed, in order to increase the

pressure of the gas to discharge pressure, the piston must
move from point E to point on the diagram. B

159. With the clearance pocket open, the additional volume of gas
must be compressed.
To raise the larger volume of gas to discharge pressure, the
piston must travel a (longer/shorter) distance. longer

160. To compress the gas, the piston must move from point E on
the p-v diagram to point A

161. The shaded area of the p-v diagram represents the work
done by the compressor with the clearance pocket (open/
closed). open

162. To compress the gas with the clearance pocket open requires
(more/less) horsepower. less

163. The p-v diagram shows that the addition of the clearance
pocket has (increased!decreased) volumetric efficiency. decreased

164. The effect of the clearan~e pocket is to (increase/decrease) decrease

compressor capacity and to horsepower decrease
requirements.

165. This p-v diagram shows a compressor with excessive clear-

ance volume.

I
DISCHARGE --_._----
I
I
,
I
I
~UCTION -------::.=--
I
I
1.----..-1--
.. EXCESSIVE CLEARANCE
VOLUME

As the piston moves on the suction stroke, the clearance gas

expands

166. As the gas expands, pressure ________ decreases

31
167. When the piston has traveled as far as it can go, according to
the p-v diagram, the pressure (reaches/does not reach) does not reach
suction pressure.

168. The suction valve (opens/does not open). does not open

169. Fresh gas (flows/does not flow) into the cylinder. does not flow

170. On the compression stroke, the clearance gas is _ _ _ __ compressed

171. Pressure in the cylinder _ _ _ _ _ __ increases

172. When the piston has traveled as far as it can go, the p-v dia-
gram shows that the pressure (has/has not) reached dis- has not
charge pressure.

173. Gas (is/is not) discharged. is not

174. This condition is called shutoff.

Shutoff is caused by excessive __________. clearance volume

175. When shutoff occurs, (some/no) gas enters or leaves the no

cylinder.

176. Cylinder capacity is zero and volumetric efficiency is

_______ % when shutoff occurs. o
177. In shutoff, the compressor does (some/no) work. no

178. When shutoff occurs, the cylinder is likely to overheat and

can be damaged in a short time.
Shutoff (should/should not) be allowed to occur. should not

179. When capacity is controlled by clearance, no power is wasted.

The HP required per MSCFD remains the same for any
_ _ _ _ _ used. clearance
i

180. The use of clearance becomes more effective as R increases.

As clearance is increased, the load on the prime mover or
driver (increases/decreases). decreases

181. If the compressor is overloaded, the overload (can/cannot) can

be reduced by increasing the amount of clearance.

182. Since clearance reduces HP by the same amount that it

reduces capacity, clearance (is/is not) an efficient method of is
controlling reciprocating compressors.

32
183. This compressor has a fixed-volume clearance pocket

The clearance pocket is (always/sometimes) in service. always

184. This fixed-volume clearance pocket (can/cannot) be ad- cannot

justed by the operator.

185. This is a hand-operated fixed-volume (HOFV) clearance

pocket.

CLEARANCE
POCKET

The HOFV clearance pocket (may/must) be used. may

186. The. valve makes it possible to add a fixed amount of clearance

______ when needed.

33
187. On some cylinders, different clearance pockets may be
screwed into or flanged onto the cylinders.

\..I.CAltArl\..C POCKET

Once installed, such pockets have a (variable/fixed) volume. fixed

188. The amount of clearance may be changed by changing the

size of the _ _ _ _ _ __ pocket

189. This compressor has a variable-clearance pocket.

CLEAI~A~ICE POCKET

The hand wheel makes it possible to _____ the amount adjust, or vary
of clearance as needed.

34
190. The volume of the variable-clearance pocket (can/cannot) can
be adjusted while the compressor is in operation.

191. Compare these four clearance pockets.

Pockets (A/B/C/D/) have a fixed volume. A;B;C

192. Pockets (A/B/C/D) are hand operated. B;C;D

193. The variable clearance pocket is (A/B/C/D). D

35
Unloading

194. In the normal compression cycle, both the suction valve and
the discharge valve are (open/closed) when the compression closed
stroke begins.

195. Suppose a suction valve disc is held open during the com-
pression stroke.
Then gas will flow through the open valve back into the
_______ gas jacket. suction

196. (Some gas/No gas) will be discharged from the end of the No gas
cylinder that has the unloaded suction valve.

197. This suction-valve unloader is operated manually.

H...NDWH .... ,__ ~

Turning the hand wheel _______ the suction-valve pushes

disc off its seat.

36
198. Instead of a hand wheel, an automatic unloader may use a
spring-loaded diaphragm.

R PRESSURE

SUCTION VALVE

Depressing the diaphrag~ (loads/unloads) that end of the unloads

compressor.

199. Automatic unloaders may be controlled by suction or dis-

charge pressure.

This unloader is operated through a controller from a pilot

at the line. discharge

37
200. Or, the unloader may be controlled by a _ _ _ _ __ pilot
on the compressor suction line.

201. A pneumatic controller controls the supply of air to the

unloader

202. When unloaders are used, there is only a slight power loss as
gas is forced back into the suction gas jacket.
In general, unloading one end of a cylinder removes the
._ _ _ _ _ requirement for that end. power, or HP

203. Unloading both ends of the same cylinder may cause the
cylinder to overheat.
It is best to unload (both ends/only one end) of a double- only one end
acting compressor cylinder.

204. If only one of the valves at one end of a multi-cylinder com-

pressor is unloaded, the power loss may be increased.
When possible, unload (all/only some) of the suction valves all
at one end of a multi-cylinder compressor.

205. In suction-valve unloading:

unload (one end /both ends) of a single cylinder; one end
to reduce the pressure and temperature at the packing,
unload the (head end/crank end); and head end
unload (all/only some) of the head-end suction valves all
at one end of a multi-cylinder compressor.

206. Roughly one-half of the load on the cylinder of a recipro-

cating compressor is removed when one suction valve is
removed from the cylinder.
Suction-valve removal is used for (temporary/long range) long range
reduction of capacity, when the compressor (is/is not) is not
equipped with valve unloaders.

207. Capacity changes in steps when it is controlled by unloading.

Assume two double-acting compressor cylinders, each equip-
ped with a suction-valve unloader on the crank end.
When one valve is unloaded, the compressor operates at
75%/50%/100%) total capacity. 75%

208. With both crank-end valves unloaded, the compressor oper-

ates at % capacity. 50

209. Capacity is 100% when both ends of each cylinder are

loaded

210. Unloading always (increases/decreases) the HP required for decreases

the compressor.

38
Control of Speed

211. One way to change compressor capacity is to _ _ __ change, or vary

the speed of the compressor.

212. In most cases, the speed of an internal combustion engine

under load can be varied between 75% and 100% of its
rated speed.
Because a reduction of driver speed reduces the amount of
fuel consumed, reduction of driver speed (increases/de-
creases) operating costs. decreases

213. On engine-driven compressors, driver speed control usually

(is/is not) an efficient method of controlling capacity or rate. is

214. On many engine-driven compressors, driver speed can be

regulated automatically.

THROTTLE CONTROLLER

DISCHARGE

This controller regulates the engine's speed by controlling

the engine's _ _ _ _ __ throttle

215. If the pressure in the discharge line drops, the throttle con-
troller (speeds up/slows down) the engine. speeds up

216. A controller may respond to changes in pTe88Ure or it may

respond to changes in flow rate.
The controller maintains either a constant pressure or a con-
stant in the compressor's flow rate
discharge line.

217. If a change is needed, the driver speeds up or slows down

until the pressure or flow rate reaches the level set at the
controller

39
218. A controller controls rate by automatically adjusting the
_______ of the driver. speed, or throttle

219. Most electric motors are constant speed drivers.

I t is usually uneconomical to use a variable-speed
electric motor

220. Control by varying driver speed is normally used only when

the driver is an (electric motor/engine). engine

221. Most positive displacement compressors run at low to mod-

erate speeds.
Turbines are high-speed drivers.
When a turbine is used to power a positive displacement com-
pressor, the turbine's output or power shaft speed must be (in-
creased/decreased) . decreased
222. Turbine-powered compressors and some motor-and engine-
powered compressors are driven through variable-speed
transmissions.

GEAR TRAIN

v- BEL T DRIVE

When the small gear or sheave turns once, the large gear or
sheave turns (more/less) than once. less

40
223. To reduce speed, the small gear is set on the turbine shaft.
The large gear is set on the crankshaft or drive shaft of the
compressor

224. Within design limits, compressor speed can be changed by

_______ the size of the gears or V-belt sheave. changing, or adjusting

225. Look at these V-belts.

COMPRESSOR

A
DRIVER

COMPRESSOR

B
-;: DRIVER

There is a greater speed reduction at (A/B). A

226. The compressor runs slower when a (larger/smaller) sheave smaller

is put on the driver shaft or when a (larger/smaller) sheave larger
is put on the compressor shaft.

227. Within limits, the speed of a belt-driven compressor can be

changed by varying the size of the _ _ _ __ sheaves

41
228. Torque is the leverage applied to rotate a shaft, and is ex-
pressed as distance times force (inch-pounds or foot-pounds).

The same force is applied at gears A and B, but shaft B

receives more torque because the leverage arm at B is (longer /
shorter) than the leverage arm at A. longer

229. Shaft A has the greater (speed/torque). speed

230. Shaft B has the higher (speed/torque). torque

231. As gear trains and belt drives reduce speed from the driver,
they the torque delivered to the com- increase
pressor shaft.

232. The maximum torque required by a displacement compressor

depends on the compressor's construction and on operating
conditions.
A driver will stall or stop if it cannot deliver the _ _ _ __ torque
required by the compressor.

233. For every engine speed, there is an upper limit to the torque
that the engine can deliver.
With the same gear conditions, the engine can deliver more
torque when it is operating at a (higher/lower) speed. higher

234. When a compressor is powered through a variable-speed

transmission, an overtorque can be corrected by changing the
sheaves or gears to decrease compressor speed while holding
the engine speed constant or to increase driver speed while
holding the compressor speed constant.

235.
This is the same principle as shifting gears in an automobile
to (increase/reduce) torque while going uphill.

Slowing the prime mover or driver does not help to relieve an

.,
increase

overtorque.
When an engine or other prime mover is slowed, it produces
(more/less) HP and the available torque is less evenly de- less
livered.

236. Reduction of engine speed (will/will not) correct an over- will not
torque.

42
REVIEW AND SUMMARY

237. A compressor that increases gas pressure by the displacement

of gas volume is called a _____ compressor. positive displacement

238. For operating through high R's, a (rotary/reciprocating) reciprocating

compressor is normally used.

239. The performance of a compressor can be analyzed by means

of a diagram. pressure-volume

240. Basic ways of controlling the capacity of a positive displace-

ment compressor are:
control of driver ______ ; speed ,or RPM
______ a valve in the suction line; throttling, or pinching

______ the compressor by means of a suction valve unloading

_____ ;and unloader
controlling the amount of ______ in the cylinder of a clearance
reciprocating compressor.

241. Reducing the speed of the prime mover or driver (will/will

not) correct an overtorque. will not

242. When R is above 2.5, suction-line throttling tends to (in-

crease/decrease) the HP required. decrease

243. This compressor is controlled by a combination of suction-

valve unloaders and an HOFV clearance pocket.

With the clearance pocket closed and the suction valves

operating normally, the cylinder has - - - - - - % 100
of its rated capacity.

43
244. Suppose the clearance pocket reduces head-end capacity by
one-half.
With the crank end loaded and the clearance pocket open.
cylinder capacity is (25%/75%). 75%

245. The cylinder operates at 50% capacity when the head end is
(loaded/unloaded). unloaded

246. Capacity can be reduced to 25% by unloading the crank end

and the clearance pocket. opening

247. This compressor has jour-step control.

It can be operated at _______ %. %. 25; 50
_______ %.or % of its total capac- 75;100
ity.

248. Suction-valve unloaders may be used in combination with a

series of clearance pockets. with manual or automatic selec-
tion and operation.
In a reciprocating compressor. a flexible range of control is
possible with a combination of suction-valve unloading and
adjustment of _______ clearance
 Section 2

Construction of Reciprocating
Compressors
SECTION 2

CONSTRUCTION OF RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS

1. In the reciprocating compressor, gas is compressed by the

back-and-forth motion of the _ _ _ _ __ piston

2. The piston reciprocates inside a cylinder.

WATER

To provide for reconditioning, the cylinder may be fitted

with a _ _ _ _ _ _, liner, or sleeve

3. The ends of the cylinder are equipped with removable heads.

These heads may contain _ _ _ _ _ _ for cooling. water, or liquid

4. The crank-end head contains a set of metallic _ _ __ packing

rings

5. The packing rings prevent gas leakage around the _ _ __ piston

rod
45
 6. This drawing shows the assembly that connects the crank-
shaft to the compressor.

CONNECTING
ROD

CRANK PIN

CROSSHEAD SHOES
CROSSHEAD PIN

The piston rod is fastened to the _ _ _ _ __ crosshead

7. The crosshead connects the piston rod to the _ _ __ connecting

rod

8. The crosshead is equipped with babbitted shoes that permit

it to slide back-and-forth within the _ _ _. crosshead guides

9. The connecting rod is moved by the _ _ _ _ __ crankshaft

10. AB the crankshaft rotates, the connecting rod (rotates/

reciprocates) . reciprocates

11. Rotary motion is converted to motion by reciprocating

the crankshaft, connecting rod, and crosshead.

COMPRESSOR UNITS

12. Multi-cylinder compressors have several cylinders on the

same frame.
Each compressor piston is powered through the same
crankshaft

46
13. This IS a balanced-opposed compressor.

The cranks are arranged so that the motion of each piston is

balanced by the motion of the piston (beside/opposite) it. opposite

14. Balanced-opposed units are often externally driven.

The compressor crankshaft may be coupled to the shaft of an
engine or electric ________ motor

15. Or, the compressor may be engine- or motor-driven through a

V-belt drive, or motor- or turbine-driven through speed-
reducing _______ gears

16. An integral unit is built with the engine and compressor on the
same frame. They share the same crankshaft.
Energy is transmitted from the ______ pistons to the engine, or power
_____ pistons through a single, shared crankshaft. compressor

17. In an integral unit, the compressor cylinders are usually

horizontal.

CYLINDERS

CYLINDERS

The ______ cylinders may be vertical or at a V engine, or power

=_.:a:n~gl::e~t:o:.:t:.:h::e:..:====;_ _ cylinders. compressor
Now tum the page,
turn the book over, and go on. 47
CONSTRUcnON DETAILS

Compressor Valves

18. Heavy-duty reciprocating compressors primarily use a form

of plate valve.

STOP
PLATE SPRING

The part that closes against the valve seat is a flat, metal
plate

19. The plates may be in the form of one or more rings, or they
may be rings connected by webs.
The plates are held lightly against the seat by a set of
springs

20. To open the valve, the gas that is used to lift the plate must
overcome the pressure of the gas behind the plate and the
light tension of the _______ springs

21. Any tendency of the operating valve to slam or flutter can

often be controlled by changing the of the tension
valve springs.

48
22. Channel valves use channel-shaped plates instead of flat
plates.

I.nA",""L

Above each channel is a bowed, steel tension _ _ _ _ _ __ spring

23. The springs push from the stop plate.

The channels cover the slots in the _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . valve seat

49
24. Poppet valves are shaped like the valves in an automobile
engine.

POPPET

These valves use separa~e, round _______ to seat poppets

against the holes in the valve seat.

25. The poppets are usually made of bakelite or other low-friction

material.
They provide a (high/low) pressure drop and are often used low
when ratios of compression are low.

26. Poppet valves can usually provide more capacity than cor-
responding plate valves. They are frequently used in gas
transmission-line cylinders.
Poppet valves are normally used when ratios of compression
are low and flow rates are (low/high). high

27. Compressor valves are among the most important parts of a

reciprocating unit.
A worn or damaged valve allows gas to _____ back. leak, or slip

28. The sudden, chilling effect of cold liquid on a hot valve can
break a valve plate.
The gas entering the compressor should be kept free of
liquid

29. Dirt and other foreign deposits can _ _ _ _ _ _ a valve foul, or dirty, or damage
and prevent it from seating properly.

30. Compressor valves must be properly installed.

Suction valves must open when cylinder pressure is (higher /
lower) than the pressure of the gas in the suction gas jacket. lower

50
31. A suction valve is properly installed when you can depress
the plate (in toward/away from) the center of the cylinder. in toward

32. A discharge valve is properly installed when you can depress

the plate (in toward/away from) the center of the cylinder. away from

33. A discharge valve that is installed backwards will cause

high-pressure build-up and will often ________ the burst, or rupture
cylinder.

34. Look at this valve.

CYLINDER SIDE

GAS JACKET SIDE

It is installed as a (suction/discharge) valve. discharge

35. Compressor valves are installed with thrubolts, lockscrews,

or jackbolts to hold the valve assembly together.
Most older compressors were made so that if the nuts or
thrubolts worked loose, either the bolt or the nut could fall
into the cylinder.
On these compressors, a loose screw or nut could completely
_______ the cylinder. wreck,'or ruin, or destroy

36. On many newer compressors, valve parts are designed so that

they cannot fall into the cylinder.
But in all reciprocating compressors, valve screws or bolts
should be pulled down tight to prevent leakage
between the valve and the gasket.

37. When a valve leaks, the gas returning through the valve is
hotter.
At the valve cover, valve leakage can often be detected by an
increase in _ _ _ _ _ __ temperature

51
38. The operator can cautiofisly the valve touch, or feel
cover to detect possible leakage.

39. A thermometer should be installed in the discharge line close

to each cylinder.
Other things being equal, even a slight increase, or rise
in temperature indicates a valve that is leaking.

Cylinder Bore and Liner

40. To reduce reconditioning costs, cylinders are usually lined.

li there is excessive wear in the cylinder bore, the entire body
does not have to be replaced.
Only the worn _ _ _ _ _ needs to be replaced. liner

41. A cylinder or liner usually wears at the points where the

piston rings rub against it.
Because of the weight of the piston, wear is usually greater at
the (top/bottom) of a horizontal cylinder. bottom

42. A cylinder liner is usually counterbored near the ends of the

outer-ring travel.

COUHTERBORE

The counterbores are made just ahead of the points where

the end piston rings _____ and reverse direction. stop

43. Unless the piston rings overtravel the liner, shoulders may
form in the liner at the points where the ring travel stops.
The counterbores prevent the formation of ______ shoulders
in the liner.

52
44. Liners are usually pressed or shrunk into place so that they
will not slip and produce knocking.

LUBRICATOR INLET

l
CYLINDER
WALL

The liner also must be fitted so that the oil holes in the liner
always align with the inlets in the cylinder wall. lubricator
45. A loose or misaligned liner can _______ the inlets. block, or plug, or close
46. Blocking or plugging the inlets can prevent adequate
_______ from reaching the piston rings. lubrication, or oil
47. Changing or reinstalling a piston rod will affect the position
of the piston stroke with respect to the counterbore and liner.
The piston stroke (is likely jis not likely) to require accurate is likely
respacing when a piston rod is changed or reinstalled.

Pistons

48. For low-speed compressors (up to 330 rpm) and mediuni~

speed compressors (330 to 600 rpm), pistons are usually made
of cast iron.

SOLID PISTON HOLLOW PISTON

Up to 7 inches in diameter, cast iron pistons are usually made

solid. Those more than 7 inches in diameter are usually
hollow

53
49. The hollow construction _ _ _ _ the weight of the piston. decreases, or reduces,
or lessens

50. Very large pistons are often made of hollow, fabricated steel
sprayed with bronze or babbitt.
The bronze or babbitt coating provides a (high-/low-) friction low-
surface for the piston.

51. Carbon pistons are sometimes used for compressing oxygen

and other gases that must be kept free of _ _ _ _ __ lubricant, or oil

52. This drawing shows the construction of one type of piston.

TAPERED PORTION OF ROD

ROD

PISTON RINGS

Where it passes through the piston, the piston rod is

tapered

53. The piston rod extends through the piston and is drawn up
tight against the shoulder by the _ _ __ lock nut

54. The piston rings ride in _______ on the piston. grooves

55. As the compressor reaches operating temperature, the piston

and rod expand more than the cylinder does.
Piston-to-cylinder clearance must be great enough to prevent
seizure if the compressor should appre- overheat
ciably during operation.

56. At the same time, piston-to-cylinder clearances must be

_ _ _ _ _ _ enough to permit adequate support of the close, or small
piston rings.

54
57. Manufacturers usually specify the amount of _ _ __ clearance
required between the piston and cylinder wall.

58. To assemble a cold piston, make the liner end clearance

greater at the head end of the cylinder.
A cold piston is usually installed with one-third of its end
clearance on the (head/crank) end and two-thirds of its end crank
clearance on the (head/crank) end. head

Piston Rings

59. Piston rings provide a seal that prevents or mlmmlzes

_______ between the piston and the liner. leakage

60. They aiso carry heat from the piston to the cylinder wall.
The compressor's cooling system carries most of the
_______ away from the cylinder. heat

61. The rings should be installed with a light tension against the
cylinder wall.
During operation, the pressure of the gas under them holds
the rings against the wall of the cylinder, or liner

62. The ring material is chosen to provide an initial rapid wear

and therefore a quick seal of the ring to the wall.
Piston rings are made of material that wears (morei1ess) more
rapidly than the cylinder or liner.

63. Compressor piston rings are made of bronze, cast iron, bake-
lite, teflon, carbon, or other similar material.
These materials cause (high/low) friction and wear slightly low
(faster/slower) than the cylinder liner or bore. faster

64. The rings seal by a close fit against the cylinder and against
. sides of the grooves.

The cylinder barrel should be round and true, not tapered,

and of scores. free, or clear

55
65. Ring grooves should be very accurate and smooth on their
side faces.
Since long operation will often wear the grooves in a slight V,
the side faces of the should be checked for true. grooves

66. During operation, the rings must move out against the cylin-
der to effect a ring-to-wall seal.

Metal piston rings are made either in one piece, with a gap,
or in several _ _ _ _ _ __ segments, or pieces

67. The gaps in the rings allow them to _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ move out, or expand
as the compressor reaches operating temperature.

68. Rings on heavy pistons are sometimes given bronze or babbitt

expanders or riders.

RING

The segmented ring is held lightly against the cylinder wall by

the _ _ _ _ __ expander, or rider

56
 69. As the piston passes the lubricator feed hole or holes to the
cylinder wall, the rings pick up oil.

LUBRICATOR INLET

The _______ spread the oil over piston rings

the length of the stroke.

. 70. Without sufficient lubricant of the right quality, piston rings

and cylinder walls can wear quickly and permit excessive
_______ around the piston. leakage

71. A cylinder that is scored or out-of-round can also cause ex-

cessive wear, leakage and consequent damage.
Shoulders in the cylinder or liner can damage, or break
piston rings.

72. Teflon rings with teflon rider bands are sometimes used to
support the piston when the gas will not permit the use of a
lubricant, or oil

Metallic Rod Packing

73. Packing prevents compressed gas from _______ leaking

along the piston rod.

74. In compressors that operate below atmospheric pressure,

packing prevents _______ from being drawn into air
the cylinder.

57
75. Most modern compressors use metallic rings as the packing.

STUD PACKING RINGS

The rings are arranged in pairs in each _ _ _ _ _ __ cup

76. The operating pressure usually determines the number of

cups that are used.
The cups are held together for assembly by long studs

77. Packing rings are made in segments.

SPRINGS

BREAKER RING TANGENT SEALER RING

(B-RING) (T -RING)

The segments forming the rings are held against the piston
rod by _ _ _ _ __ garter springs

58
78. Breakers, or B-rings, are cut radially and seal nearest the
pressure.
Sealers, or T-rings, are cut (radially/tangentially). tangentially

79. T-rings seal (against the cup/nearest the pressure). against the cup

80. Packings that operate across a relatively low pressure differ-

ence may be packed only with pairs of tangentially-cut
(breaker/sealer) rings. sealer

81. In most cases, the cup nearest the pressure holds one or more
pairs of breaker (B) rings of double width.
The other cups hold pairs of breaker (B) and sealer (T) rings,
arranged in pairs with the (breaker/sealer) rings nearer the breaker
pressure.

82. Going from left to right, label these as breaker (B) or sealer
(T) rings.
T,B,T,B,T,B,B,B

83. Packing rings may be made of fiber, plastic, or metal.

Carbon or teflon rings are used when the packing must oper-
ate free of _ _ _ _ __ lubricant, or oil

84. Some older compressors use soft packing, such as asbestos,

duck, or soft lead.
Small flaws in the piston rod cause less damage to
__________ than they do to metallic rings. soft packing

59
85. However, soft packing does not ______ as well as seal
metallic packing does.

86. Look at the drawing.

The oil orifice is designed so that the oil must drop on top of
the and cannot run down piston rod
the side of the cup.

87. Sometimes a spring-loaded teflon quill is used.

QUILL

The teflon quill helps assure that the _______ will oil
drop on top of the piston rod.

60
88. When new rings are being broken in, the packing usually
requires a heavier-than-normal feed of oil.
A relatively small feed is usually required after the
__________~--- are broken in. packing rings

89. Packing lubricant, like cylinder lubricant, should be rela-

tively free of carbon residue.
It should also be of a enough grade for the heavy
pressures and temperatures involved.

90. For some services, cylinder and crankcase oil must be kept
separate.

RINGS

TO DRAIN

PIECE

Many compressors have a set of _______ rings scraper, or wiper

near the crosshead.

91. A single-acting wiper either prevents crankcase oil from

reaching the cylinder or it prevents cylinder oil from reaching
the _ _ _ _ _ _. crankcase

92. It is often desirable to install a double-acting wiper.

The double-acting wiper removes both _______ oil cylinder
and oil from the rod. crankcase

93. The wiper scrapes the oil into the distance piece.
From the distance piece, the oil is _______ to a drained, or sent
sump line.

61
94. Gas leaking through the packing should be vented to a safe
place.

The ______________ is between the outer vent line

two cups.

95. The volume of the vented gas can be checked to see if the
packing is permitting too much _______ leakage

96. In places where the vent line must be solidly connected in to a

vent system, a rising temperature at the vent line usually
indicates excessive at the packing. leakage

97. Where necessary, there are passages through the walls of the
packing cups to permit the circulation of cooling water.
Then much of the heat generated in the packing is removed
by the _ _ _ _ _ __ water, or coolant

62
98. The packing gland (face plate) has connections for cooling
water, lubricating oil, and a vent.

THI:!UlOMI:TER W,E L L
"'U'U"""~ WATER

It may also be equipped with a well for a _ _ _ _ __ thermometer

99. The connections may be appropriately stamped on each plate,

or drawings may be provided to identify each connection.
It is essential that each be properly used. connection

Rods, Crossheads, and Bearings

100. Piston rods are usually made of high quality steel alloy that
is usually surface hardened.
The rods are normally heat-treated to provide a harder and
stronger _ _ _ _ __ finish, or surface

101. Some gases, such as hydrogen sulfide, can be damaging, es-

pecially to hardened steel.
Heavy chrome plating is used to protect the rods against
attack by and other hydrogen sulfide
damaging gases.

102. Since most heavy-duty compressors use metallic packing, the

piston rod should be accurately round and have no taper
within its length of travel.
An out-of-round piston rod, or one with burrs or score spots,
will metallic packing. damage, or destroy

103. After the compressor has reached operating temperature, the

vertical or horizontal runout of a piston rod should not exceed
0.002 inch.
The piston rod must be properly installed to allow for
as the compressor reaches operating tem-
perature. runout, or expansion

63
104. This drawing shows a typical crosshead.

ROD
CK'O:;:;~ EAD PIN

GUIDE

The piston rod _______ into the crosshead and is screws

secured in place by a locking device.

105. The crosshead shoes or slippers are removable and adjustable.

The crosshead guides are usually integral with the frame.
The crosshead shoes are guided by the flat or circularly-
bored ________ . crosshead guides

106. Shims are installed at the crosshead shoes to insure a vertical

alignment of not more than 0.002 inch over the length of the
stroke at operating temperature.
Improper alignment of the ______________ will crosshead shoes
throw a piston rod out of line.

107. Both ends of the connecting rod are equipped with heavy-duty
sleeve bearings, usually babbitt-faced.

CROSSHEAD END

SLEEVE BEARI~IG

ADJUSTING BOL T5

The bearings can be .___ by means of wedges adjusted

and bolts.

64
108. A film of oil separates the crosshead pin and the crankshaft
from the _ _ _ _ __ bearings

109. The oil is supplied under pressure through holes in the bearing
surfaces.
The crankshaft rotates on this film of _ _ _ _ _ __ oil

110. The bearings may be made of babbitt, bronze, or aluminum.

Since aluminum scores easily, the oil must be particularly
when aluminum bearings are used. clean

111. This means that when aluminum bearings are used, any new
piping in the oil system must be thoroughly _ _ __ cleaned
before use.

112. In a full-flow oil system, very fine oil filters of five to ten
micron size are required for compressors equipped with
_______ bearings. aluminum

113. The head end of a cylinder may have an outboard bearing.

OUTBOARD BEARING

The outboard bearing helps support the weight of the

piston

114. Pistons and piston rings made of carbon are brittle.

When oil is prohibited in the cylinder, the piston and piston
rings are frequently made of _ _ _ __ carbon

115. To prevent the carbon piston from bearing down more

heavily on one end of the cylinder, the piston rod is supported
at the outboard head by a tail-rod slide.
The outboard tail-rod slide provides a floating piston con-
struction that reduces tbe amount of on wear
tbe carbon piston.

65
116. Tail rods also help to equalize the force acting across the
piston.
Because of the head-end rod, the net area on either side of the
piston is (the same/different); and so for the same pressure, the same
the force exerted on either side of the piston will be (the
same/different). the same

117. Several operating troubles are frequently experienced with

compressor rods.
If a rod wears rapidly, a likely cause is insufficient lubrication
or using a lubricant that is too (light/heavy). light

118. Rapid rod wear may also be caused by using unhardened rods,
or rods that are not running true.
If the problem is rapid rod wear, the probable cause is either:
using insufficient _______ ; or lubricant, or oil
using rods that are not _______ enough; or hard
allowing rods to operate out of _______, round, or true

119. Reciprocating compressors have a maximum rod or frame

load that must not be exceeded.
The rod load is the maximum force that the compressor
---'_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ can safely stand. piston rods

120. The weakest point in the connections between the piston and
crankshaft or in the frame determine the compressor's maxi-
mum _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ rod load, or frame load

121. During startup and shutdown, a compressor may operate

briefly above its rod load.
But for safe and normal operation, the compressor must be
kept within the limits of its __________ rod load

122. If a rod that is in good condition breaks between the piston

and the crosshead, most likely the compressor has been
operating above the maximum ______ . rod load

123. An imperfect rod could also _____ during operation. break

124. A loose piston can also cause breakage and misalignment.

Breakage within a piston may be due to misalignment caused
by a piston that is too _ _ _ _ _ __ loose

125. Misalignment or defective rod material could cause breakage

at any point along a piston rod.
Ii breakage occurs between the piston and the crosshead, the
most likely causes are:
faulty of the piston rod; alignment
improper or _______ rod material; or defective
operating above the maximum __________ rod load

66
126. A misaligned piston rod may break in the piston or at the
crosshead threads.
If a piston rod breaks at the crosshead, the probable cause
is misalignment

LUBRICATION

127. Lubricant provides a film that reduces friction and therefore

_____ between moving compressor parts. wear

128. Lubricant also has a cooling function.

Some of the heat generated by friction is carried away by the
lubricant, or oil

129. Some older machines employ a splash system of lubrication.

A supply of oil is maintained in the _________ . crankcase

130. Oil is splashed up by the rotation of the crank and the

counterweight

131. The oil must lubricate the bearings and the _ _ __ crosshead

132. In this splash system, centrifugal force is used to lubricate the

crank pin.

L PASSAGE

COLLECTING RIN

Oil is splashed up from the crankcase and into the

collecting ring

67
133. Centrifugal force throws the oil outward from the rotating
crankshaft.

The oil is forced up to the crank pin through an oil

passage

134. In the force-feed system, the oil is pumped under pressure to

the required parts.

CRANKSHAFT - DRIVEN
GEAR

L HEADER

- .... 'CTIUI .. ER

LOW - PRESSURE
ALARM AND
SHUTDOWN

L COOLER

Oil from the crankcase sump first passes through a coarse

~ankease ____________ strainer

135. This strainer is removable so that chips or broken-off pieces

can be out of the strainer. cleaned

136. By way of the strainer. the oil is drawn into a crankshaft-

driven gear ________ pump

137. The pump increases the _______ of the oil. pressure

138. In order to remove particles too small to be trapped by the

strainer, the oil from the pump then passes through a
filter

68
139. Some older compressors are equipped with self-cleaning oil
filters.

WIPER

CYLINDRICAL

•
The self-cleaning filter is designed to be cleaned by turning a
wiper so that it sweeps over the holes in a cylindrical
screen

140. The handle of a self-cleaning filter should be turned at the

recommended intervals.
This prevents the filter from becoming _ _ _ _ __ plugged, or clogged

141. The compressor will be damaged if the oil flow is appreciably

reduced or stopped by a plugged filter.
In order to prevent such damage, this force-feed system is
fitted with a relief valve and a low bypass
pressure alarm and ________ shutdown

142. Suppose the filter becomes plugged.

OIL OUTLET

TO CRANKCASE
TO OIL COOLER

BY-PASS RELIEF VALVE

The inlet pressure to the filter (increases/decreases). increases

69
143. The inlet pressure to the bypass is (the same as/different
than) the inlet pressure to the filter. the same as

144. The bypass relief valve is normally held closed by a spring.

SPRING
TENSlO~
AOJUSTABLE

TO
CRANKCASE

FLOW FROM
PUMP

If the inlet pressure exceedS'the spring pressure, the bypass

valve _ _ _ _ __ opens

145. WitRlthe filter blocked and the bypass closed, oil (can/cannot) cannot
feed through any point beyond the pump.

146. Opening the bypass when the filter is blocked (allows/does

not allow) oil from the pump to return to the crankcase. allows

147. In this system, for protection against the failure of lube oil
pressure and supply, when the bypass valve opens, the low-
pressure alarm causes the compressor to _ _ _ _ __ shut
down
70
148. So long as the inlet oil pressure is less than the spring tension
in the valve, the valve stays _ _ _ _ __ closed, or shut

149. With the bypass valve closed, oil flows from the pump,
through the filter, and to the oil _ _ _ _ _ _, cooler

150. The oil in the cooler flows through the tubes.

COOL OIL WATER

OUT OUT

HOT OIL WATER IN

IN

The cooling water on the shell side absorbs _ _ _ _ __ heat

from the oil.

151. On most installations, oil temperature is kept between 125°F

and 150°F. The use of oil that is cooler than 125°F can lead to
the condensation of water inside the crankcase.
The presence of moisture can produce sludging of the
oil

152. Oil appreciably hotter than 150°F can decrease the strength
of certain commonly-used bearing materials enough to lead
to their under load. failure

71
153. In order to maintain the desired temperature range, this
system has a bypass valve at the cooler that is controlled by
a _ _ _ _ __ thermostat

154. From the cooler, the oil passes through the low-pressure
alarm and then into the oil _ _ _ _ _ __ header

155. This diagram represents a force-feed system.

c
o

Name the lettered parts.

A. A. pump
B. B. filter
C. C. header
D. D.stramer
E. E. sump
F. F. cooler

156. Another type of oil distribution system coming into use is one
employing sets of distributor blocks.
This system replaces the conventional lubricator, its pumps,
and its glasses. sight

167. Each distributing block has a plunger which delivers a precise

volume of lubricating to a feed line. oil

72
158. Each block always delivers the same proportion of the total
lubricating oil flow in a given system.

FEED LIMES

t t t

BLOCKS

PUMP

Suppose the stroke of the pump is changed. The volume of oil

delivered by block B, for example, will (change/remain the
same). change

159. The proportion delivered by block B will (change/remain the

same). remain the same

160. The proportions pumped by each block can only be changed

by changing the distributor itself. block

161. The total volume pumped in the system can be changed by

changing the of the main oil pump. stroke

162. The blocks can be placed in parallel or series around the

compressor, but each block in a group must deliver its
metered volume before the next block can receive
oil

73
163. If any plunger fails to operate, the resultant high pressure
developed by the main pump will rupture a special disc.
Rupture of the disc stops all flow through a low-flow device,
leading to complete _____ of the machine. shut down
164. The rupture of just one disc, no matter how many discs there
are, causes machine shutdown.
This feature is desirable in a compressor unit that will be
largely (attended/unattended) while it is running. unattended
165. This feature is (an advantage/a disadvantage) if the machine a disadvantage
can be run while some lubrication points are not being
supplied.
166. Cleaned oil entering the lubrication header is piped to many
points, depending on the design of the machine.

PISTON
COOLING
COMPARTMENT
COMBUSTION

rL---- CRANKCASE

CRANKSHAFT OR OIL LUBRICATION

MAIN BEARING HEADER
•

The header enters the unit in the lower crankcase, carrying

oil to the bearing caps, where the oil lubricates the main
bearings

74
167. The oil then enters passages drilled in the crankshaft.

OIL
PASSAGE

These passages lead to the _ _ _ _ _. crankpin

168. The oil luhricates the crankpin and then enters passages
drilled in the connecting _ _ _ _ __ rods

169. For the compressor, the oil that is forced through the rod
provides lubrication for the crosshead-pin _ _ _ _ _ __ bearings

170. In the case of an integral engine, the oil services the piston-
_______ bearings. pin

171. From the piston-pin bearings, the oil flows into a cooling
cQmpartml'nt in the head of the _ _ _ _ __ piston

172. All of this oil eventually falls back into the crankcase
sump

173. Force-feed lubrication is also provided for the camshaft

bearings

174. Lube oil is fed similarly to the governor and to the engine
lubricator, which oils the upper walls of the power
_______ of the integral engine. cylinders

175. If the lube oil is suitable, lines also can be run to the packing
lubricator and the walls of the compressor. cylinder

75
176. This represents some of the lubrication points inside a com-
pressor with an integral engine.

Name the lettered points.

A. A. piston cooling
compartment
B. B. piston-pin bearing
C. c. connecting rod
D. D. crosshead-pin bearing
E. E. crankshaft, or
main bearing
F. F. oil lubrication header

177. The oil pump does not begin to circulate oil until the
_ _ _ _ _ _ is started. prime mover, or driver

178. It takes time to build up enough pressure to lubricate all

points.
Some compressor parts eould be damaged by running with-
out _ _ _ _ __ oil, or lubricant

76
179. Many of the larger units are equipped with pre-lube pumps
to pressurize the oil system for five to ten minutes
_ _ _ _ _ _ the machine is started. before

180. The pre-lube is connected in parallel with the main oil pump.
Not only is it smaller in size,but it has a smaller _ _ __ capacity
for pumping.

181. The pre-lube pump is usually driven either by an air motor

powered by plant air or by a snpll electric motor.
The pre-lube system (depends/does not depend) on the does not depend
compressor driver.

182. After the main oil pump starts, the pre-lube pump is
shutdown

183. Sometimes oil from the crankcase is used to lubricate the

cylinder and packing.
Crankeaseoilchangesarerequiredlessoftenwhen _ _ __ crankcase
oil is filtered and reused for cylinders and packing.

184. However, many compressors require different _ _ __ lubricants, or oils

for cylinders and packing.

185. Cylinder and packing lubrication is done by means of one or

more separate foree-feed lubricators.

SIGHT
GLASS

OIL INLET HAND CRANK

Each lubricator is equipped with one or more small plunger

pumps

77
186. The pump shaft, usually driven by the prime mover, can also
be driven by a separate motor.
The oil is pumped up through a sight glass and on through
and check valves placed at the lub- tubing
rication points.

187. When several cylinders are used on the same machine and
more than one type of oil is required, _ _ _ _ _ __ compartmented,
lubricators can be used. or separate

188. Before the prime mover is started, the lubricator may be

operated by a hand _ _ _ __ crank

189. The sight-feed indicator is filled with a glycerin water or

similar solution.
The travels up through the heavier glycerin oil
water to the outlet.

190. Eventually, some of the glycerin is carried away with the oil.
Then the needs to be replaced. glycerin

191. Oil lines lead from the lubricators to lubrication connections.

FORCE-FEED
LUBRICATOR CONN EC~T:IO:N~S~~~~F

Here, one connection feeds the packing gland; another leads

into the _ _ _ _ __ cylinder

78
192. The lubricator connections are provided with check valves.
The valves prevent the backflow of gas into the ______. lubricators

193. The type of lubricant used in a compressor is specified by the

manufactw·er or by company lubrication specialists.
Oil should be of the right quality and the specified
grade, or type

194. Some oils break down or decompose at high temperatures.

Fouling and plugging of valves and other compressor parts
can be caused by the breakdown of oil, or lubricant

195. In some compressors, cylinder oil is fed in through the suction

line.
The oil becomes atomized with the _______ and gas
covers the valve and cylinder parts.

196., Too much oil at higher temperatures can coke and clog the
valves.
The valves in these compressors must be cleaned, or inspected
period icany.

197. Cylinder and packing lubricant should be a highly stable oil.

It should also be an oil that has a (high/low) carbon residue. low

198. In the presence of oxygen, conventional lubricating oil can

ignite.
Such oil (should/should not) be fed into any cylinder that is should not
compressing oxygen or air.

199. For air compressors, a fire-resistant, synthetic _ _ _ __ lubricant, or oil

should be used at the cylinder and packing.

200. The amount of lubricant may vary from compressor

to compressor and with the same compressor over extended
periods.
Experience and careful observation are required to learn the
______ of oil needed by a compressor. amount

201. In general, packing lubrication for larger compressors ranges

from one pint to two quarts per day and cylinder lubrication
ranges from one pint to three quarts per day.
If a heavier flood of oil is required, this may indicate that the
oil being used is of the wrong _ _ __ grade

79
COOLING

202. As gas is compressed, its temperature increases.

The compressor's cooling system removes some of the
_______ of compression. heat

203. This is a small air compressor.

COOLING FINS

The cylinder is built with _______ for cooling. fins

204. The fins increase the amount of radiating surface that is

exposed to the air.
Much of the heat of compression is being carried away by
air

205. For most heavy-duty compressors, air cooling is not enough.

The cylinder and heads are jacketed to allow for the circu-
lation of cooling _ _ _ _ _ __ water, or liquid

80
206. Packing assemblies are sometimes water cooled.
The _ _ _ _ _ _ removes heat from the packing. water, or liquid

207. In most instances, compressors with R's above 3 are multi-

staged.

FIRST STAGE SECOND STAGE

An intercooler cools the gas (between/after) the two stages. between

208. On some compressors, aftercoolers are used.

The aftercooler cools the gas after it leaves the _ _ __ compressor

SAFETY CONTROLS

Safety Valves

209. Suppose a valve in· the discharge line is accidentally closed

while the compressor is operating.
The gas trapped in the line and in the discharge gas jacket
builds up a higher and higher _ _ _ _ __ pressure

81
210. Either the compressor will overload or the compressor or
some part of the piping will _______ burst, or rupture

211. Safety valves or rupture discs (where permitted) prevent

excessive pressure in the compressor.

RUPTURED DISC

This valve has a disc that _______ under excessive breaks, or ruptures
discharge pressure.

212. Safety valves discharge the gas to a vent or flare line.

Safety valves must be installed between the cylinder outlet
nozzle and the first in the discharge line. valve, or block

213. In a staged compressor, the safety valves are used after each
cylinder, or stage

82
214. This is a spring-loaded safety valve.

The pressure needed to open the valve depends on the com-

pression of the _ _ _ _ _ __ sprmg

215. Unlike the disc valve, the spring-loaded valve does not need·
to be after every use. replaced

216. The spring-loaded safety valve should be periodically

to insure that it blows at the set pressure. checked, or inspected,
or tested

217. Safety valves must be periodically tested and properly

set, or adjusted

218. the valves open when discharge line pressure reaches the safe
working pressure (SWP) of the cylinder.
Safety valves must be set no higher than the SWP of the
cylinder and must be large enough to prevent cylinder pres-
sure from exceeding 110% of the SWP, or safe working
pressure

219. In multi-staged units, safety valves are set to the SWP of

(the highest stage cylinders/the lowest stage cylind- each stage cylinder
ers/each stage cylinder).

83
Govemors and Overspeed Trips

220. Several important devices control the safe operation of the

compressor and its driver.
Engines use a governor to keep the engine running at a con-
stant ________ speed, or RPM

221. The governor is specifically adapted to the type of engine.

Most governors control the amount of fuel or fuel-air mixture
by opening and the engine's throttle or closing
mixing valve.

222. The mechanical governor is connected to the engine crank-

shaft through gears.
It is connected directly to the throttle or mixing valve so that
any movement in the control elements of the governor causes
a sufficient change in the fuel mixture to maintain a constant
speed of the _ _ _ _ _ _, engine

223. In the hydraulic governor, hydraulic fluid is used to control

the operating mechanism of the governor.
Although this governor is also connected to the engine crank-
shaft through gearing, it normally provides closer control of
than a mechanical governor. speed, or RPM

224. Since the hydraulic governor is more sensitive than the

mechanical governor, engines equipped with (hydraulic/
mechanical) governors can maintain a more constant speed. hydraulic

225. Most engines have an overspeed trip, which is located either in

the engine driveshaft or some other appropriate place on the
engine.

SHUT-

The trip pin is designed so that normally it is held in its

recess by a compression _______ spring

84
226. As the engine overspeeds, centrifugal force moves the
_ _ _ _ _ out of the shaft. pin

227. When the pin moves out, it trips a switch that actuates the
shutdown device for the _ _ _ _ _ __ engine

228. If the load is suddenly removed from an engine, the governor

may not respond adequately.
In that ease, the shuts overspeed trip
down the engine.

229. The overspeed trip may cut off the ignition, or it may cut off
the supply of , or both. fuel

230. Unlike the governor, the overspeed trip cannot reset itself.
The overspeed trip must be by hand. reset

Oil Pressure and Water Temperature Controls

231. All engines and most newer compressors are equipped with
devices which shut down the prime mover when:
the pressure in the main oil header falls dangerously
_______ ; or low
the jacket water temperature of a driving engine rises to
a level that is dangerously _ _ _ _ _ __ high

232. Low oil pressure shutdown devices are prevented from oper-
ating when pressure in the lubricating system is _ _ _ __ normal

233. In one application, when the device does operate, it cuts off
the fuel supply to the engine.
In another application, the shutdown breaks the electrical
power of an electric motor. circuit, or supply

234. In another application, the shutdown causes the ignition

system of the engine to be out. shorted, or grounded

235. Sometimes, the shutdown both shorts the _ _ _ _ _ __ ignition

and closes the main header to the engine. fuel

236. Cooling systems are usually equipped with automatic shut-

down devices.
These devices are set to operate in the presence of danger-
ously high of the cooling water. temperatures

85
237. Automatic devices may shut down the compressor if:
the engine ________ overspeeds
lube oil header pressure falls too _______ ; or low
the cooling water becomes too hot

238. Most of these safety controls must be reset manually.

A few reset _ _ _ _ _ __ automatically

239. When automatic shutdown is undersirable, an alarm may

sound to warn the operator when conditions become
unsafe

240. The alarm allows the operator to the correct, or solve

problem before it reaches a danger point.

241. If corrections are not made in time, the automatic controls

will the compressor. shut down

86
Section 3

Operation
SECTION 3

OPERATION

STARTUP AND SHUTDOWN

1. The operator needs to know the startup and shutdown pro-

cedures for each compressor he operates.
These procedures (are/are not) the same for all compressor are not
units.

2. Operation and maintenance manuals and instructions are

provided for each compressor and its driver.
The operator should study and memorize the procedures in
the before starting a compressor. manuals

3. The operator who is familiar with the manual and with the
equipment can usually detect malfunctions and _ _ _ __ correct
them before they become serious

4. Before starting a compressor, check with an authorized

supervisor to make sure that all maintenance work is
completed, or finished

5. Know all safety regulations with regard to the compressor

and the operation, and check to be sure that these regulations
are at all times. followed, or observed

Prestart

6. The compressor is (loaded/unloaded) before startup. unloaded

7. Before startup, check the setting of the block valves and of

the vent or bypass valve.
During prestart, the vent valve is (open/closed) and the open
suction and discharge block valves are (open/closed). closed

8. Check to be sure that all repair work is completed, that all

covers have been replaced, and that all danger tags have been
removed by authorized personnel.
A compressor that is new or reconditioned, or one that has
been idle for a long time, should be thoroughly _ _ _ __ checked,orinspected
before startup.

9. The supply of gas to the compressor must be continuous,

clean, and dry.
Make sure that there is no liquid in the suction _ _ _ __ gas, or line

10. On an air compressor, not only must the intake filter be in

place, it must be _ _ _ _ _ __ clean

87
11. All bearings should be lubricated with _ _ _ _ _ _ before oil
startup.

12. Before startup, check the crankcase and see that it is filled
with to the specified level. oil

13. After checking its oil level, hand crank the lubricator until oil
reaches the cylinder and the _ _ _ _ _ _. packing

14. If the compressor has a pre-lube system, the pre-lube pump

should be five to ten minutes before startup. operated, or run, or started

15. After making sure all people are clear, use a bar to rotate the
unit through one complete revolution and, if required, leave
in starting position.
This will reveal any cylinder obstructions and could indicate
that the bearings are too _ _ _ _ __ tight
16. Check to see that cooling water is _ _ _ _ _ _ in circulating, or flowing
each cooling system.

17. Some interstage coolers use fans.

Start the fans and check to be sure they are _ _ __ working, or operating
properly.

18. When an oil cooler is used, make sure that all oil and water
valves are in their correct operating _ _ _ _ __ position

19. Any of the above prestart checks and safety procedures that
apply should be used for the compressor driver too.
If the driver has separate lubrication and cooling systems,
make sure that these are in their proper _ _ _ _ __ operating, or starting
position before startup.

20. Check all safety controls and aIarms to make sure that they
are properly and in good operating condition. set, or adjusted
21. The flywheels, belts, and other moving parts have guards.
See that the are properly installed. guards
22. Any oil spills or other possible hazards must be _ _ __ removed, or cleared
from the area.
23. The compressor is ready for startup if:
all compressor parts are in good operating _ _ __ condition
vent valves are _ _ _ _ _ _ and compressor block open
valvesare _ _ _ _ __ closed
the incoming gas is clean and free of _ _ _ _ __ liquid
the lubrication and systems are oper- cooling
ating or are ready to operate; and
safety valves and other automatic control devices are
properly _ _ _._ __ set, or adjusted

88
Startup

The compressor is now ready to be started. Starting procedures differ

for each installation.
The starting procedure given here is intended as a general guide.

24. Before starting any part of the unit, the operator should walk
completely around the unit as a final inspection.
Before loading the compressor, start the _ _ _ _ _ __ compressor driver,
or prime mover

25. Engines and turbines require a period of warm-up before

loading.
A motor-driven unit can be _______ immediately. loaded

26. New paeking rings require an extra heavy feed of oil before
startup.
If no instructions are given, run the paeking unloaded with a
heavy oil feed for two or three hours when the _ _ __ packing
_____ are new. rings

27. Then gradually apply to the paeker, load

watching carefully for signs of overheating or blowing.

28. This drawing shows a vent system for release of gas.

SAFETY
RELIEF
DISCHARGE
VE
BLOCK VALVE

. ,.
'VENT VALVE

The vent valve is between the cylinder discharge nozzle and

the valve. discharge block

29. To begin loading the compressor, slowly crack the discharge

block valve until can be heard coming through. gas

89
30. Start closing the valve. vent

31. Alternate between opening the discharge block valve and

closing the vent valve until the discharge valve is fully
and the vent valve is fully open; closed

32. Then gradually apply load by slowly opening the suction

block valve.

33. H the suction block valve were opened first, the increase in
the pressure of the gas between the cylinder discharge and
the block valve would the safety relief valve. open, or pop

34. Gas probably would be forced out through the safety

valve if the suction valve were opened while the relief
discharge valve were still partially closed.
{
35. Open the suction block valve slowly (before/after) the dis- after
charge block valve is fully open.

36. This drawing shows a multi-staged unit.

LOWEST
PRESSURE SUCTION
ST.\GE •

HIGHEST
STAGE

DISCHARGE

To prevent overpressuring of the system, in all cases load the

(highest/lowest) stage first. highest

37. Then slowly load the next highest _ _ _ _ _ _ cylin- stage

ders, until the compressor is fully loaded.

38. If there are no block valves on the interstage piping, a multi-

staged unit is loaded as if it were a single _ _ _ _ __ cylinder, or stage

90
39. A vent should never be used where there is a possibility of a
vacuum occurring in the line.
There should never be a vent on the interstage piping of a
multi-staged unit, unless block valves are provided on both
the suction and of each cylinder. discharge

40. Suppose there are no block valves on the interstage piping.

Leaving the vents open during startup could permit
to enter air

41. To load a single cylinder, or several cylinders in parallel, or a

multi-staged unit that does not have interstage block valves:
first, alternately ______ the discharge block open, or crack
valve and _______ the vent valve; then, close
slowly the suction block valve until open
the compressor is fully loaded.

42. In all the above situations, the units are started up as if all
are a cylinder. single

43. In a multi-staged unit with interstage block valves, the

highest stage cylinder is loaded (first/last). first

44. Some compressors are provided with a start-up bypass from

the discharge to the suction. The valve settings before startup
are:
suction block valve open;
vent valve (if any) _ _ _ _ _ __ closed
discharge block valve ________ ; and closed
bypass valve _ ._____. open

45. This compressor is then loaded by cracking _ _ _ _ _ __ open

the discharge valve, then closing the bypass
valve as the valve is opened. discharge

46. Mter the compressor is fully loaded, check the packing for
_______ of gas through the packing line vent or leakage
the packing gland.

47. If the packing rings are new, apply extra _______ to oil, or lubricant
the packing during loading.

48. Watch the temperatures at the compressor discharge, the

water jacket, lube oil, and the packing, until they have lined
out.
These temperatures must be kept within the allowable
_______ for the compressor. limits, or range

49. Touch the valve covers continually to make sure that the
valves are not _______ leaking, or overheating,
or hot

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Shutdown

50. Unload the compressor (before/after) you shut down the before
driver.

51. Unloading operations are the reverse of loading operations.

To unload a compressor, first slowly the close
slktion block valve.

52. With the suction block valve fully closed, alternately open
the valve and close the ______. vent; discharge
_______ valve. block

53. The compressor is now (loaded/ unloaded). unloaded

54. In unloading, be sure the vent or bypass is fully open before

the discharge valve is closed completely.
Otherwise, the safety relief valve would open, or pop
during unloading.

55. In a multi-staged unit with interstage block valves, unload

the (highest/lowest) stage first. lowest

56. Then continue unloading until the ._____ stage highest

cylinders are unloaded.

57. A compressor provided with a bypass for shutdown IS

unloaded by opening the bypass as the discharge IS
closed

58. After the compressor is unloaded, the _______ prime mover,

_______ can be shut down. or compressor driver

59. Whether engine or turbine or motor, the prime mover, as well

as the compressor, should be allowed to _ _ _ _ _ __ run
a few minutes with no load.

60. Allowing the prime mover and compressor to run idle pre-
vents from unequal cooling of metal parts. damage

61. Mter operating temperatures have leveled off, the equipment

can be _'--_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ shut down

62. In shutting down the prime mover or compressor driver,

follow _ _ _ _ __ instructions, or procedures

NORMAL OPERATION

63. The operator routinely observes the compressor and its

driver.
He makes routine inspections to make sure that the com-
pressor is normally. operating

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64. He takes routine readings of the pressure, temperature, and
rate of flow through the compressor.
If these conditions hold steady, the compressor probably
(is/is not) running normally. is

65. Any change in suction or discharge , in tem- pressure

peratures, or in the flow rate may be a symptom of faulty
operation.

66. If all other operating conditions remain unchanged, even a

slight increase in gas discharge temperature probably indi-
cates that the discharge or suction valve is _______, faulty, or leaking

67. After locating the faulty valve by feeling all the valve covers,
the faulty valve should be _ _ _ _ _ _, changed, or repaired,
or replaced

68. The temperature of the compressor lubricating oil is normally

held between 125°F and 150°F.
If the temperature shifts out of this range, the lube oil
_______ may not be operating properly. cooler

69. Or, the oil pump may not he circulating enough _ _ _ __ oil
through the system.

70. The operator observes changes in temperature as a symptom.

He inspects the equipment to try to locate the _ _ __ cause
of the temperature change.

71. If the change means trouble, he takes appropriate action to

_ _ _ _ _ _ the problem. correct, or solve

72. Suppose the problem is a drop in lube oil pressure.

A drop in lube oil pressure may indicate a plugged
filter

73. Replaceable filter elements should be when the changed

pressure drop reaches the specified pressure differential,

74. If bearings were either worn or burned, this would also pro-
duce a in lube oil pressure. drop

75. The check valves in the lube lines at the cylinder or packing
may he plugged.
This would be observable in the lubricator _ _ _ _ _ __ sight
glass.

76. The temperature of the cylinder cooling water may change.

This may mean faulty operation of the _ _ _ _ _ __ cooling
water system.

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77. Significant change in the compression ratio would increase
the of the gas in the cylinder, and so cause temperature
(an increase/a decrease) in temperature in the discharge gas. an increase

78. Excessive discharge temperatures at the compressor can be a

causeof impaired operation.
Discharge valve life can be shortened materially by high
temperatures

79. Either cylinder pressures or the flow rate through the com-
pressor may unexpectedly change.
Faulty operation of cylinder valves would cause (an increase/
a decrease) in the compression rate. a decrease

80. A change in the sound of the compressor or ,driver may also

indicate mechanical breakdown or equipment failure.
An operator should investigate the cause of any change in
sound, or noise

81. Logging (record keeping) of compressor variables helps to

show long-range changes and trends.
The operator can use the trends shown from the log to
trouble from developing. prevent, or keep

82. The more important compressor variables should be checked

and several times a day. recorded, or logged

83. Preventive maintenance is a schedule of regular checks and

maintenance procedures, based on company practices or
manufacturer's recommendations.
The idea of preventive maintenance is to (prevent compressor
maintenance problems/solve problems as they occur), prevent compressor
maintenance problems

84. Preventive maintenance schedules involve monthly, quarter-

ly, semi-annual, and yearly inspections and checks, set up
according to company practice and experience.
To be effective, such schedules must be carefully. followed, or observed

85. Force feed lubricators must be filled and checked to see that
feeds are pumping at the correct _ _ _ _ _ __ rate

86. All sight feed glasses must be checked to be sure they are
clear

87. Oil filters must be checked and theelements _ _ _ _ __ cleaned ,or changed,
as needed. or replaced

88. Routine tests of the oil should be made and the oil
_______ as decided by your lubrication specialist. changed

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89. Safe operation of gas compressors depends on an under-
standing of the equipment and of the nature of gas behavior.
Since mixtures of hydrocarbon gases and air can produce a
flammable mixture, air(should/should not) be allowed in should not
equipment processing hydrocarbons.

90. Care should be taken to avoid leakage of gas out of the com-
pressor or leakage of into the compressor. air

91. Liquids cannot be compressed.

No should be aIlowed to enter the com- liquid
pressor.
92. Liquids can badly _ _ _ _ _ _ compressors. damage

93. Compressor valves and other parts can be badly damaged by

the smallest slugs of in the incoming gas. liquid

94. Most compressors have relief valves to protect the unit from
over-,_ _ _ _ __ pressure

95. Relief valves should be periodically _ _ _ _ _ _ and checked, or inspected

repaired and reset when necessary.

96. Compressor drivers may also have safety valves.

All safety equipment and relief valves should be kept in good
operating _ _ _ _ __ condition, or order

97. While the compressor is operating, all for guards

flywheels, belts, and other moving parts should be in place.

98. The operator who makes periodic inspections, observes the

equipment carefully, and takes prompt corrective action
will maintain a safe and compressor efficient, or economical
operation.

I THE END I

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