ALA p1

Linear Equations and Matrices Lin.Eqs. (cont.
Applied Linear Algebra

´
LÊ MINH TUÂN
Lê Minh Tuấn, Ph.D. 1
1
Department of Mathematics and Applications,
Saigon University.
Applied Linear Algebra, Spring 2023
Lê Minh Tuấn, Ph.D. Saigon University

Applied Linear Algebra 1 / 80
Linear Equations and Matrices Lin.Eqs. (cont.)
Table of contents:
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LÊ MINH TUÂN Vectors Linear Independence
1 Linear Equations and Matrices 2 Lin.Eqs. (cont.) Introduction to Linear
Systems of Linear Equations The Matrix Equation Ax = b Transformations
Gaussian Elimination Solution Sets of Linear Reference87
Matrices and vectors Systems

Table of contents:
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One of the most frequently recurring practical problems in many fields of study-such as
mathematics, physics, biology, chemistry, economics, all phases of engineering, operations
research, and the social sciences - is that of solving a system of linear equations.
Definition 1.1.
The equation ´
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a1 x1 + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn = b (1)
which expresses the real (or complex) quantity b in terms of the unknowns x1 , x2 , . . . , xn and the
real (or complex) coefficients a1 , a2 , . . . , an , is called a linear equation.
In many applications we are given b and must find numbers x1 , x2 , . . . , xn satisfying equation (1).
A solution to linear equation (1) is a sequence of n numbers s1 , s2 , . . . , sn , which has the property
that: (1) is satisfied when x1 = s1 , x2 = s2 , . . . , xn = sn are substituted in (1).
Example 1.2.
x1 = 2, x2 = 3, and x3 = −4 is a solution to the linear equation 6x1 − 3x2 + 4x3 = −13, since
6(2) − 3(3) + 4(−4) = −13.

Definition 1.3.
A system of m linear equations in n unknowns, x1 , x2 , . . . , xn , or a linear system, is a set of m linear
equations each in n unknowns.  A linear system can conveniently be written as
 a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn = b1

´

 a x
21 1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2n xn = b2
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.. .. .. .. .. (2)

 . . . . .
 a x + a x + ··· + a x = b

m1 1 m2 2 mn n m
Thus the ith equation is ai1 x1 + ai2 x2 + · · · + ain xn = bi . In (2) the ai j are known constants.
Given values of b1 , b2 , . . . , bm , we want to find values of x1 , x2 , . . . , xn that will satisfy each equation in (2).

Definition 1.3.
A system of m linear equations in n unknowns, x1 , x2 , . . . , xn , or a linear system, is a set of m linear
equations each in n unknowns.  A linear system can conveniently be written as
 a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn = b1

´

 a x
21 1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2n xn = b2
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.. .. .. .. .. (2)

 . . . . .
 a x + a x + ··· + a x = b

m1 1 m2 2 mn n m
Thus the ith equation is ai1 x1 + ai2 x2 + · · · + ain xn = bi . In (2) the ai j are known constants.
Given values of b1 , b2 , . . . , bm , we want to find values of x1 , x2 , . . . , xn that will satisfy each equation in (2).
A solution to linear system (2) is a sequence of n numbers (a list) s1 , s2 , . . . , sn , which has the property that:
each equation in (2) is satisfied when x1 = s1 , x2 = s2 , . . . , xn = sn are substituted.
If the linear system (2) has no solution, it is said to be inconsistent; if it has at least one solution, it is called
consistent. The equations in a linear system with infinitely many solutions are called dependent.
If b1 = b2 = · · · = bm = 0, then (2) is called a homogeneous system.
Note that x1 = x2 = · · · = xn = 0 is always a solution to a homogeneous system; it is called the trivial solution.
A solution to a homogeneous system in which not all of x1 , x2 , . . . , xn are zero is called a nontrivial solution.

The set of all possible solutions is called the solution set of the linear system. Two linear systems are called
equivalent if they have the same solution set.
Example 1.4.
The linear system The linear system

 8x1 − 3x2 = 7
(
x1 − 3x2
´
= −7

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(3) 3x1 − 2x2 = 0 (4)
2x1 + x2 = 7 
 10x − 2x = 14
1 2
has only the solution x1 = 2 and x2 = 3. also has only the solution x1 = 2 and x2 = 3.
Therefore the linear systems (3) and (4) are equivalent.
Solving Linear Systems (in two variables) by Substitution
1 Solve either of the equations for one variable in 3 Solve the equation containing one variable.
terms of the other. (If one of the equations is 4 Back-substitute the value found in step 3 into
already in this form, you can skip this step.) one of the original equations. Simplify and find
2 Substitute the expression found in step 1 into the value of the remaining variable.
the other equation. This will result in an 5 Check the proposed solution in both of the
equation in one variable. system’s given equations.
Example 1.5. (
5x − 4y = 9
Solve by the substitution method:
x − 2y = −3
Solution:
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• From the second equation, we have: x = 2y − 3
• Substituting x = 2y − 3 into the 1 st equation,
x − 2(4) = −3
x − 8 = −3x = 5
we get: 5(2y − 3) − 4y = 9
• Solve for y : • Substituting x = 5 and y = 4 into original
5(2y − 3) − 4y = 9 linear system:
10y − 15 − 4y = 9 (
6y = 24 5(5) − 4(4) = 9 (TRUE)
5 − 2(4) = −3 (TRUE)
y=4
• Back-substituting y = 4 into the (original) The solution set of the original linear system is
second equation, we obtain: {(5, 4)}

Problem 1.6.
Solve each system by the substitution method
( ( (
x+y = 4 x = 3y + 7 2x − 3y = 8 − 2x
a) f) k)
y = 3x x = 2y − 1 3x + 4y = x + 3y + 14
b)
(
x+y = 6
g)

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5x + 2y = 0 (
3x − 4y = x − y + 4
y = 2x  x − 3y = 0 l)
2x + 6y = 5y − 4
( (
x + 3y = 8 4x + 3y = 0 
c)
y = 2x − 9
h)
2x − y = 0  y = 1x+ 2

m) 3 3
( 5
(
2x + 5y = −4  y = x−2

2x − 3y = −13 i) 7
d)
y = 2x + 7 3x − y = 11 
 y = −1x+2
 
(  2x + 5y = 1
x = 4y − 2 n) 2
e) j) 3
x = 6y + 8 −x + 6y = 8  y = x+7

4

Solving Linear Systems (in two variables) by the method of elimination (Addition)
1 If necessary, rewrite both equations in the form Ax + By = C.
2 If necessary, multiply either equation or both equations by appropriate nonzero numbers so
3
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that the sum of the x-coefficients or the sum of the y-coefficients is 0 .
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Add the equations in step 2. The sum is an equation in one variable.
4 Solve the equation in one variable.
5 Back-substitute the value obtained in step 4 into either of the given equations and solve for the
other variable.
6 Check the solution in both of the original equations.
Example 1.7. (
4x + 5y = 3
Solve by the addition method:
2x − 3y = 7

Solution:
• Multiplying each term of the first equation 1 st equation, we have:
by 3 and multiplying each term of the 2 nd
4(2) + 5y = 3
equation by 5 , we get:
´ 5y = −5
(
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12x + 15y = 9
10x − 15y = 35 y = −1
• Adding the equations side by side, we • Substituting x = 2 and y = −1 into the

obtain: 22x = 44 original linear system:
(
• Solve for x: 4(2) + 5(−1) = 3 (TRUE)
22x = 44 2(2) − 3(−1) = 7 (TRUE)
x = 2
Therefore, the solution set of the original
• Back-substituting x = 2 into the (original) linear system is {(2, −1)}.

Problem 1.8.
Solve each system by the addition (elimination) method.
( ( (
x + y = 1 x + 2y = 2 3x − 7y = 13
a d g
x − y = 3 −4x + 3y = 25 6x + 5y = 7
´
( ( (
2x + 3y = 6 2x − 7y = 2 3x − 4y = 11
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b e h
2x − 3y = 6 3x + y = −20 2x + 3y = −4
( ( (
3x + 2y = 14 4x + 3y = 15 2x + 3y = −16
c f i
3x − 2y = 10 2x − 5y = 1 5x − 10y = 30
Revenue and Cost Functions
A company produces and sells x units of a product.
Revenue Function: R(x) = (price per unit sold) × x
Cost Function: C(x) = fixed cost + ( cost per unit produced ) × x
The point of intersection of the graphs of the revenue and cost functions is called the break-even point.
The x-coordinate of the point reveals the number of units that a company must produce and sell so that
money coming in, the revenue, is equal to money going out, the cost.
The y-coordinate of the break-even point gives the amount of money coming in and going out.

Problem 1.9.
For each exercise, write the cost function, C(x), the revenue function, R(x), and determine the break-even
point.
a) A company that manufactures small canoes has a fixed cost of $18, 000. It costs $20 to produce each
b)
canoes produced and sold.) ´
canoe. The selling price is $80 per canoe. (In solving this exercise, let x represent the number of
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A company that manufactures bicycles has a fixed cost of $100, 000. It costs $100 to produce each
bicycle. The selling price is $300 per bike. (In solving this exercise, let x represent the number of
bicycles produced and sold.)
c) You invest in a new play. The cost includes an overhead of $30, 000, plus production costs of $2500 per
performance. A sold-out performance brings in $3125. (In solving this exercise, let x represent the
number of sold-out performances.)
d) You invested $30, 000 and started a business writing greeting cards. Supplies cost 2c/ per card and you
are selling each card for 50c/. (In solving this exercise, let x represent the number of cards produced
and sold.)

Problem 1.10.
1 Three times a first number decreased by a second number is 1. The first number increased by twice the
second number is 12. Find the numbers.
2 The sum of three times a first number and twice a second number is 8. If the second number is
Problem 1.11.
Solve 
´
subtracted from twice the first number, the result is 3. Find the numbers.
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each system by the method of your choice. 
 x+2 y+4 x−y x+y 1
−


 =3 
 = −
a) 2 3 b) 3 2 2
x+y x−y 5  x+2 −4 = y+4
= −

 
5 2 2 2 3
 
Problem 1.12.
At the north campus of a performing arts school, 10% of the students are music majors. At the south campus,
90% of the students are music majors. The campuses are merged into one east campus. If 42% of the 1000
students at the east campus are music majors, how many students did each of the north and south campuses
have before the merger?

Problem 1.13.
A new restaurant is to contain two-seat tables and four-seat tables. Fire codes limit the restaurant’s
maximum occupancy to 56 customers. If the owners have hired enough servers to handle 17 tables of
customers, how many of each kind of table should they purchase?
Problem 1.14.
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A hotel has 200 rooms. Those with kitchen facilities rent for $100 per night and those without kitchen
facilities rent for $80 per night. On a night when the hotel was completely occupied, revenues were $17, 000.
How many of each type of room does the hotel have?
Problem 1.15.
At the north campus of a small liberal arts college, 90% of the students are men. At the south campus, 50%
of the students are men. The campuses are merged into one east campus. If 60% of the 1200 students at the
east campus are men, how many students did each of the north and south campuses have before the merger?
Problem 1.16.
1 For the linear function f (x) = mx + b, f (−2) = 11 and f (3) = −9. Find m and b.
2 For the linear function f (x) = mx + b, f (−3) = 23 and f (2) = −7. Find m and b.

Solving Linear Systems in Three Variables by Eliminating Variables

Reduce the system to two equations in two variables. This is usually accomplished by taking
1
two different pairs of equations and using the addition method to eliminate the same variable
from both pairs.
2 Solve the resulting system of two equations in two variables using addition or substitution.
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The result is an equation in one variable that gives the value of that variable.
3 Back-substitute the value of the variable found in step 2 into either of the equations in two
variables to find the value of the second variable.
4 Use the values of the two variables from steps 2 and 3 to find the value of the third variable by
back-substituting into one of the original equations.
5 Check the proposed solution in each of the original equations.
Example 1.17.

 5x − 2y − 4z =

 3 (1)
Solve the linear system: 3x + 3y + 2z = −3 (2)

 −2x + 5y + 3z =

3 (3)

Solution:
• Multiplying each term of the 2nd equation by 2, we Adding the last two equations side by side, we
get: 6x + 6y + 4z = −6 (4) obtain: 9x = −9
Adding the equations (1) and (4) side by side, we x = −1
obtain: 11x + 4y = −3 (5) • Back-substituting x = −1 into the equation (5), we
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Multiplying each term of the 1st equation by 3 and
multiplying(each term of the 3rd equation by 4, we
achieve: 11(−1) + 4y = −3
4y = 8
15x − 6y − 12z = 9 y = 2
achieve:
−8x + 20y + 12z = 12 • Back-substituting x = −1 and y = 2 into the 2nd
Adding these two equations side by side, we have: equation, we get:
7x + 14y = 2 (6) 3(−1) + 3(2) + 2z = −3
• Now we have a(resulting linear system in two 2z = −6
11x + 4y = −3 (5) z = −3
variables x, y:
7x + 14y = 21 (6) With x = −1, y = 2 and z = −3, the proposed
( each term of the equation (6) by −2/7,
Multiplying solutions is the ordered triple (−1, 2, 3)
11x + 4y = −3 (5) • Check: . . . . . .
we get:
−2x − 4y = −6 (7) Thus, the solution set if {(−1, 2, −3)}.
Problem 1.18.
Solve 
linear systems:  
 x + y + 2z = 11
  3x + 2y − 3z = −2
 


2x + y = 2
a x + y + 3z = 14 e 2x − 5y + 2z = −2 i x+y−z = 4
 
´
 x + 2y − z = 5  4x − 3y + 4z = 10 

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3x + 2y + z = 0
 
 2x + y − 2z = − 1  2x + 3y + 7z = 13
 
x + 3y + 5z = 20

 
3x − 3y − z =5 f 3x + 2y − 5z = −22

b 


x − 2y + 3z =6

 5x + 7y − 3z = −28 j y − 4z = −16


  3x − 2y + 9z = 36

 4x − y + 2z = 11 
2x − 4y + 3z = 17 

x + y = −4

c x + 2y − z = −1 g x + 2y − z = 0 



2x + 2y − 3z = −1


 4x − y − z = 6 k y−z = 1

 2x + y + 3z = −21
 
 x − y + 3z = 8  x+z = 3 
 x+y = 4

 
 
d 3x + y − 2z = −2 h x + 2y − z = 1 l x+z = 4

 

2x + 4y + z = 0 2x − y + z = 3 
 y+z = 4

Problem 1.19.
Find the quadratic function y = ax2 + bx + c whose graph passes through the given points.
a) (−2, 7), (1, −2), (2, 3) b) (−1, −4), (1, −2), (2, 5) c) (1, 3), (3, −1), (4, 0)
Problem 1.20.
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The sum of three numbers is 16. The sum of twice the first number, 3 times the second number, and 4 times
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the third number is 46. The difference between 5 times the first number and the second number is 31. Find
the three numbers
Problem 1.21.
The following is known about three numbers: Three times the first number plus the second number plus
twice the third number is 5. If 3 times the second number is subtracted from the sum of the first number and
3 times the third number, the result is 2. If the third number is subtracted from 2 times the first number and 3
times the second number, the result is 1. Find the numbers.
Problem 1.22.
On a recent trip to the convenience store, you picked up 1 gallon of milk, 7 bottles of water, and 4 snack-size
bags of chips. Your total bill (before tax) was $17.00. If a bottle of water costs twice as much as a bag of
chips, and a gallon of milk costs $2.00 more than a bottle of water, how much does each item cost?

Problem 1.23.
At a college production of A Streetcar Named Desire, 400 tickets were sold. The ticket prices were $8, $10,
and $12, and the total income from ticket sales was $3700. How many tickets of each type were sold if the
combined number of $8 and $10 tickets sold was 7 times the number of $12 tickets sold?
Problem 1.24.
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A certain brand of razor blades comes in packages of 6,12 , and 24 blades, costing $2, $3, and $4 per
package, respectively. A store sold 12 packages containing a total of 162 razor blades and took in $35. How
many packages of each type were sold?
Problem 1.25.
A person invested $6700 for one year, part at 8%, part at 10%, and the remainder at 12%. The total annual
income from these investments was $716. The amount of money invested at 12% was $300 more than the
amount invested at 8% and 10% combined. Find the amount invested at each rate.
Problem 1.26.
A person invested $17, 000 for one year, part at 10%, part at 12%, and the remainder at 15%. The total
annual income from these investments was $2110. The amount of money invested at 12% was $1000 less
than the amount invested at 10% and 15% combined. Find the amount invested at each rate.

Table of contents:
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Augmented Matrices
The essential information of a linear system can be recorded compactly in a rectangular array called a
matrix. A matrix gives us a shortened way of writing a system of equations. The first step in solving a
system of linear equations using matrices is to write the augmented matrix.
´
An augmented matrix has a vertical bar separating the columns of the matrix into two groups. The
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coefficients of each variable are placed to the left of the vertical line (this is called the coefficient matrix)
and the constants are placed to the right. If any variable is missing, its coefficient is 0 . Here are two
examples:
System of Linear Equations Coefficient matrix Augmented Matrix
    
 3x + y + 2z = 31
 3 1 2 3 1 2 31
x + y + 2z = 19  1 1 2   1 1 2 19 
   

 x + 3y + 2z = 25 1 3 2 1 3 2 25
    
 x + 2y − 5z = −19
 1 2 −5 1 2 −5 −19
y + 3z = 9  0 1 3   0 1 3 9 
   

 z = 4 0 0 1 0 0 1 4

Definition 1.27.
An m × n matrix A is a rectangular array of mn real or complex numbers arranged in m horizontal rows and n
vertical columns:
th
îThe i row of A is
 
a11 a12 · · · a1 j · · · a1n ó
 a21 a22 · · · a2 j · · · a2n 
´ a i1 ai2 · · · ai j · · · a in (1 ≤ i ≤ m);
 
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(I)  
 .. .. .. .. 
 
a1 j
 . . ··· . ··· .   a2 j 
A = 
th
 i1 ai2 · · · ai j · · · ain  ← i row  .. 
 a   
. 
the jth column of A is 
 . .. .. .. 

 (1 ≤ j ≤ n).
 .
 . . ··· . ··· .   ai j 
  
.
am1 am2 · · · am j · · · amn  .. 
 
↑ am j
jth column
We shall say that A is m by n (written as m × n ). If m = n, we say that A is a square matrix of order n, and
that the numbers a11 , a22 , . . . , ann form the main diagonal of A.
We refer to the number ai j , which is in the i th row and j th column of A, as the i, j th element of A, or the

(i, j) entry of A, and we often write (I) as A = ai j 1≤i≤m or A = ai j .
1≤ j≤n

Example 1.28. #    
" " # 1 1 1 0
1 2 3 1 + i 4i î ó
Let A = , B= , C =  −1  , D =  2 0 1  , E = [3], F = −1 0 2 .
   
−1 0 1 2 − 3i −3
2 3 −1 2
• A is a 2 × 3 matrix with a12 = 2, a13 = 3, • F is a 1 × 3 matrix;
a22 = 0, and a23 = 1 ;
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• B is a 2 × 2 matrix with b11 = 1 + i, b12 = 4i,
• C is a 3 × 1 matrix with c11 = 1, c21 = −1, and
c31 = 2 ;
b21 = 2 − 3i, and b22 = −3 ; • D is a 3 × 3 matrix; In D, the elements d11 = 1,
• E is a 1 × 1 matrix; d22 = 0, and d33 = 2 form the .
Our goal in solving a system of linear equations in three variables using matrices is to produce a matrix with
1s down the diagonal from upper left to lower right on the leftside of the vertical bar, and 0s below the 1s.
1 a b c
In general, the matrix will be of the form  0 1 d e  , where a through f represent real numbers.
 
0 0 1 f
The third row of this matrix gives us the value of one variable.
The other variables can then be found by back-substitution.

Remarks
If we examine the method of elimination more closely, we find that it involves three manipulations that can
be performed on a linear system to convert it into an equivalent system. These manipulations are as follows:
1. Interchange the i th and j th equations. 2. Multiply an equation by a nonzero constant.
3. Replace the ith equation by k times the jth equation plus the ith equation, i ̸= j. (Replacing the ith equation
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ai1 x1 + ai2 x2 + · · · + ain xn = bi by ka j1 + ai1 x1 + ka j2 + ai2 x2 + · · · + ka jn + ain xn = kb j + bi .)
Matrix Row Operations
The following row operations produce matrices that represent systems with the same solution set:
1 Two rows of a matrix may be interchanged. 3 The elements in any row may be multiplied by
This is the same as interchanging two a nonzero number, and these products may be
equations in a linear system. added to the corresponding elements in any
2 The elements in any row may be multiplied by other row.
a nonzero number. This is the same as multiplying both sides of an
This is the same as multiplying both sides of an equation by a nonzero number and then adding
equation by a nonzero number. equations to eliminate a variable.
Two matrices are row equivalent if one can be obtained from the other by a sequence of row operations.

Each matrix row operation in the preceding box can be expressed symbolically as follows:
Ri ↔R j
1. Interchange the elements in the i th and j th rows: −−−−→
kRi →Ri
2. Multiply each element in the i th row by k: −−−−→.
kRi +R j →R j
3. Add k times the elements in row i to the corresponding elements in row j : −−−−−−−→
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Ri ↔R j
kRi →Ri
kRi +R j →R j
Example 1.29.

2 −6 4 10
 1 5 −5


 R1 ↔R2 
1 5 −5 0

0  −−−−→  2 −6 4 10 ;
 ´
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
1 −3 2 0
 
 −3R1 +R2 →R2 
1 −3 2 0
 3 1 −1 7  −−−−−−−−→  0 10 −7 7 



3 0 4 7 3 0 4 7 2 −2 1 3 2 −2 1 3

Ri ↔R j
kRi →Ri
kRi +R j →R j
Example 1.29.

2 −6 4 10
 1 5 −5


 R1 ↔R2 
1 5 −5 0

0  −−−−→  2 −6 4 10 ;
 ´
LÊ MINH TUÂN

1 −3 2 0
 
 −3R1 +R2 →R2 
1 −3 2 0
 3 1 −1 7  −−−−−−−−→  0 10 −7 7 



3 0 4 7 3 0 4 7 2 −2 1 3 2 −2 1 3
Problem 1.30.
Perform
 each matrix rowoperation and write the new matrix 
3 −12 6 9 1 −1 5 −6
1
1  1 −4 4 0  R1 3  3 3 −1 10  − 3R1 + R2 → R2
   
3
2 0 7 4 1 3 2 5
   
1 −1 1 1 3 1 −5 2 −2 4
 
 0 1 −2 −1 0 
 
2 
 0 1 −3 −1 0 
 4  
−2R1 + R3 → R3
 2 0 3 4 11 
 
 3 0 2 −1 6 −3R + R → R
 1 3 3
5 1 2 4 6 −5R1 + R4 → R4 −4 1 4 2 −3 4R1 + R4 → R4

Solving Linear Systems of Three Equations with Three Variables Using Gaussian Elimination
1 Write the augmented matrix for the system
2 Use matrix row operations to simplify the matrix to a row-equivalent matrix in row-echelon form, with
1s down the main diagonal from upper left to lower right, and 0s below the 1s in the first and second
columns.

∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
  ´
LÊ MINH TUÂN
1 ∗ ∗ ∗
 
1 ∗ ∗ ∗

 ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗  → −  ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗  → −  0 ∗ ∗ ∗ 
     
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ 0 ∗ ∗ ∗
     
1 ∗ ∗ ∗ 1 ∗ ∗ ∗ 1 ∗ ∗ ∗
→
−  0 1 ∗ ∗  → −  0 1 ∗ ∗  → −  0 1 ∗ ∗ 
     
0 ∗ ∗ ∗ 0 0 ∗ ∗ 0 0 1 ∗
3 Write the system of linear equations corresponding to the last matrix in step 2 and use
back-substitution to find the system’s solution.
4 Check the proposed solution in original linear system.

Example 1.31. 
 3x + y + 2z = 31


Use Gaussian elimination with back-substitution to solve the following linear system: x + y + 2z = 19


x + 3y + 2z = 25
Solution:
´
 
3 1 2 31
LÊ MINH TUÂN

• The augmented matrix for the orginal system is:  1 1 2 19 .
 
1 3 2 25
 Using matrix row
 operation, we get:    
3 1 2 31 1 1 2 19 1 1 2 19
R1 ↔R2 −3×R1 +R2 →R2
 1 1 2 19  −− − −→  3 1 2 31  −−−−− −−−−→ 0 −2 −4 −26 
     

1 3 2 25 1 3 2 25 1 3 2 25
   
1 1 2 19 1 1 2 19
−R +R3 →R3  (−1/2)×R2 →R2
−−−1−−− −−→  0 −2 −4 −26  −−−−−−−−−→ 0 1 2 13
  
 
0 2 0 6 0 2 0 6
   
1 1 2 19 1 1 2 19
−2×R2 +R3 →R3 (−1/4)×R3 →R3
−−−−− −−−−→  0 1 2 13  −−−−−−−−−→ 0 1 2 13
   
 
0 0 −4 −20 0 0 1 5

 x + y + 2z =
 19 (1)
• Write the linear system corresponding to the last augmented matrix: y + 2z = 13 (2)

 z= 5 (3)
Back-substituting z = 5 into the equation (2), we get: y + 2(5) = 13 or y = 3.
(Back-)Substituting z = 5 and y = 3 into the equation (1), we obtain: x + 3 + 2(5) = 19 or x = 6.

 x = 6 ´
With x = 6, y = 3and z = 5, the proposed solution is the ordered triple (6,
LÊ MINH TUÂN

 3, 5).
 3·6+3+2·5 =
 31 (true)
• Substituting y = 3 into the original linear system, we have: 6+3+2·5 = 19 (true) .

 z = 5 
 6+3·3+2·5 = 25 (true)

Therefore, the only solution set of the original system is (6, 3, 5) .


 x + y + 2z =
 19 (1)
• Write the linear system corresponding to the last augmented matrix: y + 2z = 13 (2)

 z= 5 (3)
Back-substituting z = 5 into the equation (2), we get: y + 2(5) = 13 or y = 3.
(Back-)Substituting z = 5 and y = 3 into the equation (1), we obtain: x + 3 + 2(5) = 19 or x = 6.

 x = 6 ´
With x = 6, y = 3and z = 5, the proposed solution is the ordered triple (6,
LÊ MINH TUÂN

 3, 5).
 3·6+3+2·5 =
 31 (true)
• Substituting y = 3 into the original linear system, we have: 6+3+2·5 = 19 (true) .

 z = 5 
 6+3·3+2·5 = 25 (true)

Therefore, the only solution set of the original system is (6, 3, 5) .
Problem 1.32.
Use Gaussian
 elimination with back-substitution
 to solve each linear system 

 2x + y + 2z = 2 
 3x − 2y + 5z = 31 
x − 2y + z = 10
  
a) 3x − 5y − z = 4 b) x + 3y − 3z = −12 c) 3x + y = 5

 
 

 x − 2y − 3z = −6 −2x − 5y + 3z = 11  7x + 2z = 2

Solving Linear Systems Using Gauss-Jordan Elimination

1 Write the augmented matrix for the system.
2 Use matrix row operations to simplify the matrix to a row-equivalent matrix in reduced row-echelon
form, with 1s down the main diagonal from upper left to lower right, and 0s above and below the 1s


∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
 ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ 


´
LÊ MINH TUÂN


1 ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
 ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ 




1 ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
 0 ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ 


  → −   →
−  
 ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗   ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗   0 ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ 
     
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ 0 ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
     
1 ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ 1 0 ∗ ∗ ∗ 1 0 0 0 ∗
     
 0 1 ∗ ∗ ∗   0 1 ∗ ∗ ∗   0 1 0 0 ∗ 
→
−   0 ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ 
 → − 
 0 0 ∗ ∗ ∗ 
 → − · · · →
− 
 0 0 1 0 ∗ 

     
0 ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ 0 0 ∗ ∗ ∗ 0 0 0 1 ∗
3 Use the reduced row-echelon form of the matrix in step 2 to write the system’s solution set.
4 Check the proposed solution in original linear system

Problem 1.33.
Use Gaussian
 elimination with back-substitution
 or Gauss-Jordan elimination to
solve each linear system
 x+y−z
 = −2  2x − y − z =
 4  x + 2y
 = z−1
a) 2x − y + z = 5 e) x + y − 5z = −4 i) x = 4+y−z
  
´
 −x + 2y + 2z = 1  x − 2y = 4  x + y − 3z = −2
LÊ MINH TUÂN

  
 x − 2y − z
 = 2  x − 3z
 = −2  2x + y
 = z+1
b) 2x − y + z = 4 f) 2x + 2y + z = 4 j) 2x = 1 + 3y − z

 −x + y − 2z = −4 
 3x + y − 2z = 
 x+y+z =
5 4
  
 x + 3y
 = 0  x+y+z = 4
  3a − b − 4c =
 3
c) x+y+z = 1 g) x−y−z = 0 k) 2a − b + 2c = −8

 3x − y − z = 11 
 x−y+z = 2 
 a + 2b − 3c = 9
  
 3y − z
 = −1  3x + y − z
 = 0 
 3a + b − c = 0
d) x + 5y − z = −4 h) x + y + 2z = 6 l) 2a + 3b − 5c = 1

 −3x + 6y + 2z = 11 
 2x + 2y + 3z = 10 
 a − 2b + 3c = −4

Problem 1.34.
a) Find the quadratic function f (x) = ax2 + bx + c for which f (−2) = −4, f (1) = 2, and f (2) = 0.
b) Find the quadratic function f (x) = ax2 + bx + c for which f (−1) = 5, f (1) = 3, and f (2) = 5.
c) Find the cubic function f (x) = ax3 +bx2 +cx+d for which f (−1) = 0, f (1) = 2, f (2) = 3, and f (3) = 12.
d)
´
LÊ MINH TUÂN
Find the cubic function f (x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d for which f (−1) = 3, f (1) = 1, f (2) = 6, and f (3) = 7.
Problem 1.35.
Solve 
the following linear systems: 
 2 ln w + ln x + 3 ln y − 2 ln z = −6




 ln w + ln x + ln y + ln z = −1

 4 ln w + 3 ln x + ln y − ln z = −2 
 − ln w + 4 ln x + ln y − ln z = 0
a) b)

 ln w + ln x + ln y + ln z = −5 
 ln w − 2 ln x + ln y − 2 ln z = 11
 
ln w + ln x − ln y − ln z = 5. − ln w − 2 ln x + ln y + 2 ln z = −3.

 

(Hint: Let A = ln w, B = ln x,C = ln y, and D = ln z. Solve the system for A, B,C, and D. Then use the
logarithmic equations to find w, x, y, and z.)

Linear systems can have one solution, no solution, or infinitely many solutions.
We can use Gaussian elimination on systems with three or more variables to determine how many solutions
such systems may have.
In the case of systems with no solution or infinitely many solutions, it is impossible to rewrite the
augmented matrix in the desired form with 1s down the main diagonal from upper left to lower right,
and 0s below the 1s
Example 1.36.
´
LÊ MINH TUÂN 
 x − y − 2z = 2

Use Gaussian elimination to solve the following system: 2x − 3y + 6z = 5 .

 3x − 4y + 4z = 7
Solution:
   
1 −1 −2 2 1 −1 −2 2
 (−2)×R1 +R2 →R2 
As always, we start with the augmented matrix:  2 −3 6 5  −−−−−−−−−−→  0 −1 10 1 
 
(−3)×R1 +R3 →R3
3 −4 4 7 0 −1 10 1
   
1 −1 −2 2 1 −1 −2 2
(−1)×R2 →R2   R2 +R3 →R3 
−−−−−−−−→  0 1 −10 −1  −−−−−−−→  0 1 −10 −1 

0 −1 10 1 0 0 0 0



 x − y − 2y = 2
The original system is equivalent to the system: 0x + y − 10z = −1

 0x + 0y + 0z = 0
The last equation is always true regardless of which value we pick for x, y,z. Consequently, the last equation
is dependent on other 2 equations. From the second equation, we obtain: y = 10z − 1.
´
LÊ MINH TUÂN
Back-substituting y = 10z − 1 into the 1st equation, we get: x − (10z − 1) − 2z = 2 or x = 12z + 1.
The solution set of this linear system (with dependent equations) is (12z + 1, 10z − 1, z) | z ∈ R .

Problem 1.37.
Use Gaussian
 elimination to find the complete
 solution to each system of equations,
 or show that none exists
5x + 12y + z = 10
 5x + 8y − 6z = 14
 3x + 4y + 2z = 3

  
a) 2x + 5y + 2z = −1 c) 3x + 4y − 2z = 8 e) 4x − 2y − 8z = −4

 
 

 x + 2y − 3z = 5  x + 2y − 2z = 3  x+y−z = 3
 
 2x − 4y + z = 3 5x − 11y + 6z = 12

2x − y − z = 0
 
  

b) x − 3y + z = 5 d) −x + 3y − 2z = −4 f) x + 2y + z = 3

 
 
3x − 7y + 2z = 12  3x − 5y + 2z = 4  3x + 4y + 2z = 8

Problem 1.38.
Use Gaussian
 elimination to find the complete solution to each system of equations,
 or show that none exists
(

 x + y − 10z = −4 3x − y + 4z = 8 
 2w + x − y = 3
e) 
x − 7z = −5 y + 2z = 1

a) 
 w − 3x + 2y = −4

´
 3x + 5y − 36z = −10 i)
LÊ MINH TUÂN

3w + x − 3y + z = 1

 8x + 5y + 11z = 30


 

(
w + 2x − 4y − z = −2

2x + y − z = 2 f) −x − 4y + 2z = 3 
b) 
3x + 3y − 2z = 3
 2x − y + 5z = 12 
 

 2w − x + 3y + z = 0
(
− −

3x + 2y − z = 5

 2w + x 2y z = 3  3w + 2x + 4y − z = 0
j)

c) 
x + 2y − z = 1
 w − 2x + y + z = 4  5w − 2x − 2y − z = 0
g) 

 
 −w − 8x + 7y + 5z = 13 
 2w + 3x − 7y − 5z = 0

 w − 2x − y − 3z = −9
  3w + x − 2y + 2z = 6


w + x − y + z = −2


 w+x−y = 0  


d) x + 2y + 3z = 5
 3w + 4x + z = 6 k) 2w − x + 2y − z = 7

 h) 
2x − 2y + z = 3 y − 5z = 0
 
   −w + 2x + y + 2z = −1

Problem 1.39.
Use Gaussian elimination to find the complete solution to each system of equations, or show that none exists
( 
x + y − 2z = 2 
 3w + 2x − y + 2z = −12
a) 
3x − y − 6z = −7 4w − x + y + 2z = 1

b)
(
x + 2y − 4z = 12
´
LÊ MINH TUÂN
−2x − 5y + 10z = 19
e)





w+x+y+z
−2w + 3x + 2y − 3z
= −2
= 10

w−x+z = 0
 2w − 3x + 4y + z


 = 7 
f) w − 4x + y + 2z = 0
c) w − x + 3y − 5z = 10
3w − y + 2z = 0



 3w + x − 2y − 2z

= 6 
w − 3x + y − 4z = 4
 
 w + 2x + 3y − z = 7
 

−2w + x + 2y = −2
 
d) 2x − 3y + z = 4 g)
 
 3w − 2x + y − 6z = 2
w − 4x + y = 3  −w + 3x + 2y − z = −6

 

Table of contents:
´

In the definitions that follow, a nonzero row or column in a matrix means a row or column that contains
at least one nonzero entry; a leading entry of a row refers to the leftmost nonzero entry (in a nonzero row).
Definition 1.40.
A rectangular matrix is in echelon form (or row echelon form) if it has the following three properties:
1 All nonzero rows are above any rows of all zeros.
´
LÊ MINH TUÂN
2 Each leading entry of a row is in a column to the right of the leading entry of the row above it.
3 All entries in a column below a leading entry are zeros.
If a matrix in echelon form satisfies the following additional conditions, then it is in reduced echelon form
(or reduced row echelon form):
4 The leading entry in each nonzero row is 1.
5 Each leading 1 is the only nonzero entry in its column.
An echelon matrix (respectively, reduced echelon matrix) is one that is in echelon form (respectively,
reduced
 echelon form).Here are some examples.

2 −3 2 1 1 0 0 29
 are in echelon form.
 0 1 −4 8  ,  0 1 0 16 
  
In fact, the second matrix is in reduced echelon form.
0 0 0 5/2 0 0 1 3

Example 1.41.
The following matrices are in echelon form. The leading entries ( ) may have any nonzero value; the starred
entries (∗) may have any value (including zero).
 
  0 ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
´
  0 0 ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ 
 
LÊ MINH TUÂN


 0 ∗ ∗ ∗   

 0 0 0 0 0  
,  0 0 0 0 ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ 

   0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ∗ ∗ ∗ 
0 0 0 0 0
 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ∗
The following matrices are in reduced echelon form because the leading entries are 1’s,and there are 0’s
below and above each leading 1.
 
  0 1 0 ∗ 0 ∗ ∗ 0 ∗ 0 ∗
1 0 ∗ ∗ ∗
  0 0 1 ∗ 0 ∗ ∗ 0 ∗ 0 ∗ 
 

 0 1 ∗ ∗ ∗   
 0 0 0 0 0 ,  0 0 0 0 1 ∗ ∗ 0 ∗ 0 ∗ 
   
   0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 ∗ 0 ∗ 
0 0 0 0 0
 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 ∗

Any nonzero matrix may be row reduced (that is, transformed by elementary row operations) into more
than one matrix in echelon form, using different sequences of row operations. However, the reduced echelon
form one obtains from a matrix is unique.
Theorem 1.42 (Uniqueness of the Reduced Echelon Form).
Each matrix is row equivalent to one and only one reduced echelon matrix.
´
LÊ MINH TUÂN
If a matrix A is row equivalent to an echelon matrix U , we call U an echelon form (or row echelon form) of
A; if U is in reduced echelon form, we call U the reduced echelon form of A

Any nonzero matrix may be row reduced (that is, transformed by elementary row operations) into more
than one matrix in echelon form, using different sequences of row operations. However, the reduced echelon
form one obtains from a matrix is unique.
Theorem 1.42 (Uniqueness of the Reduced Echelon Form).
Each matrix is row equivalent to one and only one reduced echelon matrix.
´
LÊ MINH TUÂN
If a matrix A is row equivalent to an echelon matrix U , we call U an echelon form (or row echelon form) of
A; if U is in reduced echelon form, we call U the reduced echelon form of A
When row operations on a matrix produce an echelon form, further row operations to obtain the reduced
echelon form do not change the positions of the leading entries. Since the reduced echelon form is unique,
the leading entries are always in the same positions in any echelon form obtained from a given matrix.
These leading entries correspond to leading 1’s in the reduced echelon form.
Pivot positions
A pivot position in a matrix A is a location in A that corresponds to a leading 1 in the reduced echelon form
of A. A pivot column is a column of A that contains a pivot position.
We can use the idea of Gaussian elimination (respectively, Gauss-Jordan elimination) to achieve the echelon
form (respectively, reduced echelon form).
Example 1.43.
Row reduce the matrix A below to echelon form, and locate the pivot columnsof 
   
1 −7 0 6 5 1 −7 0 6 5 1 −7 0 6 5
 R +R3 →R3   4R2 +R3 →R3 
A =  0 0 1 −2 −3  −−1−−−

−−→  0 0 1 −2 −3  −−− −−−−→ 0 0 1 −2 −3 


−1 7 −4 2 7
´
0 0 −4 8 12
LÊ MINH TUÂN

The 1st and 3rd columns are the pivot columns of A.
0 0 0 0 0
The Row Reduction Algorithm

1 Begin with the leftmost nonzero column. This is a pivot column. The pivot position is at the top.
2 Select a nonzero entry in the pivot column as a pivot.
If necessary, interchange rows to move this entry into the pivot position.
3 Use row operations to create zeros in all positions below the pivot.
4 Cover (or ignore) the row containing the pivot position and cover all rows, if any,above it. Apply steps
1–3 to the submatrix that remains. Repeat the process until there are no more nonzero rows to modify.
5 Beginning with the rightmost pivot and working upward and to the left, create zeros above each pivot.
If a pivot is not 1, make it 1 by a scaling operation.

Note: The variables corresponding to pivot columns in the augmented matrix are called basic variables.
The other variables are called free variables.
Theorem 1.44 (Existence and Uniqueness Theorem).
A linear system is consistent if and only if the rightmost column of the augmented matrix is not a pivot
column — that is, if and only if an echelon form of the augmented matrix has no row of the form
[0 0
´
LÊ MINH TUÂN
··· 0 b]
If a linear system is consistent, then the solution set contains either
with b nonzero.
(i) a unique solution, when there are no free variables, or

(ii) infinitely many solutions, when there is at least one free variable.
USING ROW REDUCTION TO SOLVE A LINEAR SYSTEM
Step 1: Write the augmented matrix of the system. reduced echelon form.
Step 2: Use the row reduction algorithm to obtain an Step 4: Write the system of equations corresponding
equivalent augmented matrix in echelon form. to the matrix obtained in step 3.
Decide whether the system is consistent. If there is Step 5: Rewrite each nonzero equation from step 4
no solution, stop; otherwise, go to the next step. so that its one basic variable is expressed in terms of
Step 3: Continue row reduction to obtain the any free variables appearing in the equation.

Example 1.45. 
 x − y − 2z = 2

Find the general solution of the system: 2x − 3y + 6z = 5 .

 3x − 4y + 4z = 7
   
Solution:
´
LÊ MINH TUÂN
1 −1 −2
As always, we start with the augmented matrix:  2 −3 6

3 −4 4
2
 (−2)×R1 +R2 →R2 
1 −1 −2 2
5  −−−−−−−−−−→  0 −1 10 1 
7
(−3)×R1 +R3 →R3
0 −1 10 1

   
1 −1 −2 2 1 0 −12 1
(−1)×R2 →R2   R2 +R1 →R1  
−−−−−−−−→  0 1 −10 −1  −−−−−−−→  0 1  −10 −1 
R2 +R3 →R3 
0 −1 10 1 0 0 0 0
The
( original system is equivalent to the system: must be free. Solve for  the basic variables to obtain
x − 12z = 1  x = 12z + 1

y − 10z = −1 the general solution: y = 10z − 1
 z is free

The pivot columns of the matrix are 1, 2, so the
basic variables are x, y. The remaining variables, z, The solution set of this linear system is
(12z + 1, 10z − 1, z) | z ∈ R .


Problem 1.46.
Find the general solutions of the systems whose augmented matrices are given in Exercises 1–8.
" #  
1 2 3 4 1 −7 0 6 5
1
0 0 1 −2 −3 
 
4 8 9 4 6 
´ −1 7 −4 2 7
" #
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1 4 0 7
2
2 7 0 11
 
1 −3 0 −1 0 −2
" #  
0 1 −6 5  0 1 0 0 −4 1 
3 7  
1 −2 7 −4  0 0 0 1 9 −4  
" # 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 −2 −1 3
4
3 −6 −2 2
 
1 2 −5 −4 0 −5
   
3 −4 2 0  0 1 −6 −4 0 2 
8 
 0 0

5  −9

12 −6 0 

 0 0 1 0 

−6 8 −4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Vectors in R2
A matrix with only
ñ oneôcolumn
ñ is called
ô a column
ñ vector
ô or simply a vector. Examples of vectors with two
entries are u = 3 ,v= 0.7 ,w= w1 , where w and w are any real numbers.
1 2
−1 0.4 w2
The set of all vectors with two entries is denoted by R2 . The R stands for the real numbers that appear as
´
LÊ MINH TUÂN
entries in the vectors, and the exponent 2 indicates that each vector contains two entries.
• Two vectors in R2 are equal if and only if their corresponding entries are equal.
ñ v in R
2
• Given two vectors u and ô , their
ñ sum ô ñ is the vectorô u +ñv obtained
ô by adding corresponding entries
of u and v. For example, 3 + 2 = 3+2 = 5 .
−1 4 −1 + 4 3
• Given a vector u and a real number c, the ñ scalar
ô multiple of u by c is theñ vectorô cu ñ
obtained
ô by multiplying
each entry in u by c. For instance, if u = 3 and c = 4 then cu = 4 3 = 12 . The number c
−1 −1 −4
in cu is called a scalar; it is written in lightface type to distinguish it from the boldface vector u.
The operations of scalar
ñ multiplication
ô ñand vector
ô addition can be combined,
ñ ôas in
ñ the following
ô ñ example.
ô
Eg: we have: 4u = 12 , (−5)v = −3.5 and 4u + (−5)v = 12 + −3.5 = 8.5 .
−4 −2 −4 −2 −6

Geometric Descriptions of R2
Consider a rectangular coordinate system in the plane. Because each point in the plane is ñdetermined
ô by an
ordered pair of numbers, we can identify a geometric point (a, b) with the column vector a . So we may
b
FIGURE 1: Vectors as points

y
´
regard R2 as the set of all points in the plane.
LÊ MINH TUÂN FIGURE2: Vectors with arrows.

y
4 (1, 4) 4 (1, 4)
3 3
2 2
(4, 1) (4, 1)
1 1
x x
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
−1 −1
(−3, −1) (−3, −1)

Vectors in R3 and Rn
Vectors in R3 are 3 × 1 column matrices with three entries.  
If n is a positive integer, Rn (read “r-n”) denotes the collection of all lists u1
 
 u2 
(or ordered n-tuples) of n real numbers, usually written as n × 1 column matrices, such as u= .
 
..
´
LÊ MINH TUÂN
The vector whose entries are all zero is called the zero vector and is denoted by 0.


un
. 

(The number of entries in 0 will be clear from the context.)

Equality of vectors in Rn and the operations of scalar multiplication and vector addition in Rn are defined
entry by entry just as in R2 . These operations on vectors have the following properties:
Algebraic Properties of Rn
For all u, v, w ∈ Rn and all scalars c, d:
(i) u + v = v + u (iv) u + (−u) = (−u) + u = 0 (vi) (c + d)u = cu + du
(ii) (u + v) + w = u + (v + w) where (−u) denotes (−1)u (vii) c(du) = (cd)u
(iii) u+0 = 0+u = u (v) c(u + v) = cu + cv (viii) 1u = u
For simplicity of notation, a vector such as u(−1)v is often written as u − v.

Linear Combinations
Given vectors v1 , v2 , . . . , v p in Rn and given scalars c1 , c2 , . . . , c p , the vector y defined by
y = c1 v1 + c2 v2 + · · · + c p v p
is called a linear combination of v1 , v2 , . . . , v p with weights c1 , c2 , . . . , c p .
´
Algebraic Property (ii) above permits us to omit parentheses when forming such a linear combination.
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The weights in a linear combination can be any real numbers, including zero.
Example 1.47.
    
1 2 7 as a linear combination of a1 and a2 . That is,
Let a1 =  −2 , a2 =  5 , and b =  4 .
     
determine whether weights x1 and x2 exist such that
−5 6 −3 x1 a1 + x2 a2 = b (1)
Determine whether b can be generated (or written) If vector equation (1) has a solution, find it.
SOLUTION Use the definitions of scalar multiplication and vector addition to rewrite the vector equation
     
1 2 7
x1  −2  + x2  5  =  4 
     
−5 6 −3

which is the 
same as         
x1 2x2 7 x1 + 2x2 7
 −2x1  +  5x2  =  4  or  −2x1 + 5x2  =  4  (2)
         
−5x1 6x2 −3 −5x1 + 6x2 −3
The vectors on the left and right sides of (2) are equal if and only if their corresponding entries are both
equal. That is, x1 and x2 make the vector


´
LÊ MINH TUÂN
 equation (1) true if and only if x1 and x2 satisfy the system
x1 + 2x2 = 7
−2x1 + 5x2 = 4 (3)

 −5x + 6x = −3
1 2
Tosolve this system,
 row reduce the
 augmented matrix
 of the
 system as follows:
  
1 2 7 1 2 7 1 R →R
1 2 7 1 0 3
 5R1 +R3 →R3   9 2 2   −16R2 +R3 →R3 
 −2 5 4  −−−−−−−→  0 9 18  −−−−−→  0 1 2  −−−−−−−−−→  0 1 2 
 
2R1 +R2 →R2 −2R2 +R1 →R1
−5 6 −3 0 16 32 0 16 32 0 0 0
The solution of (3) is x1= 3 and x
 2  = 2. Hence
  b is a linear
 combination of a1 and a2 , with weights x1 = 3
1 2 7
and x2 = 2. That is, 3  −2  + 2  5  =  4 
     
−5 6 −3

Observe in previous example

 that the original
 vectorsa1 , a2 , and b are
 the 
columns of 
the augmented
 matrix
1 2 7 1 2 7
that we row reduced:  −2 5 4  where a1 =  −2 , a2 =  5 , and b =  4 
       
−5 6 −3 −5 6 −3
î ó
For brevity, write this matrix in a way that identifies its columns—namely a1 a2 b .
´
LÊ MINH TUÂN
The discussion above is easily modified to establish the following fundamental fact.
A vector equation
x1 a1 + x2 a2 + · · · + xn an = b
has the same solution set as the linear system whose augmented matrix is

a1 a2 · · · an | b (5)
In particular, b can be generated by a linear combination of a1 , . . . , an if and only if there exists a solution to
the linear system corresponding to the matrix (5)
One of the key ideas in linear algebra is to study the set of all vectors that can be generated or written as a

linear combination of a fixed set v1 , v2 , . . . , v p of vectors.

Definition 1.48.
If v1 , . . . , v p are in Rn , then the set of all linear combinations of v1 , . . . , v p is denoted by
Span v1 , . . . , v p and is called the subset of Rn spanned (or generated) by v1 , . . . , v p .

That is, Span v1 , . . . , v p is the collection of all vectors that can be written in the form
´
LÊ MINH TUÂN
c1 v1 + c2 v2 + · · · + c p v p
with c1 , . . . , c p scalars.

Asking whether a vector b is in Span v1 , . . . , v p amounts to asking whether the vector equation
x1 v1 + x2 v2 + · · · + x p v p = b
has
î a solution, or, equivalently,
ó asking whether the linear system with augmented matrix
v1 · · · v p b has a solution.

Note that Span v1 , . . . , v p contains every scalar multiple of v1 (for example), since

cv1 = cv1 + 0v2 + · · · + 0v p . In particular, the zero vector must be in Span v1 , . . . , v p .

Example 1.49.

    
1 5 −3
     
Let a1 = 
 −2  , a2 = 
 −13  , and  8 . Then Span {a1 , a2 } is a plane
b=
  
3 −3 1
´
LÊ MINH TUÂN
through the origin in R3 . Is b in that plane?
SOLUTION Doesîthe equation xó1 a1 + x2 a2 = b have a solution? To answer this, row reduce the
augmented matrix a1 a2 b :
     
1 5 −3 1 5 −3 1 5 −3
  2R1 +R2 →R2   −6R2 +R3 →R3  
− −−−−−−−→  −−−−−−−−→ 
 −2 −13 8  0 −3 2  0 −3 2 
 −3R1 +R3 →R3    
3 −3 1 0 −18 10 0 0 −2
The third equation is 0 = −2, which shows that the system has no solution.
The vector equation x1 a1 + x2 a2 = b has no solution, and so b is not in Span {a1 , a2 }.

Problem 1.50.
Determine if b is a linear combination of the vectors formed from the columns of the matrix A
       
1 −4 2 3 1 0 5 2
a) A =  0 3 5 , b =  −7 
´ c) A =  −2 1 −6 , b =  −1 
       

−2
1 −2 −6
8 −4
 LÊ MINH TUÂN

−3
11


0 2
1 0 2
8
 
−5
6

b) A =  0 3 7 , b =  −5 
   
d) A =  −2 5 0 , b =  11 
   
1 −2 5 9
2 5 8 −7
Problem 1.51.
     
1 −2 4
Let a1 =  4 , a2 =  −3 , and b =  1 . For what value(s) of h is b in the plane spanned by a1 , a2 ?
     
−2 7 h

Table of contents:
´

Definition 2.1.
If A is an m × n matrix, with columns a1 , . . . , an , and if x is in Rn , then the product of A and x, denoted by
Ax, is the linear combination of the columns of A using  the  corresponding entries in x as weights; that is,
x1
î
Ax = a1 a2 · · · an 
´
LÊ MINH TUÂN
ó . 
 ..  = x1 a1 + x2 a2 + · · · + xn an
xn

Note that Ax is defined only if the number of columns of A equals the number of entries in x.
Example 2.2.  
" 4 " # #" # " # " # " # " # " #
1 2 −1  1 2 −1 4 6 −7 3
a.  3 =4 +3 +7 = + + =

0 −5 3 0 −5 3 0 −15 21 6
7
           
2 −3 " # 2 −3 8 −21 −13
 4
b.  8 0  = 4  8  + 7  0  =  32 + 0  =  32 
          
7
−5 2 −5 2 −20 14 −6

Theorem 2.3.
If A is an m × n matrix with columns a1 , a2 , . . . , an , and if b is in Rm , the matrix equation Ax = b (4)
has the same solution set as the vector equation x1 a1 + x2 a2 + · · · + xn an = b (5)
which, in turn, has the same solution set as the system of linear equations whose augmented matrix is

Existence of Solutions ´
a1 a2 · · · | b
LÊ MINH TUÂN

(6)
The equation Ax = b has a solution if and only if b is a linear combination of the columns of A.
In the next theorem, the sentence The columns of A span Rm means that every b in Rm is a linear
combination of the columns of A. In general, a set of vectors v1 , . . . , v p in Rm spans (or generates) Rm if

every vector in Rm is a linear combination of v1 , . . . , v p -that is, if Span v1 , . . . , v p = Rm

Theorem 2.4.
Let A be an m × n matrix. Then the following statements are logically equivalent. That is, for a particular A,
either they are all true statements or they are all false.
a. For each b in Rm , the equation Ax = b has a solution. c. The columns of A span Rm .
b. Each b in Rm is a linear combination of the columns of A. d. A has a pivot position in every row.

Row–Vector Rule for Computing Ax

If the product Ax is defined, then the ith entry in Ax is the sum of the products of corresponding entries from
row i of A and from the vector x.
Example 2.5. #  
4
´
" " # " #
1 2 −1 1 · 4 + 2 · 3 + (−1) · 7 3
LÊ MINH TUÂN

a.  3 = =
 
0 −5 3 0 · 4 + (−5) · 3 + 3 · 7 6
7
     
2 −3 " # 2 · 4 + (−3) · 7 −13
4
b.  8 0  = 8 · 4 + 0 · 7  =  32 
     
7
−5 2 (−5) · 4 + 2 · 7 −6
      
1 0 0 r 1·r + 0·s + 0·t r
c.  0 1 0  s  =  0·r + 1·s + 0·t  =  s 
      
0 0 1 t 0·r + 0·s + 1·t t
By definition, the matrix in Example 1.5(c) with 1’s on the diagonal and 0’s elsewhere is called an identity
matrix and is denoted by I. The calculation in part (c) shows that Ix = x for every x in R3 . There is an
analogous n × n identity matrix, sometimes written as In . As in part (c), In x = x for every x in Rn .
The facts in the next theorem are important and will be used throughout the text. The proof relies on the
definition of Ax and the algebraic properties of Rn .
Theorem 2.6.
If A is an m × n matrix, u and v are vectors in Rn , and c is a scalar, then:
a. A(u + v) = Au + Av
Problem 2.7. ´
LÊ MINH TUÂN
b. A(cu) = c(Au).
Determine if the columns of the matrix span R4 .

   
7 2 −5 8 12 −7 11 −9 5
   
 −5 −3 4 −9   −9 4 −8 7 −3 
a. 
 6 10 −2
 c.  
 7 

 −6 11 −7 3 −9 

−7 9 2 15 4 −6 10 −5 12
   
5 −7 −4 9 8 11 −6 −7 13
   
 6 −8 −7 5   −7 −8 5 6 −9 
b. 
  d.  
 4 −4 −9 −9  11 7 −7 −9 −6 
 
 
−9 11 16 7 −3 4 1 8 7

Homogeneous Linear Systems

A system of linear equations is said to be homogeneous if it can be written in the form Ax = 0,
where A is an m × n matrix and 0 is the zero vector in Rm .
Such a system Ax = 0 always has at least one solution, namely x = 0 (the zero vector in Rn ).
´
This zero solution is usually called the trivial solution. For a given equation Ax = 0, the important
LÊ MINH TUÂN

question is whether there exists a nontrivial solution, that is, a nonzero vector x that satisfies
Ax = 0. The Existence and Uniqueness Theorem leads immediately to the following fact.
The homogeneous equation Ax = 0 has a nontrivial solution if and only if the equation has at least
one free variable.
Example 2.8.
Determine if the following homogeneous
 system has a nontrivial solution. Then describe the
solution set.  3x1 + 5x2 − 4x3 = 0


−3x1 − 2x2 + 4x3 = 0

6x1 + x2 − 8x3 = 0



îSOLUTION ó Let A be the matrix of coefficients of the system and row reduce the augmented matrix
A 0 to echelon form:     
3 5 −4 0 3 5 −4 0 3 5 −4 0
 R1 +R2 →R2   −3R2 +R3 →R3 
 −3 −2 4 0  −−−−−−−−→  0 3 0 0  −−−−−−−−→  0 3 0 0 
 
−2R1 +R3 →R3
6 1 −8 0 0 −9 0 0 0 0 0 0
the solution set, continue  ´

LÊ MINH TUÂN
Since x3 is a free variable, Ax = 0 has nontrivial
î solutions
ó (one for each nonzero
the row reduction of A 0 to reduced echelon form:
4  4
choice of x ).
3 To describe
 1 0 −3 0   x1 − x3 = 0


3
or
 
 0 1
 0 0    x2 = 0

0 0 0 0 
 0 = 0
4
Solve for the basic variables x1 and x2 and obtain x1 = x3 , x2 = 0, with x3 free. As a vector, the general
 3    
  4 4 4
x1  x3 
  3 
 3   3 
solution of Ax = 0 has the form x =  x2  =  0  = x3  0  = x3 v, where v =  0 
    
     
x3 x3 1 1
This shows that every solution of Ax = 0 in this case is a scalar multiple of v, S = x3 v | x3 ∈ R .


Example 2.9. 
3 5 −4
 
7

Describe all solutions of Ax = b, where A =  −3 −2 4  and b =  −1 

   
6 1 −8 −4
î ó
SOLUTION Here A is the matrix of coefficients  1.8.Row operations on A b produce
from Example
´

LÊ MINH TUÂN

  4 4
5 −4

3 7  1 0 − 3 −1   x1 − x3 = −1


3
 −3 −2 4 −1  ∼  0 1 ,
   
 0 2   x2 = 2
6 1 −8 −4 0 0 0 0


 0 = 0
4
Thus x1 = −1 + x3 , x2 = 2,and x3 is free. As a vector, thegeneralsolution of Ax = b has
 theform
3
  4   4   4
x1  −1 + 3 x3  −1  3 x3  −1  3 
x =  x2  =   =  2  +  0  =  2  +x3  0 
           
 2     
x3 x3 0 x3 0 1
↑ ↑
p v
The equation x = p + x3 v, or, writing t as a general parameter, x = p + tv (t in R) (3)
describes the solution set of Ax = b in parametric vector form.
Recall from Example 1.8 that the solution set of Ax = 0 has the parametric vector equation x = tv (t in R)
[with the same v that appears in (3)]. Thus the solutions of Ax = b are obtained by adding the vector p to the
solutions of Ax = 0. The vector p itself is just one particular solution of Ax = b
Theorem 2.10.
´
LÊ MINH TUÂN
Suppose the equation Ax = b is consistent for some given b, and let p be a solution. Then the solution set of
Ax = b is the set of all vectors of the form w = p + vh , where vh is any solution of the homogeneous
equation Ax = 0.
Writing a solution set (of a consistent system) in parametric vector form

1 Row reduce the augmented matrix to reduced echelon form.
2 Express each basic variable in terms of any free variables appearing in an equation.
3 Write a typical solution x as a vector whose entries depend on the free variables, if any.
4 Decompose x into a linear combination of vectors (with numeric entries) using the free variables as
parameters.

Problem 2.11.
Determine
 if the system has a nontrivialsolution.Try to use as few row operations
 as possible.
 2x1 − 5x2 + 8x3 = 0
  x1 − 3x2 + 7x3 = 0
 −5x1 + 7x2 + 9x3 = 0
3.
´
 
1. −2x1 − 7x2 + x3 = 0 2. −2x1 + x2 − 4x3 = 0
LÊ MINH TUÂN

 x1 − 2x2 + 6x3 = 0

 

 4x + 2x + 7x = 0  x + 2x + 9x = 0 
1 2 3 1 2 3  − 3x1 + 5x2 − 7x3 = 0
4.
 − 6x1 + 7x2 + x3 = 0
Problem 2.12.
Follow the method of the previous examples to write the solution set of the given homogeneous system in
parametric
 vector form. 

 x1 + 3x2 + x3 = 0 
 x1 + 3x2 − 5x3 = 0

1. −4x1 − 9x2 + 2x3 = 0 2. x1 + 4x2 − 8x3 = 0

 −3x2 − 6x3 = 0 

 −3x1 − 7x2 + 9x3 = 0

Problem 2.13.
Describe all solutions of Ax = 0 in parametric vector form, where A is row equivalent to the given matrix.
" #  
1 3 −3 7 1 −4 −2 0 3 −5
1.
0 1 −4 5
 
 0 0 1 0 0 −1 
2.
"
1 −2 −9
0 1 2 −6
5
#
´
LÊ MINH TUÂN
5. 
 0


0
0
0
0 0 1 −4 
0 0 0 0



" #
2 −8 6 1 5 2 −6 9 0
3.  
−1 4 −3  0 0 1 −7 4 −8 
" # 6. 
 
1 3 0 −4  0 0 0 0 0 1 

4. 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 6 0 −8
Students read the Section 1.6 (Applications of Linear Systems) in

David Lay, Steven Lay, Judi McDonald - Linear Algebra and Its
Applications, Global Edition (2021, Pearson)
Table of contents:
´

Definition 2.14.
An indexed set of vectors {v1 , v2 , . . . , v p } is said to be linearly independent if the vector equation
x1 v1 + x2 v2 + · · · + x p v p = 0
has only the trivial solution. The set {v1 , v2 , . . . , v p } is said to be linearly dependent if there exist weights
´
c1 , c2 , . . . , c p , not all zero, such that
LÊ MINH TUÂNc1 v1 + c2 v2 + · · · + c p v p = 0 (2)

Equation (2) is called a linear dependence relation among v1 , v2 , . . . , v p when the weights are not all zero.
An indexed set is linearly dependent if and only if it is not linearly independent. For brevity, we may say that
v1 , v2 , . . . , v p are linearly dependent when we mean that {v1 , v2 , . . . , v p } is a linearly dependent set. We use
analogous terminology for linearly independent sets.
Example 2.15.
      a) Determine if the set {v1 , v2 , v3 } is linearly
1 4 2
independent.
Let v1 =  2 , v2 =  5 , and v1 =  1 .
     
3 6 0 b) If possible, find a linear dependence relation
among v1 ,v2 , and v3 .

Linear Independence of Matrix Columns

The columns of a matrix A are linearly independent if and only if the equation Ax = 0 has only the trivial
solution. (3)
Example 2.16. 
0 1 4

´
LÊ MINH TUÂN
Determine if the columns of the matrix A =  1 2 −1  are linearly independent.

5 8 0

SOLUTION To study Ax = 0, row reduce the augmented matrix:

       
0 1 4 0 1 2 −1 0 1 2 −1 0 1 2 −1 0
R1 ↔R2  −5R1 +R3 →R3  2R2 +R3 →R3 
 1 2 −1 0 −−−−→ 0 1 4 0 −−−−−−−−→ 0 1 4 0 −−−−−−−→ 0 1 4 0
 
5 8 0 0 5 8 0 0 0 −2 5 0 0 0 13 0
At this point, it is clear that there are three basic variables and no free variables.
So the equation Ax = 0 has only the trivial solution, and the columns of A are linearly independent.
Sets of Two Vectors
A set of two vectors {v1 , v2 } is linearly dependent if at least one of the vectors is a multiple of the other. The
set is linearly independent if and only if neither of the vectors is a multiple of the other.

Theorem 2.17 (Characterization of Linearly Dependent Sets).

An indexed set S = v1 , v2 , . . . , v p of two or more vectors is linearly dependent if and only if at least one of
the vectors in S is a linear combination of the others. In fact, if S is linearly dependent and v1 ̸= 0, then some
v j (with j > 1) is a linear combination of the preceding vectors, v1 , v2 , . . . , v j−1 .
Theorem 2.18.
´
LÊ MINH TUÂN
If a set contains more vectors than there are entries in each vector, then the set is linearly dependent. That is,
any set v1 , v2 , . . . , v p in Rn is linearly dependent if p > n.

î ó
Proof. Let A = v1 v2 · · · v p . Then A is an n × p matrix, and the equation Ax = 0 corresponds
to a system of n equations in p unknowns. If p > n, there are more variables than equations, so there must be
a free variable. Hence Ax = 0 has a nontrivial solution, and the columns of A are linearly dependent.
y
4 (1, 4) Example 2.19.
" # " # " #
(−3, 2)
3 4 1 −3
The vectors , , are linearly dependent by
2 1 4 2
(4, 1)
1 Theorem 2.18, because there are three vectors in the set and there are
−3 −2 −1 x
only two entries in each vector.
0 1 2 3 4

Theorem 2.20.
If a set S = v1 , v2 , . . . , v p in Rn contains the zero vector, then the set is linearly dependent.

Proof. By renumbering the vectors, we may suppose v1 = 0. Then the equation 1v1 + 0v2 + · · · + 0v p = 0
shows that S is linearly dependent.
´
PROOF OF THEOREM 2.17 (Characterization of Linearly Dependent Sets)
LÊ MINH TUÂN

If some v j in S equals a linear combination of the other vectors, then v j can be subtracted from both sides of
the equation, producing a linear dependence relation with a nonzero weight (-1) on v j . [For instance, if
v1 = c2 v2 + c3 v3 , then 0 = (−1)v1 + c2 v2 + c3 v3 + 0v4 + · · · + 0v p .] Thus S is linearly dependent.
Conversely, suppose S is linearly dependent. If v1 is zero, then it is a (trivial) linear combination of the other
vectors in S. Otherwise, v1 ̸= 0, and there exist weights c1 , . . . , c p , not all zero, such that
c1 v1 + c2 v2 + · · · + c p v p = 0
Let j be the largest subscript for which c j ̸= 0. If j = 1, then c1 v1 = 0, which is impossible because v1 ̸= 0.
So j > 1, and c1 v1 + · · · + c j v j + 0v j+1 + · · · + 0v p = 0
c j v j = −c1 v1 − · · · − c j−1 v j−1
Ç å Ç å
c1 c j−1
vj = − v1 + · · · + − v j−1
cj cj
Example 2.21.
Determine by inspection if the given set is linearly dependent.    
              −2 3
1 2 3 4 2 0 1    
4 −6
´
   
a.  7  ,  0  ,  1  ,  1  b.  3  ,  0  ,  1  c.  ,
             
LÊ MINH TUÂN


 6   −9 
6 9 5 8 5 0 8    
10 15
SOLUTION
a. The set contains four vectors, each of which has only three entries. So the set is linearly dependent by
Theorem 2.18 .
b. Theorem 2.18 does not apply here because the number of vectors does not exceed the number of entries
in each vector. Since the zero vector is in the set, the set is linearly dependent by Theorem 2.20 .
c. Compare the corresponding entries of the two vectors. The second vector seems to be −3/2 times the
first vector. This relation holds for the first three pairs of entries, but fails for the fourth pair. Thus neither of
the vectors is a multiple of the other, and hence they are linearly independent.

Problem 2.22.
Determine
   if the  vectors
 are linearly
  independent.
   Justify
 each answer.
5 7 −2 0 0 −3 " # " # " # " #
1 −3 −1 −2
a.  1  ,  2  ,  −1  b.  0  ,  5  ,  4  c. , d. ,
           
−3 6 4 8
0 −6 6 2 −8 1
Problem 2.23.
Determine
 if the columns
 of 
´
LÊ MINH TUÂN
the matrix forma linearly independent set. Justify each answer.
0 −8 5 −4 −3 0
   
1 4 −3 0 1 −3 3 −2
 3 −7 4  0 −1 4 
   
a.  b.  c.  −2 −7 5 1 d.  −3 7 −1 2 
   
 −1 5 −4   1 0 3
 
1 −3 2 5 4 6 −4 −5 7 5 0 1 −4 3
dependent dependent
Problem 2.24. For what values of h
(a) is v3 in Span {v1 , v2 }? v3 co tinh boi v1 v2 ? (b) is {v1 , v2 , v3 } linearly dependent?
           
1 −3 2 1 −2 2
1. v1 =  −3  , v2 =  10  , v3 =  −7  2. v1 =  −5  , v2 =  10  , v3 =  −10 
           
2 −6 h −3 6 h

Problem 2.25.
Find   ofh forwhichthe vectors
 thevalue(s)   are  linearly
 dependent.
   Justify each answer
     
1 3 −1 2 −6 8 1 −2 3 1 −6 4
a.  −1  ,  −5  ,  5  b.  −4  ,  7  ,  h  c.  5  ,  −9  ,  h  d.  −3  ,  8  ,  −2 
                       
4 7 h 1 −3 4 −3 6 −9 4 7 h
Problem 2.26.
2 3 5
 ´
LÊ MINH TUÂN
 
 −5 1 −4 
Given A =  −3 −1 −4  observe that the third column is the sum of the first two columns.

 
1 0 1
Find a nontrivial solution of Ax = 0.
Problem 2.27. 
5 1 8
Given A =  −9 5 6  observe that the first column plus three times the second column equals the
 
6 −5 −9
third column. Find a nontrivial solution of Ax = 0.

Table of contents:
´

î ó
Let A = a1 a2 . . . an . The difference between a matrix equation Ax = b and the associated vector
equation x1 a1 + x2 a2 + · · · + xn an = b is merely a matter of notation. However, a matrix equation Ax = b
can arise in linear algebra (and in applications such as computer graphics and signal processing) in a way
that is not directly connected with linear combinations of vectors. This happens when we think of the matrix
A as an object that “acts” on a vector x by multiplication to produce a new vector called Ax.
For instance," the equations # 1
4 −3 2 
 
 1  =

´
LÊ MINH TUÂN
" #
5
"
4 −3 2 

# 1

 2  =

" #
0
−4 1 2 1 and −4 1 2 0
2 1
↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑
z A x b A u 0
say that multiplication by A trans-
x(1, 1, 2) forms x into b and transforms u in-
to the zero vector 0.
R3 u(1, 2, 1)
y
FIGURE 1: Transforming vectors via matrix multiplication.

x

î ó
Let A = a1 a2 . . . an . The difference between a matrix equation Ax = b and the associated vector
equation x1 a1 + x2 a2 + · · · + xn an = b is merely a matter of notation. However, a matrix equation Ax = b
can arise in linear algebra (and in applications such as computer graphics and signal processing) in a way
that is not directly connected with linear combinations of vectors. This happens when we think of the matrix
A as an object that “acts” on a vector x by multiplication to produce a new vector called Ax.
For instance," the equations # 1
4 −3 2 

 1  =


´
LÊ MINH TUÂN
" #
5
"
4 −3 2 

# 1

 2  =

" #
0
−4 1 2 1 and −4 1 2 0
2 1
↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑
z A x b y A u 0
say that multiplication by A trans-
x(1, 1, 2)
R2 forms x into b and transforms u in-
multiplication by A to the zero vector 0.
b(5, 1)
multiplication by A
R 3 u(1, 2, 1)
y x
0(0, 0)
FIGURE 1: Transforming vectors via matrix multiplication.

x

The correspondence from x to Ax is a function from one set of vectors to another. This concept generalizes
the common notion of a function as a rule that transforms one real number into another.
A transformation (or function or mapping) T from Rn to Rm is a rule that assigns to each vector x in Rn a
vector T (x) in Rm . The set Rn is called the domain of T , and Rm is called the codomain of T .
The notation T : Rn → Rm indicates that the domain of T is Rn and the codomain is Rm .
´
LÊ MINH TUÂN
For x in Rn , the vector T (x) in Rm is called the image of x (under the action of T ). The set of all images
T (x) is called the range of T .
T
T (x)
Ra
x nge
Rn Rm
Domain Codomain
FIGURE 2 Domain, codomain, and range of T : Rn → Rm

The rest of this section focuses on mappings associated with matrix multiplication.
Matrix Transformations
Fore ach x ∈ Rn , T (x) is computed as Ax, where A is an m × n matrix. For simplicity, we sometimes denote
such a matrix transformation by x 7→ Ax. Observe that the domain of T is Rn when A has n columns and the
´
codomain of T is Rm when each column of A has m entries. The range of T is the set of all linear
LÊ MINH TUÂN

combinations of the columns of A,because each image T (x) is of the form Ax.
Example

2.28.     
1 −3 " # 3 3
2
Let A =  3 5 ,u = ,b =  2 ,c =  2 , and define a transformation T : R2 → R3
     
−1
−1 7 −5 5
by T (x) = Ax, so that    
1 −3 " # x1 − 3x2
 x1
T (x) = Ax =  3 5  =  3x1 + 5x2 
  
x2
−1 7 −x1 + 7x2
a. Find the image of u under the transformation T . c. Is there more than onex whose image underT is b?
b. Find an x in R2 whose image under T is b. d. Determine if c is in the range of the mapping T .

SOLUTION
   
−3 "
1 # 5
2
a. Compute T (u) = Au =  3 5  = 1 
   
−1
−17 −9
   
1 −3 " # 3
 x1
´
b. Solve T (x) = b for x. That is, solve Ax = b, or  3 5  = 2  (1)
  
LÊ MINH TUÂN

x2
−1 7 −5
We use row operations to the augmented matrix into reduced echelon form:
       
1 −3 3 1 −3 3 R2 1 −3 3 1 0 1.5
−3R1 +R2 →R2   14 →R2   3R2 +R1 →R1 
 3 5 2 −−−−−−−−→ 0 14 −7 −−−−→ 0 1 −0.5 −−−−−−−−→ 0 1 −0.5 
 
R1 +R−3→R3 −4R2 +R3 →R3
−1 7 −5 0 4 −2 0 4 −2 0 0 0
" #
1.5
Hence x1 = 1.5, x2 = −0.5, and x = . The image of this x under T is the given vector b.
−0.5
c. Any x whose image under T is b must satisfy equation (1). From (2), it is clear that equation (1) has a
unique solution. So there is exactly one x whose image is b.
d. The vector c is in the range of T if c is the image of some x in R2 , that is, if c = T (x) for some x.
This is just another way of asking if the system Ax = c is consistent.
To find the answer, row reduce the augmented matrix:

       
1 −3 3 1 −3 3 R2 1 −3 3 1 0 1.5
−3R1 +R2 →R2  →R
 14 2   3R2 +R1 →R1 
 3 5 2 −−−−−−−−→ 0 14 −7 −−−−→ 0 1 −0.5 −−−−−−−−→ 0 1 −0.5 
 
R1 +R−3→R3 −4R2 +R3 →R3
−1 7 5 0 4 8 0 4 8 0 0 10
´
LÊ MINH TUÂN
The third equation, 0 = 10, shows that the system is inconsistent. So c is not in the range of T .
The question in (c) is a uniqueness problem for a system of linear equations, translated here into the
language of matrix transformations: Is b the image of a unique x in Rn ?
Similarly, the question in (d) is an existence problem: Does there exist an x whose image is c ?
Example

2.29. 
1 0 0
If A =  0 1 0 , then the transformation x 7→ Ax projects points in R3 onto x1 x2 -plane
 
0 0 0       
x1 1 0 0 x1 x1
 x2  7→  0 1 0   x2  =  x2 
      
x3 0 0 0 x3 0

If A is an m × n matrix, the the mapping x 7→ Ax has the properties: A(u + v) = Au + Av

and A(cu) = cAu for all u, v ∈ Rn and all scalars c.
Definition 2.30.
A transformation (or mapping) T is linear if
(i)
(ii) ´
T (u + v) = T (u) + T (v) for all for all u, v in the domain of T ;
LÊ MINH TUÂN

T (cu) = cT (u) for all scalars c and all u in the domain of T .
Every matrix transformation is a linear transformation. Important examples of linear transformations that are
not matrix transformations will be discussed in following chapters.
Linear transformations preserve the operations of vector addition and scalar multiplication. Property (i)
says that the result T (u + v) of first adding u and v in Rn and then applying T is the same as first applying T
to u and to v and then adding T (u) and T (v) in Rm .
These two properties lead easily to the following useful facts.
If T is a linear transformation, then T (0) = 0 (3)
and T (cu + dv) = cT (u) + dT (v) (4)
for all vectors u, v in the domain of T and all scalars c, d.

Property (3) follows from condition (ii) in the definition, because T (0) = T (0u) = 0T (u) = 0.
Property (4) requires both (i) and (ii): T (cu + dv) = T (cu) + T (dv) = cT (u) + dT (v).
Observe that if a transformation satisfies (4) for all u, v and c, d, it must be linear. (Set c = d = 1 for
preservation of addition, and set d = 0 for preservation of scalar multiplication.) Repeated application of (4)
produces a useful generalization: T (c1 v1 + c2 v2 + · · · + c p v p ) = c1 T (v1 ) + c2 T (v2 ) + · · · + c p T (v p ) (5)
Example 2.31. ´
LÊ MINH TUÂN
Given a scalar r, define T : R2 → R2 by T (x) = rx. T is called a contraction when 0 ≤ r ≤ 1 and a dilation
when r > 1. Let r = 3, and show that T is a linear transformation.
SOLUTION Let u, v ∈ R2 and c, d be scalars. Then
T (cu + dv) = 3(cu + dv) = 3cu + 3dv = c(3u) + d(3v) = cT (u) + dT (v)
Thus T is a linear transformation because it satisfies (4).
Problem 2.32. [A/b]
With T defined by T (x) = Ax, find a vector x whose image under T is b, and determine whether x is unique.
       
1 0 −2 −1 1 −3 2 6
a. A =  −2 1 6 , b =  7  b. A =  0 1 −4 , b =  −7 
       
3 −2 −5 −3 3 −5 −9 −9
Problem 2.33. Tim x sao cho Ax=0

Find all x in R4 that are mapped into the zero vector by the transformation x 7→ Ax for the given matrix A.
   
1 −4 7 −5 1 3 9 2
a. A =  0

2 −6
1 −4
6 −4
3 

´
LÊ MINH TUÂN b. A = 

 1 0 3 −4 
 0 1 2



3 

−2 3 0 5
Problem 2.34.
" # " # " # " #
1 1 2 −1
Let e1 = , e2 = , y1 = , and T : R2 → R2 be a linear transformation
, and y2 =
0 0 5 6
" # " #
5 x1
that maps e1 into y1 and maps e2 into y2 . Find the images of and .
−3 x2

David Ross Hill, Bernard Kolman, Elementary linear algebra with applications -Pearson
(2013).
´
LÊ MINH TUÂN


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Linear Equations and Matrices Lin.Eqs. (cont.

Applied Linear Algebra

Applied Linear Algebra, Spring 2023

Lê Minh Tuấn, Ph.D. Saigon University

Lê Minh Tuấn, Ph.D. Saigon University

Lê Minh Tuấn, Ph.D. Saigon University

Lê Minh Tuấn, Ph.D. Saigon University

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Lê Minh Tuấn, Ph.D. Saigon University

Lê Minh Tuấn, Ph.D. Saigon University

2 If necessary, multiply either equation or both equations by appropriate nonzero numbers so

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• Adding the equations side by side, we • Substituting x = 2 and y = −1 into the

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Lê Minh Tuấn, Ph.D. Saigon University

Lê Minh Tuấn, Ph.D. Saigon University

Solving Linear Systems in Three Variables by Eliminating Variables

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Lê Minh Tuấn, Ph.D. Saigon University

Lê Minh Tuấn, Ph.D. Saigon University

Lê Minh Tuấn, Ph.D. Saigon University

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Solving Linear Systems Using Gauss-Jordan Elimination

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