Paper One: Option G: Urban Environments Notes by eden#6028

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Paper One: Option G: Urban Environments

Geographic characteristics attributed to certain areas

1. Population size (e.g. Mumbai to small towns such as Gingin, WA).
2. Site (e.g. coastal areas of Perth, WA)
3. Situation (location)
4. Function (e.g. Perth facilitates financial, healthcare, educational, and mining functions)
5. Hierarchy (sphere of influence, e.g. Perth is the highest in WA as it has the largest Sphere of Influence
in WA)
The hierarchy of urban settlements according to the Sphere of Influence
1. Megacity (10m+) (e.g. Mumbai/Tokyo have global Spheres of Influence, films).
2. Metropolis (5-10m) (e.g. London/Bangkok, similar function(s) to megacities with regional Spheres of
Influence).
3. City (100k+) (e.g. Perth, WA, has a regional Sphere of Influence across the state (because of the
Oncology Department).
4. Large Town (20k-100k) (e.g. Bunbury, local-regional Sphere of Influence, sparse populations for GP
beyond Bunbury).
5. Small Town (0k-20k) (e.g. Chittering/Gingin, Sphere of Influence is local, serving the local populations.
Bid-Rent Theory
- Larger companies outbuy smaller companies/educational/non-profit facilities as they have the financial
viability too, and increased desire. They require good connectivity to their business to support their
threshold. E.g. East Leederville, WA. Commercial businesses may also require less land than
educational facilities such as universities, so they can build multiple stories to optimise space.
- Bid-Rent Theory still applies in current times, however, industries have relocated from the CBDs to
expand as they no longer require the prestige, and there is now improved connectivity, so closeness to
the CBD is not necessarily required. E.g. industries relocating to Welshpool, WA, from Perth’s CBD.
Differences in urban land use in LICs, MICs, and HICs
- Perth, WA, in HIC. HIIs live outside of CBD (e.g. City Beach, Peppermint Grove).
- Mumbai, India, in L-MIC. HIIs live in inner CBD as roads/transport are not as developed as in Perth, WA
for connectivity to the CBD from outer Mumbai. Due to the increasing traffic congestion, many HIIs
return and gentrify inner city areas.
Urbanisation and Urban Growth
1. Urbanisation (the increase in the proportion % of the country’s population living in urban areas).
2. Urban Growth (the increase of population in an urban area).
Discuss the degrees of urbanisation
1975 to 2020

High urbanisation % Low urbanisation %

Australia 85-90 China 20-61

Canada 76-83 India 20-35

Brazil 61-87 Bangladesh 10-38

There is rural-urban migration in China, India, and Bangladesh. The high TFR in LICs and Sub-Saharan Africa
encourages rural-urban migration for opportunities. The HICs have the most people living in urban areas so
there is not a drastic increase.
Factors contributing to the rate of urbanisation
1. Lack of jobs/opportunities in rural areas and rural to urban migration.
2. High TFR’s (e.g. India has a TFR of approx 3, 4 in rural areas, 2 in urban areas).
3. Migrants moving in in their reproductive age/for employment reasons.
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Centripetal and Centrifugal movements
1. Centripetal movement (moving into urban areas) (more common).
- Rural to urban migration (Mumbai).
- Re-urbanisation/Urban Renewal (London, UK).
- Gentrification (Northbridge, WA).
2. Centrifugal movement (moving out of urban areas).
- Suburbanisation (Joondalup, WA).
Planned and orderly. The outward growth of towns and cities to engulf surrounding villages and
rural areas.
- Counter-Urbanisation (London, UK/Perth, WA/Detroit, Michigan, U.S.A.).
The movement of a population from the inner urban areas to the outer urban areas.
- Urban Sprawl (Mumbai).
The growth of urban areas to the surrounding countryside. Generally occurring in LICs.
Gentrification in post-industrial cities
- Gentrification is the process of rebuilding and MIIs/HIIs entering which often displace LIIs. E.g. in
Boston, a city in the U.S.A. POC/Black people felt outbid and there were racial injustices with the influx
of White people gentrifying the city and associating wealth and optimism with the entrance of White
people and exit of POC/Black people.
Urban Heat Island Effect
- Essentially the UHI means that inner city areas experience higher temperatures than outer city areas
due to commercial processes, infrastructure, and population size.
1. Buildings, pavement, and roads retain heat which is slowly released at night.
2. Artificial heat is released through combustion processes, e.g. air conditioning.
- Phoenix, Arizona, U.S.A., up to 10% difference between the CBD and outer city areas in temperature
(3℃).
- In Melbourne, Victoria, Australia, when there is no breeze it can be 4℃+ warmer than outer city areas.
- In August 2003 the heatwave in Europe led to temperatures of 40℃. This affects LIIs without access to
shelter/cooling resources, the young and eldery, and individuals with health conditions (e.g. asthma).
How the UHI can be reduced
- Planting trees (absorb the heat and CO2 emissions which contribute to the greenhouse effect, amplified
in CBDs, they also deflect radiation from the Sun and release moisture, provide shade.
- Implementing lighter roofs to reflect heat/light, green roofs/walls (plants) to absorb CO2 and heat.
- Manhattan, NY, USA, has implemented green roofs onto their high buildings. Precipitation keeps the
plants watered and lowers the rooftop temperatures from 50℃ to around 25℃.
The physical effect of a specific urban structure on its residents
- The “Death Ray'' skyscraper on Fenchurch Street, Central London, UK. 38 stories tall, USD$300 trillion
to build.
- It is curved like a gentle C shape making it reflective.
1. The wind at the bottom of the building often keeps store doors open/aggressively shuts them, and can
knock residents.
2. The heat reflected by the building has melted bike seats/cars and has affected walking pedestrians.
A smart city design
- A smart city design is a technologically environmentally sustainable advancement.
- Blexting is an app used in Detroit. Refer to Detroit CSC.
CASE STUDIES (CSC = CASE STUDY CARD)
1. Perth WA: The Patterns in Urban Land Use
2. Urban Deprivation in Mumbai, India, and Elsewhere
3. Joondalup WA: Infrastructure Growth in an Urban System
4. Detroit, Michigan, U.S.A.: Urban Deindustrialisation
5. Beijing, China: Air Pollution
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6. Curitiba, Brazil: Features of Urban Sustainability
7. Copenhagen, Denmark: Features of Urban Sustainability and Resilience
Perth, WA: The Patterns in Urban Land Use
- Retail will be located in areas with good connectivity (e.g. Joondalup, Perth CBD, Whitfords).
- Governmental organisations/banks will be in Perth CBD for equal access.
- Hotels/companies will be on St. Georges Terrace, and similar CBD streets for prestige and attractivity.
- Industries will be in flat land (e.g. in Welshpool, WA) with good connectivity and more land.
- Residential income affects residential living areas.
- HIIs: near CBD/bodies of water (e.g. Peppermint Grove, Cottesloe, Swan River, City Beach).
- MIIs: in between, (e.g. Heathridge, Beldon, Kingsley, Wanneroo).
- LIIs: further away from CBD/bodies of water (e.g. Girrawheen, Balga), often where social housing is as
these locations are perceived as unsafe, lowering their value/cost of living/land/properties.
- Culturally clustered, (e.g. The Jewish diaspora in Yokine and Mount Lawley).
Urban Deprivation in Mumbai, India, and Elsewhere
- 70%+ of Mumbai’s employees are in the informal economy (recycling, polishing shoes, making keys).
- 80% of Mumbai’s plastic is recycled in Dharavi (a slum).
- Some slums are expensive (USD$200 monthly).
- LIIs can be very close (location) to the HIIs due to public transport, begging, public toilets, and access to
running water.
- The Dharavi Redevelopment Program Project Plan (DRP) commenced in 2010.
- Dharavi is located between 2 major train lines, giving it high value, it is approx 445 acres in size.
- The government’s plan is to relocate the current residents to different locations and to build and sell
apartments in Dharavi.
- Only those with evidence that they have lived in Dharavi since 2000 can apply for new
housing. This is a problem as many residents are employed informally and do not have
evidence.
- The new housing may benefit the Dharavi slum residents in terms of the housing quality,
access to running water, and toilets.
- In HICs: Alice Springs in SA. Aboriginals are ethnically segregated from White people.
- High welfare dependency, substance abuse, violence, unemployment, low life expectancy (on average
10 years less for Aboriginals than for White Australians).
- In Detroit, Michigan, U.S.A, see Detroit CSC.
Joondalup WA: Infrastructure Growth in an Urban System
- Entirely designed by urban planners and built from the late 1970’s. Located 25km North of Perth, WA.
- Approx 200000 residents. 60% of water from aquifers. The strain for water was caused by agriculture.
Agriculture then had to relocate from Joondalup to outer city areas.
- New pine plantations are not allowed and irrigation is restricted. Grey water systems are encouraged.
- Public transport is expensive to maintain and inefficient. The threshold is unreached as the population in
Joondalup is 16 people per hectare. Therefore most of the investments go to infrastructure and roads,
but this negatively impacts the environment, roads absorb heat etc. (refer to UHI).
- Education: ECU has approx 25000 students. The university and the surrounding schools are supported
by buses and public transport (for a short period of time not due to COVID-19).
- Small businesses cannot compete with the large retailers.
- Joondalup treats its liquid waste, injects it into Gnangara, or releases it into the ocean. Solid waste is
landfilled to Tamala Park or recycled and exported or locally reused.
Detroit, Michigan, US.A.: Urban Deindustrialisation
- Detroit moved its manufacturing to Southern states (to lower cost), and lost employment in car
manufacturing (e.g. for Chrysler, Ford, GM motors, Jaguar).
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- The population decreased from 1.7m to 700k from 1950 to now. Losing employees, talented individuals
“brain drain” and wealthy residents. A centrifugal movement, counter-urbanisation. The population in the
1970’s consisted of 50% White people and 50% Black/POC, now there are 10% White in Detroit.
- There is ethnic segregation. Many rich White people left Detroit and Black people/POC that were
previously discriminated against (thus given fewer job and educational opportunities) remained. There
was segregation previously, too.
- The manufacturing jobs may have relocated to Mexico due to the strong U.S.A. work unions being
expensive for employers.
- In the 1970’s, 300k Detroit residents were directly employed in car manufacturing, there are now 30k.
- Positive projects
- Local farms/community gardens.
- The Heidelberg Project (artistic movement).
- The Greening of Detroit (NGO) (more parks and gardens, the gardens being a food source for LIIs).
- Michigan Urban Farming Initiative.
- Blight Removal Task Force Plan (2014).
- Blexting (NGO) (data driven app)
- 380000 houses registered.
- Enables residents to see the blight/condition of houses and report.
- Brings council/government and general population together to achieve the common goal of
removing blight and improving Detroit.
- Negative: there are sometimes ambiguous reports or incorrect submissions, which may hinder
the app.
Beijing, China: Air Pollution
- Beijing is the capital city of China and is the second most populated, 22m.
- Sources of air pollution
- Burning of low-quality coal with sulphur, soot from coal, household heaters, fine dust from soil erosion -
clay particles called loess, exhaust fumes from cars.
- Women try to protect themselves from the pollution using scarves.
- Implications of the pollution
- Short term
- Irritation (eyes, nose, throat).
- Pneumonia, bronchitis.
- Long term
- chronic respiratory diseases, asthma, organ damage (to the brain, liver, kidneys), BaP (Benzo
A-Pyrene), an air pollutant, can induce lung cancer. In 1979 there were 15.5/100000 people with lung
cancer, in 2010 there were 75/100000.
- The pollution contributes to the UHI effect.
- Solutions
- Planting trees (stopping the dust), burning better coal/being provided better coal in households to burn,
electric cars, gas instead of coal. By the end of 2017 1.1m Beijing residents converted from coal heating
to gas/electric heating, which was government driven.
Curitiba, Brazil: Features of Urban Sustainability
- Curitiba is a city in a MIC, which serves as a good example of sustainable living.
- 5th largest city in Brazil with a population of 3m.
- Its extensive bus (public transport) system is very effective and reduces greenhouse gas emissions.
- The buses are prioritised over cars. The buses are 500x cheaper to run than trains. The buses carry up
to 4000 passengers daily. Transport only costs 10% of LII’s income.
- Parks are interconnected into Curitiba, with over 4x the recommended amount by the UN. They help
prevent floods, and facilitate recreation, as well as absorbing CO2. Sheep eat the grass instead of
mechanised mowing. The parks also grow food.
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- 80% of solid waste in Curitiba is recycled.
- The Iguacu Canal Favela is a slum improving LII’s housing. LII’s help build their own house, paid for by
the government. The LIIs own the house after 10 years of living in it, but they cannot sell the house, it
still belongs to the government. LII’s pay 10% of their monthly incoming USD$40 to stay. (Compare 2).
Copenhagen, Denmark: Features of Urban Sustainability and Resilience
- Copenhagen is in a HIC. Population of 1.3m. Cut fossil fuel use by 50% in the past 20 years.
- Resilience and sustainability projects commenced after the 2011 cloud-burst in Østerbro, North of
Copenhagen.
- Adaptations
- Natural street slope used to redirect inundation (flood prevention saves 250m euros annually).
- Retention areas, e.g. ½m pit for bikes near train stations for water retention.
- Green spaces lower.
- Gravel/sand on road sides.
- Vegetable beds among streets, also for leisure.
- 450km+ of cycling routes, 40% of people cycle.
- Development of public transport (trains), the “Five Finger Plan” serves most of those living outside/in
the outskirts of Copenhagen.
- Green roofs and walls are sometimes mandatory.
- Renewable energy use (wind, geothermal, biofuel from cow dung).
- waste management (many recycling bins with colour coordination).
- District heating using excess power plant heat/waste incineration provides approx 98% of households
energy, saving up to 50% in costs.
- Geothermal plant being built may meet up to 50% of the city’s energy requirements.
- Waste water treatments used for harbour baths have made regions more attractive, increasing their
value, and expanding leisure (swimming).