Introduction to Civil Engineering (BESCK104A/204A)

Introduction to Civil Engineering

BESCK104A/204A

Introduction and Scope of Civil Engineering:

Civil engineering is the art of directing the great sources of power in nature for the use and convenience
of man. Basically it is concerned with planning, design and construction for environmental control,
development of natural resource, buildings, transportation facilities and other structures required for
health, welfare, safety, employment and pleasure of mankind.
The main scope of civil engineering is planning, designing, estimating, supervising, managing and
maintenance of structures like building, roads, bridges, dams etc.

Broad disciplines of Civil Engineering:

Civil engineering is a wide field and includes many types of structures such as residential buildings,
public buildings, industrial buildings, roads, bridges, tunnels, railways, dams, canals, airports, harbours,
waste water treatment plants, water supply networks and drainage networks, etc.
Module 1
Civil Engineering Disciplines and Building Science

Introduction to Civil Engineering: Surveying, Structural Engineering, Geotechnical Engineering,

Hydraulics and Water resources Engineering, Transportation Engineering, Environmental Engineering,
Construction planning and project management.

1. Surveying: Surveying is the technique of determining the relative position of different features on,
above or beneath the surface of the earth by means of direct or indirect measurements and finally
representing them on a sheet of paper known as plan or map.

Surveying is the science and art of making all essential measurements to determine the relative
position of points or physical and cultural details above, on, or beneath the surface of the Earth, and to
depict them in a usable form, or to establish the position of points or details.

Surveying also includes the technique of establishing points by predetermined angular and linear
measurements. From the plans, sections, and maps prepared by surveying, the area and volume of a
particular plot of land can be calculated. A map represents the horizontal projection of the area surveyed
and not the actual area. But the vertical distance can be represented more correctly by drawing sections.

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 Introduction to Civil Engineering (BESCK104A/204A)
During a survey, surveyors use various tools to do their job successfully and accurately, such as
total stations, GPS receivers, prisms, 3D scanners, radio communicators, digital levels, dumpy level and
surveying software etc.
Importance of Surveying:
The knowledge of surveying is advantageous in many phases of engineering. Surveying is of vital
importance in any engineering project. Some of the basic importance of Surveying is discussed below:
i. The first necessity in surveying is to prepare a plan and a section of an area to be covered by the
project.
ii. The planning and design of all Civil Engineering projects such as railways, highways,
tunneling, irrigation, dams, reservoirs, waterworks, sewerage works, airfields, ports, massive
buildings, etc. are based upon surveying measurements.
iii. During execution of the project of any magnitude is constructed along the lines and points
established by surveying.
iv. The measurement of land and the fixation of its boundaries cannot be done without surveying.
v. The execution of hydrographic and oceanographic charting and mapping requires.
vi. Surveying is used to prepare a topographic map of a land surface of the earth.
2. Structural Engineering: Structural Engineering is a field of civil engineering which deals with the
analysis and design of any structural systems, the purpose of which is to support and resist various loads.
Structural analysis and structural design are components of structural engineering. Structural analysis is
the determination of reaction at the supports, member forces, deformations or deflection due to the
applied loads and environmental effects. Design of structure deals with the arrangement of components of
a structure, selection of suitable material based on its characteristics and determination of size of the
component to satisfy the strength and stiffness. A building or a bridge or a dam consists of various
elements like foundations, columns, beams, slabs etc. These components are always subjected to forces.
Depending upon the materials available the components of the building should be safely and
economically designed. A structural engineer is involved in such a designing activity.

Scope of structural engineering:

i. The structural engineering plays a vital role in planning, designing and building the structure.
ii. The structural analysis and structural design are the components of structural engineering.
iii. The structural engineering should take the responsibility about the safety and serviceability of the
structure for its life time.
iv. The structural engineer should be prepared for to accept the natural calamities like Earthquake, wind,
landslide etc. and provide remedial measures.

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 Introduction to Civil Engineering (BESCK104A/204A)
3. Geotechnical Engineering: Geotechnical engineering is the branch of civil engineering concerned
with the engineering behavior of earth materials. It uses the principles of soil mechanics and rock
mechanics for the solution of its respective engineering problems. It also relies on knowledge
of geology, hydrology, geophysics, and other related sciences. Geotechnical Engineering involves the
study of soil, its behavior and its application as engineering material. Geotechnical engineers design
foundations for structures or machines are to be supported on soil. It is a practical science rather than a
purely fundamental or mathematical science. In addition to civil engineering, geotechnical engineering also has
applications in military, mining, petroleum, coastal engineering, and offshore construction.

The Civil Engineer has many diverse and important encounters with soil. Apart from testing and
classification of various types of soils in order to determine its physical properties, the knowledge of
geotechnical engineering is helpful in following problems of civil engineering such as:
i) Foundation design and construction ii) Highway Pavement Design iii) Design of earth
dams, earth retaining structures

4. Hydraulics and Water Resources Engineering: Hydraulics is a branch of science and engineering concerned
with the mechanical properties of fluids (with particular reference to water). Fluid Mechanics provides the
theoretical foundation for hydraulics, which focuses on the engineering uses of fluid properties. This area of
engineering is intimately related to the design of pipelines, water distribution systems, drainage facilities, canals
and to environmental engineering.

Water resources engineering deals with identification and development of water resources of water for agricultural
fields and water power generation. The development of water resources involves the conceptual planning, design,
construction and operation facilities to control and economic utilization of water. In a river valley project a dam is
constructed at a suitable place across a river.

Applications include the design of hydraulic structures, such as sewage conduits, dams and breakwaters, the
management of waterways, such as erosion protection and flood protection, and environmental management, such
as prediction of the mixing and transport of pollutants in surface water. Hydroelectric-power development, water
supply, irrigation and navigation are some familiar applications of water resources engineering involving the
utilization of water for beneficial purposes.

5. Transportation Engineering: Transportation engineering is a branch of civil engineering that

is involved in the planning, design, operation, and maintenance of safe and efficient
transportation systems. These systems include roadways, railways, waterways, and intermodal operations.
Typically, the demand is the amount of traffic (people, cars, railcars, barges) that is expected to use
a particular transportation facility, while the supply is the quantity and type of infrastructure components
(roadways, bridges, pavements, etc.). These systems are typically large and expensive. Transportation

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 Introduction to Civil Engineering (BESCK104A/204A)
Engineering deals with the mode of travel. Transport development helps to open up remote regions and
resources for construction purpose. Transportation engineering is the application of technology
and scientific principles to the planning, functional design, operation and management of facilities for any
mode of transportation in order to provide for the safe, efficient, rapid, comfortable, convenient,
economical, and environmentally compatible movement of people and goods transport.

6. Environmental Engineering: Environmental Engineering deals with the technological measures to

use and protect the components of environment. Environment is the life support system that includes air,
water and land. Environmental Engineering deals with the treatment of chemical, biological and/or
thermal waste, the purification of water and air. Environmental Engineers are also involved in pollution
reduction, green house effect and ecology. Environmental engineering is the application of science and
engineering principles to improve the environment (air, water, and/or land resources), to provide healthful
water, air, and land for human habitation and for other organisms, and to remediate polluted sites.
Negative environmental effects can be decreased and controlled through public education, conservation,
regulations, and the application of good engineering practices. The goal of environmental engineering
is to ensure that societal development and the use of water, land and air resources are sustainable. This
goal is achieved by managing these resources so that environmental pollution and degradation is
minimized.

7. Construction planning and project management: Construction planning is a fundamental and

challenging activity in the management and execution of construction projects. It involves the choice of
technology, the definition of work tasks, the estimation of the required resources and durations for
individual tasks, and the identification of any interactions among the different work tasks. It is the process
of planning, organizing, and handling and controlling the efforts of organizational (members) and the use
of other resources, in order to achieve stated organizational goals. Any construction project involves many
activities and also requires many materials, man power, machinery and money. In case of large
construction projects, management techniques of preparing bar charts and network diagrams help in
completing the project orderly in time. A good construction plan is the basis for developing the budget
and the schedule for work. Developing the construction plan is a critical task in the management of
construction, even if the plan is not written or otherwise formally recorded.

The main aspects of construction management are:

i) Construction scheduling ii) Quality control iii) Contract management
iv) Procurement management v) Construction finance management

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Basic Materials of Construction: Bricks, Cement and mortars, Plain Cement Concrete, Reinforced
Cement Concrete, Pre-stressed Concrete, Structural Steel, Construction Chemicals

1. Bricks:-
Bricks are made of clay or earth containing 30% of alumina, 40% silica and other constituents
like magnesia, ferric oxide , calcium carbonate about 10%bricks have been used as a construction
material. In those days, sun dried mud bricks were used as revealed in the excavations at
Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Lothal, etc. Now we use bricks burnt in kilns of different types. Usually
bricks are hand moulded in metal mould or wooden mould. On one of the flat faces, a rectangular or
rounded depression called 'frog’ is provided to have good bonding between the brick layers Indian
standard brick has a size of 200 mm x 100 mm x100 mm (nominal size of 190 mm x 90 mm x 90 mm)
with 10 mm deep frog. Depending on the strength, bricks have been classified as class I, class II and
class III bricks. Traditional or local bricks can be 210 to 250 mm long, 100 to 130 mm wide and about
75 mm high.

Fig.1. Bricks

Requirements of Good Bricks:

1. Bricks should be uniformly and thoroughly burnt, with uniform colour and straight edges.
2. Bricks should be hard giving metallic ringing sound when struck together or by trowel and no
scratch is made on its surface by finger-nail.
3. Bricks should be free from cracks, flaws, lumps and holes.
4. An average building brick should have a minimum compressive strength of 3.5 N/mm².
5. Bricks should not break into pieces when dropped freely from a height of about 1 m on to the
ground.
6. Brick should not absorb water more than 20 % of its dry weight.
Uses of Bricks:

1. Class I bricks are used for exterior masonry walls, short columns and arches.
2. Class II bricks are used for internal walls compound walls.

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3. Class III bricks are used for small foundations, paving, brick flooring.
4. Refractory bricks are used for chimneys furnace lining, etc.
5. Hollow bricks are used for walls of multistoreyed buildings, sound proofing and heat insulation
walls.
6. Colored/sand-lime bricks are used for architectural, ornamental works.
Advantages of Bricks:

1. Light weight as compared to stones.

2. Better strength, better fire, sound and heat resistance.
3. Easy to work (no chiseling, dressing required).
4. Locally manufactured, easily available at cheaper rates.
5. Uniformity in size helps wall construction of uniform thickness.

2. Cement:-
Cement is an artificial binding material manufactured by burning of calcareous and
argillaceous materials in specific desired proportion at a very high temperature. Wet and dry mixing
and grinding process are done. Commonly used grayish colored cement is known as ordinary
Portland cement.
OPC is manufactured from following raw material constituents:
1) Lime 60 to 68%, 2) Silica 17 to 25 % , 3)Alumina 3to 8 %, 4) Iron oxide & Magnesia 0.5 to 6%,
5)Sulphur trioxide 1 to 3%, 6) Alkali 0.5 to 2%.

Curing is the process of keeping the mould or concrete/mortar in water for dissipation of the heat of
evolution, for sufficient time. When water is mixed with cement, chemical action takes place, which is
of exothermic type. Hence heat is generated, known as heat of hydration or heat of evolution. If this
heat is not properly dissipated, cracks are formed in the work in which the cement is used. This not
only reduces strength, stability and durability, but also may lead to water leakage Hence curing of
cement/concrete is very essential, it is the process of dissipating heat of hydration by keeping the
work/components moist or wet for sufficient time (upto 28 days).

Fig.2. Cement

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Types of Cement:

Various types of cement can be manufactured with varying proportions of the constituents to have
different properties. Therefore applications of these types are different.

1. Ordinary portland cement(OPC): It is general purpose cement ordinarily used for usual
construction works like masonry, plaster, cement concrete, etc. Specific weight is about14.4
kN/m³.
2. Rapid hardening cement: It is also finer than O.P.C., hence attains greater strength in shorter time.
As it hardens quickly, it is used for roads, bridges and underwater constructions where time of
construction cannot be allowed longer.
3. Portland Pozzolana Cement(PPC): It is a mixture OPC and a volcanic substance called pozzolona,
so that cement withstands the chemical attacks and sea water action etc. Used for marine
construction.
4. Low heat cement: It is such a concrete that produces low heat of hydration. It is used for massive
structures like dams.
5. Sulphate resisting cement: It contains higher concentration of silicates and used to resist sulphate
attack. Eg. canal lining, culverts and pipe lines, etc.
6. Hydrophobic cement: It contains water repellent chemicals which have water repellent property. It
does not absorb moisture or water. Hence during transport or storage no moisture is absorbed and
no lumps are formed.
7. Water proof cement: During mixing / construction, some water proofing agents are added to
ordinary cement to get water proof cement. It is used for water retaining structures.
8. Coloured cement: Concentration of iron gives greyish colour to ordinary cement, if it is reduced
and suitable pigments are added, coloured cements can be prepared. These are used for decorative
works or to have uniformly coloured work. i.e. same coloured cement and building materials are
used.
Uses of Cement:
1. Wall (masonry), construction for buildings, retaining walls, dams, bridges, pavements, etc.
2. Plastering and pointing of wall and flooring.
3. Interior/exterior decorative works.
4. Plain cement concrete and reinforced cement concrete works for foundations, water tanks,
multistoreyed structures and components such as beams, slabs, columns, etc.
5. Cement grouting for sealing the cracks/gaps to prevent leakage or seepage of water.
6. Manufacturing of building blocks, precast components, curved roofs/shells.

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Simple Site (Field) Testing of Cement:

Colour of cement should be grey-greenish and the colour should be uniform. On heating, the colour
should not change. If hand is thrust on cement bag, one should get cool feeling. There should not be any
lumps in the cement. If a small quantity of cement is sprinkled on water surface, cement particles should
float for a while and then sink. Thin paste of cement prepared on the site and sieved through fine cloth
should completely pass through the cloth with no residue left over the cloth. Mixture of cement (or lime),
sand and adequate water is known as mortar coating wall surface with mortar is called 'plastering'.

Mortars: Mortar is a homogenous mixture of cement, sand and water. Different types of mortars are used
in masonry construction based on their applications, binding materials, strength, bulk density and their
purposes.

Fig.3. Mortar

Nowadays, cement mortars are most commonly used as mortar in construction. Cement mortar is used
in all types of construction work due to its strong and durable properties. Mortar can be used for a
number of purposes such as plastering over bricks or other forms of masonry, for flooring etc., and
with the addition of coarse aggregate, it can also be used to make concrete.
Cement mortar also provides a superior medium to create a smooth surface on walls made from bricks
or other forms of masonry.
Preparation of Cement Mortar:
The preparation of the cement mortar involves following steps:
i) Selection of Raw Materials
ii) Proportion of cement mortar
iii) Mixing of ingredients
Uses of cement mortar are as follows:
i) To bind masonry units like stone, bricks, blocks, cement.

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ii) For Plastering on walls and slabs to make them impervious.
iii) As a filler material in Ferro cement works and stone masonry.
iv) To fill cracks and joints in the wall.
v) Use of cement mortar gives a neat finishing work to wall and concrete work.
vi) For pointing the joints of masonry.
vii) For preparing the building blocks.
3. Plain Concrete:-
Concrete is the artificial homogeneous construction material obtained by mixing cement or lime,
sand (known as fine aggregate) and coarse aggregate (sand gravel or shingle with particle size
more than 4.75 mm) with adequate amount of water. If reinforcement bars are not used, it is called
plain cement concrete (P.C.C.). Different types of concrete are extensively used in various types of
constructions right from foundations, roads, buildings, dams, pipes, precast components for fast
track modular constructions.

Fig.4. Plain Concrete

4. Reinforced Concrete (Reinforced Cement Concrete-R.C.C):-

RCC (Reinforced Cement Concrete) is a construction technology which evolved with the
evolution of different structural materials in the 18th century during the Industrial Revolution.
Reinforced concrete (RC), also called reinforced cement concrete (R.C.C) and ferroconcrete, is
a composite material in which concrete's relatively low tensile strength and ductility are compensated
for by the inclusion of reinforcement having higher tensile strength or ductility. If reinforcement in the
form of metal bars in the moulds is used before placing the concrete mix, it is called Reinforced
Cement Concrete (R.C.C.), used very commonly for multistoreyed framed structures. R.C.C. can
withstand compressive, tensile or bending stresses. The reinforcement is usually, though not
necessarily, steel bars (rebar) and is usually embedded passively in the concrete before the concrete
sets. In terms of volume used annually, it is one of the most common engineering materials.

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It is extensively used for retaining walls, concrete roads, bunkers, water tanks, dams, bridges, machine
and building foundations, framed structures (buildings with beams-columns-slabs), etc.

Fig. 5. R.C.C
Advantages:
1. Materials used in RCC construction are easily available.
2. It is durable and long lasting.
3. It is fire resisting and not attacked by termites.
4. It is economical in ultimate cost.
5. The reinforced concrete member can be cast to any shape because of the fluidity of concrete.
6. Its monolithic character gives much rigidity to the structure.
7. Cost of maintenance is nil.
Disadvantages:
1. Scrap value of reinforced members is almost nil.
2. Constant checking is required.
3. Skilled labour is engaged in the work.
4. The advantages of RCC outweigh its disadvantages.
5. Prestressed concrete(PSC) :-
Prestressed concrete is a system devised to provide sufficient precompression in the concrete
beam by tensioned steel wires, cables, or rods that under working conditions the concrete has no
tensile stresses or the tensile stresses are so low that no visible cracking occurs.

Types of prestressed concrete:

There are two types of prestressed concrete depending on the stage at which prestress has been included
viz. pre-tensioned and post-tensioned prestressed concretes.
In post-tensioning prestress is induced after setting and hardening of concrete mass. The wires are in a
bundle inside a sheathing. Pre-tensioning means inducing the prestress before setting and hardening of
concrete. Once stressed, the wires can be held in the stressed position by anchoring, locking or bolting.
Post-tensioning is useful for big works with long spans or heavy loads such as bridges, concrete tanks.
Pre-tensioning is useful for small works such as short beams, railway sleepers.

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Fig.6. Prestressed Concrete

Principles of prestressed concrete are:

1. Concrete stressed, behaves once as homogeneous, isotropic and elastic material.
2. Structural behaviour of prestressed concrete is similar to that of R.C.C.
3. For very long spans, prestressed steel acts as suspension cable and concrete around it acts as
stiffening girders.
Advantages of PSC over RCC

1. P.S.C. is more long-lasting as no tensile cracks exist there, while in R.C.C tensile cracks are inevitable,
that's why adverse environmental effects may occur.
2. Dead weight of P.S.C. member remains less with regards to what is necessary for R.C.C. member. The
dead weight of P.S.C member is about one-third of similar R.C. members.
3. The material cost in P.S.C. is significantly less as compared to that in similar R.C. members.
4. The distortion of P.S.C. members is much less with regards to that for similar R.C. member. For beams
deflection of P.S.C. beams remains about one - fourth of that of similar R.C. beams.
5. P.S.C contains greater resilience.
6. The fatigue strength of P.S.C. is superior.

6. Structural Steel:-
Alloys of steel in the form of high strength steel and stainless steel are also used in constructions.
However, mild steel is most commonly used as a construction material.

Classification/types or forms of mild steel used is as follows:

1. Bars: Square, Plain, circular , Themo-Mechanically Treated (TMT) High Yield Strength
Deformed (HYSD) or TOR.

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2. Wires or cables.
3. Other sections: flats, Plates, angle section and Tee and channel section.

Fig.7. Steel Bars (TOR, TMT, etc.)

Properties and Advantages of Mild Steel:

1. Mild steel has good workability (bending, cutting, welding easily possible) at temperatures
heating). or room high temperatures (after heating).
2. It has good elasticity and ductility.
3. It can be hardened by tempering.
4. It can be given chemical treatment such as galvanising.
5. Mild steel sections have good compressive as well as shear strength.
Various sections and forms of mild steel can be used for many applications and components in
constructions, right from screws/nails upto steel girders including sanitary fittings, pipes, tubes, water
tanks, sheets (pressure vessels), rails, elevator cables, roofing sheets, door/window frames, etc.

Uses of Steel

1. Steel in the form of solid bars can be used as: reinforcement in concrete and as reinforcement in
walls also.
2. Square sections and round sections are also used for fabrication of grills, gates, etc. shows cold or
hot deformed reinforcement bars having roughened surface for more strong bonding and better
strength.
3. Wire ropes and cables are used for lifts, hoists, cranes and also in pre-stressed concrete sections.
4. Hardware items and fixtures such as nails, nut-bolts, screws, hinges, grills, railings etc are
fabricated or manufactured.
5. Standard equal or unequal angles, channels and T sections are used directly as structural members
of steel structures such as beams, columns, members of trusses, etc.
7. Construction chemicals :-
Construction chemicals have always been playing important roles in virtually all sorts of

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construction projects, be it industrial projects, residential building projects, commercial building
projects and so on. These chemicals are often used in various elements of projects in order to
achieve various important qualities such as workability, durability etc. Construction chemicals
exist in many varieties from a large number of manufacturers worldwide. Increasing demand for
public, commercial and residential buildings combined with an increasingly urban population is
driving the global construction chemical market. Demand for buildings, roads, bridges, tunnels
and dams are further driving the market.
Below are different types of construction chemicals used on hardened concrete either as surface
application, coating or as repair materials:
i) Polymer bonding agents: Polymer Bonding Agent is an aqueous emulsion of a polymer and
chemical admixtures.
ii) Mould releasing agents: Mould release agents come in handy when you have materials that
are shaped and constructed in moulds. Without the releasing agent, your mould may become
damaged or even break when it is time to remove it. Mould release agents come in a variety of
textures with the most commonly used one being an oil type base.
iii) Concrete floor hardeners: These are chemicals added in floor concrete in order to render it
denser and more durable. They also usually enhance chemical resistance, impact & abrasion
resistance, waterproofing capability etc
iv) Surface retarders: Surface retarders, also called surface “deactivators,” are applied to fresh
concrete to chemically delay the set of the surface mortar.
v) Bond-aid for plastering: Almost all surface applied bonding agents are compounded from
polyvinyl acetate emulsions. These water-based adhesives are very safe to use because they are
non-toxic, non-hazardous and non-flammable.
vi) Ready-mix plaster: Ready mix plaster is a factory mixed/premixed sand-cement based
plaster.
vii) Waterproofing chemicals: These chemicals can be quite useful when a structure’s
waterproofing capability is to be given a boost which is especially required for structures
constantly dealing with liquids.
viii) Adhesives: These construction chemicals are readily used in all sorts of projects, be it
commercial, residential, industrial etc. construction projects.
ix) Rebar coating: Coatings for reinforcing steel bars can be quite useful when the bars have to
be stored or kept exposed to weather for considerable time.
x) Epoxy grouts: Epoxy grouts have an edge over ordinary grouts especially in harsh
environmental conditions such as exposure to extreme temperatures, oil, grease, acids,
chemicals and so on.

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Structural elements of a building: Foundation, Plinth, Lintel, Chejja, Masonry wall, Column, Beam, Slab and
Staircase

A structure consists of two parts. Namely,

a. Superstructure – Above the plinth level. Superstructure mainly consists of walls, doors windows and
lintels. The purpose of superstructure is to provide the necessary utility of the building, structural safety,
fire safety, sanitation and ventilation.

b. Sub Structure - Below the plinth level. It is also known as foundation

1. Foundation: Foundation is the lowest part of the building or the civil structure that is in direct contact
with the soil which transfers loads from the structure to the soil safely. It transfers the load of the building
to the ground. Generally, the foundation can be classified into two, namely shallow foundation and deep
foundation. Foundation is the most important part of the building. Building activity starts with digging the
ground for foundation and then building it. Its main functions and requirements are:
i. Distribute the load from the structure to soil evenly and safely.
ii. To anchor the building to the ground so that under lateral loads building will not move.
iii. It prevents the building from overturning due to lateral forces.
iv. It gives level surface for the construction of super structure.

Fig.8. Foundation
2. Plinth: The portion of the wall between the ground level and the ground floor level is called
plinth. Plinth beam is a reinforced concrete beam constructed between the wall and its foundation.
Plinth beam is provided to prevent the extension or propagation of cracks from the foundation into the
wall above when the foundation suffers from settlement. Plinth beams distributes the load of the wall
over the foundation evenly. It is usually of stone masonry. A minimum depth of plinth beam is 20cm
whereas its width should match the width of final course of the foundation.
Applications of Plinth Beam:
i. It is mandatory to provide plinth beam in areas that prone to earthquake.
ii. Construction of plinth beam above the natural ground is another application of this type of beam.

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Fig. 9. Plinth

3. Lintel: A lintel is a beam placed across the openings like doors, windows etc. in buildings to support
the load from the structure above. The width of lintel beam is equal to the width of wall, and the ends
of it are built into the wall. Lintels are classified based on their material of construction. Lintels are the
R.C.C. or stone beams provided over the door and window openings to transfer the load transversely
so as to see that door or window frame is not stressed unduly.

The bearing provided should be the minimum of following three cases:

i. 10 cm ii. Height of beam iii. 1/10th to 1/12th of span of the lintel.
Classification of Lintels:
Lintels are classified based on the material of construction as:
i. Timber Lintel
ii. Stone Lintel
iii. Brick Lintel
iv. Reinforced Brick Lintel
v. Steel Lintel
vi. Reinforced Cement Concrete Lintel

Fig.10. Lintel

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4. Chajja: A chajja is the projecting or overhanging eaves or cover of a roof, usually supported on
large carved brackets. Usually protects from external sunlight. Also protects from rainwater
entering into the building. It also serves as aesthetic decoration with little design on it from
architectural point of view.

Fig.11. Chajja

5. Masonry Wall: Masonry is a term used to indicate the part of the construction that
uses brick, concrete blocks, structural clay tile, and stone. These materials are held together
with mortar. Mortar for masonry is not cement mix, the material used for sidewalks, patios, or
driveways. The mortar mix contains lime, sand, and gypsum, each in the proper proportions. Cement
mix, on the other hand, has stones in the sand and does not contain lime.
Masonry walls are the most durable part of any building or structure. Masonry is the word utilized for
development with mortar as a coupling material with singular units of blocks, stones, marbles, rocks,
solid squares, tiles, and so forth. Mortar is a blend of restricting material with sand. Restricting
materials can be concrete, lime, soil, or any other constructing materials.
Types of Masonry Wall:
Masonry walls render strengths, lastingness to the structure, and help to maintain indoor and outdoor
temperature as well as keeps protects the buildings from the outside world. Depending on the motor
mix materials, there are various types of Masonry Walls used in building constructions.
Types or Categories:
i. Load-bearing masonry wall
ii. Reinforced masonry wall
iii. Hollow/Cavity masonry wall
iv. Composite masonry wall
v. Post-tensioned masonry wall

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Fig.12. Masonry wall

6. Column: A column or pillar in architecture and structural engineering is a structural element that
transmits, through compression, the weight of the structure above to other structural elements below.
In other words, a column is a compression member. Columns are defined as vertical load-bearing
members supporting axial compressive loads chiefly. This structural member is used to transmit the
load of the structure to the foundation. In reinforced concrete buildings beams, floors, and columns are
cast monolithically. The bending action in the column may produce tensile forces over a part of cross-
section. Still, columns are called compression members because compressive forces dominate their
behavior. Column sections can be rectangular, round, square, octagonal, hexagonal as per
requirements. Generally tied columns may be square and rectangular while spiral columns are circular.
Circular columns are used when higher elevation is needed like in piles, bridges pillars.

Fig.13. Column

7. Beam: Beams are usually horizontal structural elements that carry loads perpendicular to their
longitudinal direction. Beams are used to support the weight of floors, ceilings and roofs of a building

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 Introduction to Civil Engineering (BESCK104A/204A)
and to transfer the load to a vertical load bearing element of the structure. The design or sizing of
beams requires understanding of basic physics principles and engineering statics. These are horizontal
structural elements that withstand vertical loads, shear forces, and bending moments. Beams transfer
loads that are imposed along their length to their endpoints such as walls, columns, foundations, etc.
There are different types of beams which are classified based on the following conditions:

i. Based on Support Conditions

ii. Based on Construction Materials
iii. Based on Cross-Section Shapes
iv. Based on Geometry
v. Based on Equilibrium Condition
vi. Based on Method of Construction

Fig.14. Beam
8. Slab: A slab is a flat, two-dimensional planar structural component of building having a very
small thickness compared to its other two dimensions. Reinforced concrete slabs are used in roofs,
floors, ceilings and as the decks of bridges. The slab may be supported by walls or by reinforced
concrete beams usually cast monolithically with the slab or by structural steel beams or by
columns, or by the ground. It is a horizontal structural component, with top and bottom surfaces
parallel. Commonly, slabs are supported by beams, columns (concrete or steel), walls, or the
ground.
Types of loads acting on a slab include:

i. Dead load of the slab

ii. Live load
iii. Floor finish load

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 Introduction to Civil Engineering (BESCK104A/204A)

iv. Snow load in the case of roof slab

v. Earthquake loads

Fig.15 Slabs

9. Staircase: A stair is a set of steps leading from one floor of a building to another, typically inside
the building. The room or enclosure of the building, in which the stair is located is known as
staircase. The opening or space occupied by the stair is known as a stairway. Stairs are an essential
feature of any structure with multiple floors. Staircases can be designed in an almost endless
combination of different forms and types to best fit the space, function, and aesthetic of your
project. Different types of stairs architecture provide different kinds of visual appeal and also take
up varying amounts of space. Some types of stairs are more common in residences, while others
are more commonly seen in commercial or industrial settings. The most basic and common stair
design is the straight stair, which features a single linear flight with no change in direction.
Types of stairs: Depending upon the various arrangements of steps, stairs can be classified into
the following types:

i. Straight Stair
ii. Dog-legged Stair
iii. Geometrical Stair

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 Introduction to Civil Engineering (BESCK104A/204A)
iv. Open Newel Stair
v. Circular Stair
vi. Spiral Stair

Fig.15. Staircase

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 Introduction to Civil Engineering (BESCK104A/204A)

PLAN , ELEVATION AND SECTION OF A BUILDING

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