7

PART B
The Nervous System

PowerPoint® Lecture Slide Presentation by Jerry L. Cook, Sam Houston University

ESSENTIALS
OF HUMAN
ANATOMY
& PHYSIOLOGY
EIGHTH EDITION

ELAINE N. MARIEB

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

The Central Nervous System (CNS)
▪ CNS develops from the embryonic neural tube
▪ The neural tube becomes the brain and spinal
cord
▪ The opening of the neural tube becomes the
ventricles
▪ Four chambers within the brain
▪ Filled with cerebrospinal fluid

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Regions of the Brain
1. Cerebrum
2. Cerebellum
3. Diencephalon or Interbrain
3.1 Thalamus
3.2 Epithalamus
3.3 Hypothalamus
4. Brain stem
4.1 Midbrain/Mesencephalon
4.2 Pons
4.3 Medulla oblongata

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Regions of the Brain
▪ Cerebrum
▪ Cerebellum
▪ Diencephalon
▪ Brain stem

Figure 7.12b
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Cerebral Hemispheres (Cerebrum)
▪ Paired (left &
right) superior
parts of the brain
▪ Include more
than half of the
brain mass

Figure 7.13a
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
 Cerebral Hemispheres (Cerebrum)

▪ The surface is made

of ridges (gyri) &
grooves (sulci)

Figure 7.13a
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Lobes of the Cerebrum
▪ Fissures (deep grooves) divide the cerebrum into lobes
▪ Surface lobes of the cerebrum
▪ Frontal lobe
▪ Parietal lobe
▪ Occipital lobe
▪ Temporal lobe

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Functions of the Frontal Lobe
▪ emotional control center & home to our personality
▪ motor function,
▪ problem solving;
▪ memory;
▪ spontaneity,
▪ language,
▪ initiation,
▪ judgment,
▪ impulse control; and
▪ social & sexual behavior

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 Functions of the Parietal Lobe
▪ The 1st function is sensation & perception and the 2nd is
concerned with integrating sensory input, primarily with
the visual system

the 1st fxn integrates

sensory information to
form a single perception
(cognition)
the 2nd fxn constructs a
spatial coordinate system
to represent the world
around us

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Functions of the Occipital Lobe
▪ Mapping the visual world, which helps with both
spatial reasoning and visual memory.
▪ Determining color properties of the items in the visual
field.
▪ Assessing distance, size, & depth.
▪ Identifying visual stimuli, particularly familiar faces &
objects.
▪ Transmitting visual information to other brain regions
▪ Receiving raw visual data from perceptual sensors in
the eyes' retina.

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Functions of the Temporal Lobe
▪ The formation of visual memories, including long-term
memories
▪ Interpreting the meaning of visual stimuli, including
recognizing objects
▪ Production of speech
▪ Recognition of language
▪ Controlling unconscious and apparently automatic
reactions, such as appetite, thirst, hunger
▪ Helping the body maintain homeostasis

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Parts of the Cerebrum

Figure 7.15a
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Specialized Areas of the Cerebrum
▪ Somatic sensory area – receives impulses from the
body’s sensory receptors
▪ Primary motor area – sends impulses to skeletal
muscles
▪ Broca’s area – involved in our ability to speak
▪ Wernicke’s area - region of the brain that contains
motor neurons involved in the comprehension
of speech.

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Sensory and Motor Areas of the Cerebral
Cortex

Figure 7.14
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Control of muscular movements in
the brain
This control is conveyed mainly through the pyramidal
tract, which arises from the primary motor cortex, which divides
into:
1. Corticospinal tract, which synapses with the lower motor
neurons innervating the muscles in the limbs & trunk
2. Corticobulbar tract, which synapses with the cranial
nerves to control muscular movements of the face, head, &
neck.

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 Decussation of nerve fibers
Decussation means the crossing of nerve fibers to the
opposite side of the body.
This occurs at the level of the lower medulla, where
85% to 90% of the fibers cross to form the lateral
corticospinal tract (LCST).

What is the significance of this information?

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Specialized Areas of the Cerebrum

▪ Cerebral areas involved in special senses

▪ Gustatory area (taste)
▪ Visual area
▪ Auditory area
▪ Olfactory area

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Specialized Areas of the Cerebrum

▪ Interpretation areas of the cerebrum

▪ Speech/language region
▪ Language comprehension region
(Wernicke’s area)
▪ General interpretation area

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Specialized Areas of the Cerebrum

Figure 7.13c
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
 Layers of the Cerebrum
Gray matter
▪ outer layer found in the
CNS
▪ Composed mostly of
neuron cell bodies &
dendrites
▪ Mostly unmyelinated
axon bundles
▪ Cortex: gray matter on
surface of brain
Figure 7.13a
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
 Layers of the Cerebrum
White matter
▪ inner layer in the CNS
▪ Few neuron cell bodies
▪ Mostly myelinated
axon bundles also
called “tracts”
▪ Example: corpus
callosum connects
hemispheres

Figure 7.13a
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
 The Basal Ganglia
Basal ganglia: internal islands of gray matter.
Components of the basal ganglia include the:
striatum; both dorsal striatum (caudate nucleus & putamen)
& ventral striatum (nucleus accumbens & olfactory tubercle),
globus pallidus, ventral pallidum, substantia nigra, and subthalamic
nucleus

Figure 7.13a
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Grouping of Neural Tissue

1. Nucleus/Nuclei – clusters of cell bodies &

dendrites within the white matter
of the CNS
2. Ganglion/Ganglia – clusters of cell bodies
in the PNS
A typical sympathetic ganglion can have 20,000 to 30,000
individual cell bodies

3. Tract - bundle of nerve fibers in the CNS

4. Nerve - bundle of nerve fibers in the PNS

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 The Cerebellum
▪ Two hemispheres with convoluted surfaces
▪ Provides
involuntary
coordination
of body
movements

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

The Diencephalon
▪ Sits on top of the brain stem
▪ Enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres
▪ Made of three parts:
1. Thalamus: relay & processing centers for
sensory information passing upward to the sensory
cortex (for pain and touch)
2. Hypothalamus: makes up the floor of the
diencephalons; centers controlling our emotions,
temperature, H2O balance & metabolism & hormone
production; the mamillary bodies (reflex center for
olfaction) are located in the hypothalamus

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

The Diencephalon
3. Epithalamus: Forms the roof of the 3rd ventricle;
impt parts include the pineal body & the choroid
plexus of the 3rd ventricle

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

The Brain Stem
▪ Attaches to the spinal cord
▪ Parts of the brain stem
▪ Midbrain
▪ Pons
▪ Medulla oblongata

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Brain Stem

Figure 7.15a
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Mesencephalon or Midbrain
▪ Mostly composed of tracts of nerve fibers
▪ Has two bulging fiber tracts - cerebral peduncles
▪ Processing of visceral & auditory data,
maintenance of consciousness
▪ Has four rounded protrusions –
corpora quadrigemina
▪ Reflex centers for vision and hearing

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Pons varolii
▪ The bulging center part of the brain stem
▪ Mostly composed of fiber tracts
▪ Includes nuclei involved in the control of
breathing
▪ Relays sensory information to cerebellum &
thalamus, regulates breathing pattern

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Medulla Oblongata
▪ The lowest part of the brain stem
▪ Merges into the spinal cord
▪ Includes important fiber tracts
▪ Most inferior part of the brain stem
▪ Contains important control centers
Heart rate control
Blood pressure regulation
Breathing
Swallowing
Vomiting

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Reticular Formation
▪ Diffuse mass of gray matter along the brain
stem
▪ Involved in motor control of visceral organs
▪ Reticular activating system plays a role in
awake/sleep cycles and consciousness

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Reticular Formation

Figure 7.15b
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Protection of the Central Nervous System
▪ Scalp and skin
▪ Skull and vertebral column
▪ Meninges

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Protection of the Central Nervous System
▪ Cerebrospinal fluid
▪ Blood brain barrier

Figure 7.16a
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
The Meninges of the Brain & Spinal Cord

1. Dura mater
▪ a double-layered outer covering made up of
dense fibrous tissue
1. Periosteum – attached to surface of the skull
2. Meningeal layer – outer covering of the brain
▪ subdivided or partitioned into several septa or
areas.

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

The Meninges of the Brain & Spinal Cord

2. Arachnoid layer
▪ A thin, transparent, web-like middle layer made up
of fibrous tissue
3. Pia mater
▪ a thin, translucent, mesh-like inner layer made up
of fibrous tissue
▪ clings to the surface of the brain

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 The
Cerebrospinal
Fluid

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

The CSF
▪ its composition is similar to blood plasma
▪ it is produced by the ependymal cells in the choroid
plexus
▪ it forms a watery cushion to protect the brain
▪ circulates in arachnoid space, ventricles, & central
canal of the spinal cord
▪ amount produced reaches 800 mL in 24H but only
about an average of 150mL at any given time

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Ventricles & Location of the CSF

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 The CSF Flow
Choroid plexus of the Lateral ventricles ➔ Interventricular
(1st & 2nd Ventricles) foramina
(Foramen of Monro)

 cerebral aqueduct  3rd ventricle

(aqueduct of Sylvius)

4th ventricle

Foramina of Luschka Foramen of Magendie Foramina of Luschka

➔ arachnoid villi
subarachnoid space

back to the choroid plexus  blood  dural venous sinuses

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Ventricles & Location of the CSF

Figure 7.17c
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
 Monro-Kellie Doctrine
brain→ bony skull → no room for expansion → increase
in the bulk of the brain → compression of the brain
structures & blood supply→ cerebral ischemia → cerebral
hypoxia → necrosis (cerebral infarction)→
inflammation→ cerebral edema→
increased ICP

Note:
An  in any one of the contents of the cranium
normally is accompanied by reciprocal decrease in
one of the other 2 components.
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Normal CSF Values
▪ Pressure: 0-15mmHg
▪ Glucose: 50-80 mg/dl
▪ CHON: 20-50 mg/dl

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 Blood Brain Barrier
▪ includes the least permeable capillaries (Tight Junction)
of the body which excludes many potentially harmful
substances
▪ three cellular elements of the brain microvasculature
compose the BBB:
1. endothelial cells
2. astrocyte end-feet
3. immune cells (perivascular macrophages & microglia)

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Blood Brain Barrier
Substances that can easily pass are:
▪ Water & Glucose
▪ Respiratory gases (O2, CO2, NO2, & Xe)
▪ Ethanol & Nicotine
▪ Volatile anesthetics
▪ L-Dopa
▪ Caffeine
▪ Vit. B6 & B12
▪ Diazepam
▪ Essential amino acids (leucine, tyrosine, isoleucine,
valine, tryptophan, methionine, histidine,
phenylalanine, arginine, lysine, glutamine)

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Blood Brain Barrier
Substances that can pass but at a SLOW rate are:
▪ glycine, taurine, choline, adenine, adenosine
▪ catecholamines (epinephrine & norepinephrine)
▪ phenobarbital
▪ phenytoin

▪Substances that are RESTRICTED are:

▪ alanine, proline, & GABA
▪ glutamate
▪ aspartate

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 The
Spinal Cord

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

The Spinal Cord

Figure 7.18
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Spinal Cord
▪ Extends from the
medulla oblongata to
the region of T12
▪ Below T12 is the
cauda equina (a
collection of spinal
nerves)
▪ Enlargements occur
in the cervical and
lumbar regions

Figure 7.18
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Spinal Cord Anatomy
▪ Exterior white mater – conduction tracts

Figure 7.19
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Spinal Cord Anatomy
▪ Internal gray matter - mostly cell bodies
▪ Dorsal (posterior) horns
▪ Anterior (ventral) horns

Figure 7.19
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Spinal Cord Anatomy
▪ Central canal filled with cerebrospinal fluid

Figure 7.19
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Spinal Cord Anatomy
▪ Meninges cover the spinal cord
▪ Nerves leave at the level of each vertebrae
▪ Dorsal root
▪ Associated with the dorsal root ganglia –
collections of cell bodies outside the central
nervous system
▪ Ventral root

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 End

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings