SOAP MAKING TRAINING MATERIAL

INTRODUCTION

Soap is the commonest term used to describe compounds that are used as cleaning agent for wide
range of domestic and industrial purposes. Soap can be said to be the oldest chemical materials known
to man. Soap is an alkaline salt of fatty acid which is formed from the reaction between fatty acids and
alkaline such as NaOH through a process called Saponification. Soap making traces its way back to
prehistoric times. The Babylonians made soap during 2000 BC. It was formed from ashes and fats
from the food they ate. During the Roman era, soap was made from goat and wood ashes. Throughout
history, each era brought its own different soap making methods. In this present day sodium based
alkali is used for soap making. Since it was discovered that soap is not only produced for the idea of
cleaning, but for general purpose to mankind, it became a necessity all over the world. The industry
began in Italy and France, it later spread throughout Europe after the French discovered the use of
olive oil instead of animal fat. A Swedish chemist, Carl Wilhelm Scheele, discovered how to make and
extract glycerine from the soap by heating the process. Glycerine is extracted and used in many
products today. As people began to take cleanliness more seriously and realized that it was a successful
way to control disease, more and more companies began massive campaigns to advertise their soap.
Companies such as Pears and Lever started the industry and are still in market till today. With all the
alternatives to natural soap, we now spend much more time choosing the right soap for our skin and for
other use. This is getting more difficult with all of the chemical substitutes for real soap on the market.
The easiest and most cost effective way to find soap that suits skin and values is to discover the
technique of soap making yourself. You choose your oils, your perfume and the color you prefer. Soap
making is fun and easy to learn.

Early Soap Production (Black Soap)

Early soap makers probably used ashes and animal fats. Simple wood or plant ashes containing
potassium hydroxide were dispersed in water, and fat was added to the solution. This mixture was then
boiled; ashes were added again as the water evaporated. During this process, a slow chemical splitting
of the fat took place; the fatty acids could then react with the alkali hydroxide of the plant ash to form
soap (this reaction is called saponification).

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Importance and Uses of Soap/Detergents

1. They are used for washing, bathing and cleaning

2. They are used in textile spinning
3. They are used as stabilizers for vinyl plastic
4. They are used as catalyst for organic reactions
5. Soap inhibits the corrosion activities on metals
6. Soaps serves as lubricants for moulding of plastics, stamping of metals and drawling of wires
7. They are used in the preparation of emulsion (as surface active agents) such as cosmetics,
lotion ointments, fungicides, disinfectants, spray insecticides and pharmaceutical creams.

Cleansing Action of Soap

Soap has the ability to remove dirt from surfaces such as skin, floor ,textile materials etc. The
cleansing action of soap arises from the fact that it has two dissimilar ends, a hydrocarbon chain end
that is non – polar and a carboxyl ate salt and which is polar.

O
CH3(CH2)n C O --- M+
Non-polar end polar end
The non-polar hydrocarbon chain is soluble in glycerides while the polar end is soluble in water. Dirt
generally adheres to fabrics and other surfaces means of films of glycerides. Soap dissolves dirt by
forming tiny droplets in which the glycerides is at the centre of a sphere, in which the non polar
hydrocarbon of the soap dissolves. The carboxylate anion form a water soluble surface around the
sphere – the entire droplet is rendered water soluble.

Chemistry of soap
Soaps are water – soluble sodium or potassium salts of fatty acids containing from 8 to 22 carbon
atoms.

There are saturated and unsaturated fatty acids; this determines the type of soap produced .e.g.

Saturated soap: CH3(CH2)nCOOM

Mono – unsaturated soap:CH3(CH2)n CH =CHCH2(CH2)m –COOM

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Poly – unsaturated soap: CH3(CH2CH=CH)X CH2(CH2)Y –COOM

[M = Na, K,etc.]

The basic chemical reaction in soap making is saponification:

3 Na OH + (C17H35 COO)3C3H5 saponification

3C17 H35COONa+C3H5(OH)3
(sodium (Glyceryl stearate) (Sodium stearate) (Glycerine)
hydroxide) soap.
The other method for making soap consists of fat splitting followed by the neutralization process with
sodium hydroxide.

(C17 H35COO)3C3H5+3H2O___fat splitting__ 3C17H35COOH+C3H5(OH)3

C17H35COOH + NaOH Neutralization C17H35COONa+H2O

Stearic acid Sodium hydroxide Soap water

Types of soap

 Hard Soap
 Soft soap
 Germicidal soap
 Medicated soap

Classification of soap The two

main classes of soaps are toilet and industrial. They can be better classified as stated below:

1. Water soluble soap (TOILET SOAP): these are salt of sodium. They are soluble in many
organic solvent as well as water. They are used for all washing operation that employ soap, also
for preparation of oil- in- water solution of amino soap in organic solvent that are frequently
used for metal cleaning, and corrosion inhibition.
2. Metallic soap (INDUSTRIAL SOAP): these are cation salts of metals such as Aluminum,
Calcium, Lithium, Zinc, lead, and others they are not dispersed in organic liquids. Metallic
soaps are used to form water – in – oil, emulsion and other applications. They serve as
lubricants, catalyst for organic reactions and stabilizers for plastics.

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Classification of Raw Materials Used in Soap Production

1. Organic raw materials: These are raw material obtained naturally that can be used in
production of soap and detergents. Examples of these raw materials are: palm oil, Shea butter, plantain
peels, cocoyam peels, palm kernel bunch, Shea butter bark, wood ashes, bamboo trees, etc.
2. Inorganic raw materials: These are chemically obtained raw material. They exist as compound
or element in the earth. Examples are; caustic soda (NaOH),. Potassium Hydroxide (KOH). Sodium Tri
– polyphosphate (STPP), palmitic acid, Formalin, soda ash (Na2CO3), etc.

Nature and Composition of Soap

Natural hand-made soap is not difficult to make, once you understand the basics you can make a batch
of soap in as little as one hour, depending on the formula. Below is the basic formula for making soap:

Fatty acid (oil) + Base(caustic soda)= “A salt”(soap)

The oil or fat is heated gently. Caustic soda and water are combined completely. When both
ingredients reach the required temperature, they are combined. When the mixture becomes the desired
consistency, it is poured into a mould. The bars are then removed from the mould after setting
up(approximately24 to 48 hours). They are restacked and allowed to “cure” or dry until it becomes
hard. Note, the rate of drying is depending on the formular.

Effect of Alkalis

The type of alkali metal used determines the kind of soap produced. Sodium soap prepare from sodium
hydroxide are firm whereas potassium soap derived from potassium hydroxide are softer or often
liquid. Lithium soaps also tend to be hard – these are used exclusively in greases.

Effect of fats

Soaps are derivative of fatty acids. Traditionally they have been made from triglycerides (oils and
fats). Triglyceride is the chemical name for the triesters of fatty acids and glycerin. Sodium tallowate a
commonly pet name is the technical term for soap derived from tallow i.e. rendered beef fat and
sodium hydroxide. Typical vegetable oils used in soap making are palm oil, coconut oil and olive oil.

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The seed oils give softer but milder soaps. Soap made from pure olive oil sometime called castile soap
or Marseille soap and is reputed for extra mildness. The term Castile is also sometime applied to soap
from a mixture of oil, but a high percentage of olive oil, almost any vegetable or animal sourced oil is
saponifiable. Some other fats and oils commonly used in soap making include palm kernel oil, cotton
seed oil, cocoa butter, hemp oil and Shea butter to produced different properties. For example, olive
oil provides mildness, while coconut oil and palm kernel oil provide hardness and good lathering
properties. Smaller amounts of saponifiable oils and fats that do not yield soap are sometimes added
for their special properties.

SIMPLE FLOW CHART OF SOAP PRODUCTION PROCESS

Saponification : Fat and oil + Caustic soda solution

|
Homogenizing: soda ash, sodium silicate, sodium sulphate
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Conditioning: Colour, Fragrance
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Finishing : Cutting into sizes
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Packagin

There are three keys to successful soap making

1. Accurately weighed ingredients

2. A good formula
3. Proper technique

PROPERTIES OF A GOOD SOAP

1. It must be clear in colour

2. It must irritate or have adverse effect on the skin
3. It should posses good lathering and cleaning property
4. It should be firm when pressed with water
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5. It should be granular when broken.
6. It should possess laundry quality (i.e. the purpose of manufacture of purchase)
7. The surface should be dry when stored for a long time.
8. It must have the ability to remove stains and dust.

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GENERAL EQUIPMENT/MATERIALS USED IN SOAP AND DETERGENT PRODUCTION

 One large stainless steel mixing bowl (the larger the better). This greatly reduces the amount of
splatter leaving the bowl during mixing process.
 Hydrometer
 Measuring cylinder
 Reactors
 Beakers
 Litmus paper/pH meter
 Stirrer/Agitator
 Heat resistance container to mix caustic soda and water. Note: Using a large container may
result in rapid heat loss and temperature not reaching their goal.
 A container to heat oils, using stainless steel pot for stove and microwave-safe container for
microwave.
 Soap moulds: plastic, cardboard, or wood
 Protective wear: long sleeved shirt, shoes (no bare feet), glasses and rubber gloves. A bottle of
vinegar or any oil nearby to neutralize caustic soda spills
 Weighing balance for large mass
 Electronic or Digital scale, accurate to at least two grams
 Measuring spoon, pot holders, oven mitts, and plastic spatulas
 Thermometer made of glass and stainless steel(having two works better, one for the caustic
soda and one for the oil)

Raw Materials and Additives Used for Soap Production

The major raw materials for soap manufacture are fat and alkali. Other substances, such as additives,
builders, optical brighteners, water softeners, and abrasives, are often added to obtain specific
characteristics.

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FAT AND OIL.
Originally, all soap was made from animal fats-mainly lard from pigs and tallow from cattle. It was
readily available and at a time no one questioned the use of animal by- products. Over time, new oils
were extracted from vegetables, grains and nuts providing an alternative to animal oils. Vegetable
oil soaps are chemically superior and can be of higher quality than soaps made with animal fats.
Vegetable oils are more readily absorbed by skin while animal oils have been found to clog pores and
aggravate certain skin conditions, such as eczema

Fatty raw materials for soap manufacture include animal and vegetable oils and fats or fatty acids, as
well as by-products of the cellulose and paper industry, such as rosin and oil. Four groups of these raw
materials can be distinguished according to the properties of the soap products they yield:

1. Hard fats yielding slow – lathering soaps include tallow, garbage greases, hydrogenated high –
melting – point marine and vegetable oils, and palm oil. These fats yield soaps that produce
little lather in cold water, more in warm water; are mild on the skin; and cleanse well. This is
the leading group of fats used in the international soap industry, with tallow the most important
member.
2. Hard fats yielding quick – lathering soap include coconut oil, palm – kernel oil, and babassu
oil. (Palm kernel oil is extracted from the kernel of the fruit of the oil palm, whereas palm oil,
listed above in 1, is expressed from the pericarp or outer fleshy portion of the fruit). These fats
are not very sensitive to electrolytes, such as salt; thus, they are suitable for manufacture of
marine soap, which must lather in seawater. This is the second most important group of soap
fats, with coconut oil the most used.
3. Oils yielding soaps of soft consistency, such as olive oil, soya bean oil, and groundnut (peanut)
oil, are most important here, and linseed and whale oils also belong to the group, as do some
semidrying or drying oils. Because these oils readily undergo changes in air or light or during
storage, soap made from them may become rancid and discoloured.
4. Rosin and tall oil (a resinous by-product of the manufacture of chemical wood pulp) form a
group in themselves. Rosin is used in laundry soap, less expensive toilet soaps, and specialty
soaps in various industries. Tall oil is mainly used in liquid soap

ALKALI
Various types of alkali used in soap production include the following
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 1. Wood ash
2. Sodium hydroxide
3. Potassium hydroxide

Sodium hydroxide is employed as the saponification alkali for soap now produced. Soaps can also
be manufactured with potassium hydroxide (caustic potash) as the alkali. Potassium soaps are
soluble in water than sodium soap; in concentrated form, they are called soft soap. Although soft
soaps are declining in importance, potassium soap is still produced in various liquid concentrations
for use in combination with sodium soap in shaving products and in the textile industry.

BUILDERS
They are almost universally present in laundry soaps, functioning to increase detergency. The most
important are:
Sodium silicate (water glass); it acts as anti-oxidizing agent to protect rancidity; it improves the
smoothness, transparency and hardness of the soap.
Sodium carbonates (soda ash), Na2CO3
Sodium sulphate (Na2SO4)
Sulphonic acid; it acts as foaming agent
Industrial salt: it is used for salting out in production of solid soaps.
Sodium perborate, and other phosphates.

Abrasives / Fillers: Water – insoluble minerals such as kaolin, industrial starch talc, clay, common
starch, chalk, magnesium, diatomaceous earth, silica, marble, volcanic ash (pumice), chalk, feldspar,
quartz, and sand are often powdered and added to soap or synthetic detergent formulations. Abrasives
of an organic nature, such as sawdust, are also used. The most commonly used in industries and readily
available in our environment today and known to most people are kaolin and industrial starch. Fillers
are used to add weight to soaps and they increase the bulkiness of the soap and hence reduce the
production cost.

SOLID SOAP PRODUCTION

In production of soap hot caustic alkali solution, such as caustic soda (sodium hydroxide), acts on
natural fats or oils, such as tallow or vegetable oil, to produce sodium fatty acid salt (soap) and

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glycerine (or glycerol). This saponification reaction is the basis for all soap – making. If industrially
produced fatty acids are used in place of natural fats or oils, the reaction with caustic soda will yield
soap and water instead of soap and glycerine.

Preparation of Solution for Solid/Bar Soap Production

Caustic soda (NaOH)

Measure a known one (1) volume of caustic soda (NaOH) and dissolve in three (3) equal
volume of water and stir continuously for about 5-10 minutes until it forms a clear solution and
allow it to cool, after which you will keep it in a safe place for about 24hrs for proper
fermentation.

:
250ml
250ml 250ml 250ml
caustic
Caustic soda (powder) 1: 3water

Bulk = caustic 1 + water 3

Caustic Soda Solution

Standardizing caustic soda solution

Caustic soda solution is standardized using an instrument called hydrometer. The hydrometer is
suspended in the caustic soda solution after fermentation and allowed to float so that the reading can be
taken. The reading taken on the hydrometer is to know if the specific gravity of caustic soda solution is
adequate for the production. The adequate hydrometer reading should be between 1250 and 1275g/cm 3
for soap production, but for detergent 1300g/cm3 can also be tolerated.

Soda Ash (Na2CO3)

Measure a known one (1) volume of Soda ash (Na 2CO3) and dissolve in two (2) equal volume of water
and stir continuously for about 5-10 minutes and allow it to cool, after which you will keep it in a safe
place for about 24hrs for proper fermentation.

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250g 250ml 250ml
 :
Soda Ash (dry) 1. : 2 water

Bulk = soda ash 1 + water 2

Several techniques are employed in making soap, most of which involves heat. Processes employed in
soap making can be either continuous or on a batch basis.

FORMULATIONS FOR PRODUCTION OF SOAP

SOLID/BAR SOAP FORMULATION

Basis: 3600 grams bulk of Raw materials (cold Process Method)

NB: builder, Additives, fragrance, Dye, etc, will account for 15 to 20% of the total bulk of product.

P.k.O or Tallow or soya bean oil, or palm oil, etc. : 2000ml

Caustic Soda solution : 1000ml

Soda Ash solution : 500ml

Sodium Sulphate Solution : 500ml

Kaolin : 100grams

Sodium Silicate : 100ml

Colourant : To taste

Perfume : To taste

NB: this formulation can be scaled – up to a higher or smaller quantity depending on the bulk of the
raw materials you are using.

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BASIC PRODUCTION METHODS/PROCESSES FOR BAR/SOLID SOAP.

Cold process method

One of the most common mistakes soap makers make is not weighing ingredients carefully this is a
crucial step. Make sure you use an accurate digital scale/weighing balance to weigh your oils and the
caustic soda.

It is a good idea when making soap for the first time to make small batches in order to learn as you
continue.

1. The oil phase: gently heat oils using one of these two methods:
Stove method: use a stainless steel pot on the stove. Be careful not to burn oils.
Microwave Method: use a microwave – safe container for your oils. Heat for 1 minute the
required temperature for heat the oil as about 40 – 550c.
2. The caustic soda / water phase: pour room temperature distilled water (recommended, but
your also use any other neat water) (amount specified by formula) into a clean vessel (heat -
resistant) 3 cup size measuring cup. While stirring, slowly add one (1) cup size of caustic soda.
3. Pour the hot oil a large mixing bowl: use a plastic spatula to get all the oil out of the
measuring cup. When both oil phase and caustic soda/water phase have reached their required
temperatures, slowly pour the caustic soda / water mixture into the oil mixture while stirring in
rapid, small circles on the ration 2:1 for the oil and caustic soda solution respectively.
Note: always add caustic soda/water to oil, not the other way around continue to stir this
mixture even after you have finished combining the two parts.
4. Stir the soap mixture until it “traces”. This is a term to describe the consistency or thickness,
and the stage where the soap mixture is ready to pour into moulds. Tracing is easily recognized.
Using a plastic spatula, drizzle a small amount across the top of the soap mixture. If a mark or
trail remains for a few seconds before disappearing again, your soap has traced. The mixture
should be the consistency of liquid honey or pudding before it’s poured. If your soap takes a
little longer than normal, don’t worry – just keep stirring and it will eventually traced.
Tracing time for formulas can vary greatly; affected by room temperatures, humidity levels,
and the speed of stirring. The tracing times for most formulas are based on normal room
temperatures 20o to 23o C and average humidity levels.
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5. After the soap traces, you can add your own herbs and essential oils. Do not use perfume,
synthetic fragrances, or extracts of any kind as the alcohol content may interfere with the soap
making process.
6. After adding any additional ingredients, pour your soap mixture into the mould. Place a piece
of clear plastic wrap on top to create an air barrier. Cover your mould with a blanket or towel
and place in a warm location away from drafts and children’s reach. Let set undisturbed for the
specified moulding time as stated in the formula for your oil blend. Moulding tip: Grease your
mould with vegetable shortening for ease of release later. Wear gloves during clean up and use
hot water and dish soap to remove all residue from equipment.
7. When removing soap from the mould, wear gloves to protect your hands. The soap may be
slightly caustic at this stage and can irritate your skin. Gently press the back of the mould. You
may find twisting the mould slightly works as well – same technique as removing ice from
cube trays. Use a large knife to cut your soap into desired size bars. (Note: colour may fade in
soap placed in the freezer)
8. After soap has been cut into bars, place them on a piece of wax paper or plastic wrap in a cool,
dry dark place to cure or age. This time is necessary for the moisture to evaporate. Using the
soap prematurely will lead to a spongy bar that may not lather or last very long. Wait for at
least three weeks before finishing your bars (see section on finishing) after your bars have had a
chance to dry or cure they will be able to withstand some rough handling.

Within ½ hour of pouring your soap into the mould you should notice it becoming hotter and
turning dark in the middle. It can become quite dark and somewhat transparent. Bubbles may also
come to the surface. This is a sign that your soap is properly neutralizing. It should stay hot like
this for several hours before cooling and becoming light in colour again. Soap that is not properly
insulated, cooled too much during tracing, poured into too small a mould, or with initial
temperature too low may not completely neutralize.

Semi – boiling method

In the semi boiling method, the fat is placed in the kettle and alkali solution is added while the
mixture is stirred and heated but not boiled. The mass saponifies in the kettle and is poured from
there into frames, where it solidifies. Because these methods are technically simple and because
they required very little investment for, they are ideal for small factors.
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Boiling process/method
It is widely used by small and medium – sized producers, is the classical boiling process. Its objective
is to produce neat soap in purified condition, free from glycerine. Neat soap is the starting material for
making bars, flakes, beads, and powders. The boiling process is conducted in a series of steps called
changes; these occur in the kettle (called the pan in Great Britain). In the first step, melted fats are
placed in the kettle, and caustic soda solution is added gradually. The whole mass is then boiled with
open steam from perforated coils within the kettle. The saponification reaction now takes place; the
mass gradually thickens or emulsifies as the caustic soda reacts with the fats to produce both soap and
glycerine.

To separate the glycerine from the soap, the pasty boiling mass is treated with brine. Contents of the
kettle salt out, or separate, into an upper layer that is a curdy mass of impure soap and a lower layer
that consists of an aqueous salt solution with the glycerine dissolved in it. Thus the basis of glycerine
removal is the solubility of glycerine and the insolubility of soap in salt solution. The slightly salt
solution, termed spent caustic soda, is extracted from the bottom of the pan or kettle and subsequently
treated for glycerine recovery.

The grainy, curdy mass of soap remaining in the kettle after the spent caustic soda has been removed
contains unsaponified fat (usually traces that escaped reaction during saponification) plus dirt and
colouring matter present in the original oils. During the next step called strong change, strong caustic
solution is added to the mass, which is then boiled to remove the last of the free fat.

The final stage, called pitching and settling, transforms the mass into neat soap and removes dirt and
colouring matter. After the strong change, the soap may be given one or more saltwater washes to
remove free alkali, or it may be pitched directly. Pitching involves boiling the mass with added water
until a concentration is attained that causes the kettle contents to separate into two layers. The upper
layer is neat soap, sometimes called kettle soap, of almost constant composition for a given fat (about
70 percent soap, 30 percent water); the lower, called nigre, varies soap content from 15 percent to 40
percent. Since colouring matter, dirt, salt, alkali, and metal soap are soluble in nigre but relatively
insoluble in soap, and since most of the impurities are dense and tend to settle, the nigre layer takes
these from the neat soap.

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Continuous Saponification process/method (the hydrolyzer process)

The boiling process is very time consuming, settling takes days. To produce soap in large quantity,
huge kettle must be used. For this reason, continuous soap making has largely replaced the old boiling
process. Most continuous processes today employ fatty acids in the saponification reaction in
preference to natural fats and oils. These acids do not contain impurities and as explained at the
beginning of this section, produce water instead of glycerin when they react with alkali. Hence, it is not
necessary to remove impurities or glycerin from soap produced with fatty acids. Furthermore, control
of the entire process is easier and more precise. The fatty acids are proportional fed into the
saponification system either by flowmeter or by metering pump; final adjustment of the mixture is
usually made by use of a pH meter (to test acidity and alkalinity) and conductivity- measuring
instruments.

FINISHING OPERATIONS IN BAR SOAP PRODUCTION

Finishing operations transformed the hot mass coming from the boiling pan or from continuous
production equipment into the end product desired. For laundry soap, the soap mass is cooled in frames
or cooling presses, cut to size, and stamped. If soap flakes, usually transparent and very thin, are to be
the final product, the soap mass is extruded into ribbons, dried and cut to size. For toilet soap, the mass
is treated with perfumes, colours, or super fatting agents, is vacuum dried then is cooled and solidified.
The dried solidified soap is homogenized (often by milling or crushing) in stages to produce various
degrees of fineness. Air can be introduced under pressure into the warm soap mass as it leaves the
vacuum drier to produce a floating soap. Medicated soaps are usually toilet soap with special additives
– chlorinated phenol, xylenol derivatives, and similar compounds – added to give a deodorant and
disinfectant effect.

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LIQUID SOAP PRODUCTION

Kettle process
Because of the moisture content of a natural liquid soap, they can be susceptible to rancidity. Keep
your liquid soap in a cool dry place and in an air tight bottle, preferably with a pump or flip top to
dispense your soap.

1. Follow the procedure for making soap as specified in the formula for making a neat soap
2. After you have removed your soap from a simple mould, shave, shred or chop the soap into
small pieces.
3. Place one cup shredded soap in a double – boiler and add 3 cups of water. Stir continually on
medium heat until melted. Note: soap may not completely melt. There may be small pieces that
do not break down, simply strain them out.
4. When all the soap has melted it should be very runny. If not add an extra cup of water.
5. Add four tablespoons of vegetable Glycerine and ½ tsp. of grapefruit seed extract or formalin
or STPP (sodium tripolyphosphate) to help preserve your liquid soap. You may also add any
essential oil (perfume) to scent before pouring your liquid soap into bottles. Try adding 6 – 10
drops per 500ml. your liquid soap should have a shelf life of approximately 6 – 8months.

LIQUID SOAP FORMULATION

Direct method/ cold process

Basis: 15,000ml of water

125grams of Nitrosol

100grams of caustic soda

125grams of Sodium Tripolyphosphate or 50ml of formalin (preservative)

100grams of soda ash

130grams of Texapon

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1000ml of Sulphonic acid

Colourant/Dye to taste

Perfume to taste.

NB: this formulation can also be scaled – up to a higher or smaller quantity depending on the bulk of
the raw materials you are using

Procedure

This involves addition of reagents direct into the basic solvent (water) that is used in soap production.
To produce your liquid soap by this method;

Note: Refer to the basis / formulation for this method.

1. Add water into a reactor / vessel

2. Add a specified quality of your thickener in to your reactor
3. Add caustic soda pellets
4. Add soda ash
5. Add formalin or STPP (sodium Tri - polyphosphate)
6. Add Texapon
7. Add Sulphonic acid
8. Add Dye / Colorant to taste
9. Add perfume to taste
10. Continue to stir until homogeneity is achieved, then allow it to settle after which you package
for use or sale.

PRESERVATIVE A
preservative is defined as something that protects against decomposition. However, nature has its own
agenda and decay is inevitable. There are no preservatives, synthetic or natural, that can completely
stop this process – they can only slow it down. Oxidation occurs within fats/oils which cause rancidity
and spoilage to occur. Carrot oil, vitamin E oil, and grapefruit seed extract are three natural
(ORGANIC) preservatives that are mostly recommended. They contain powerful anti-oxidants such as
17
vitamin A, E and C, which can help prevent spoilage. STPP (sodium Tri-polyphosphate), formalin etc.
are some of the (INORGANIC) preservative used in some industries.

Essential oils or perfumes are defined as: highly concentrated essences extracted from portions of the
plant.” They have been valued and used throughout history for their therapeutic and scent qualities.
You can add a wide variety of essential oils to your soap as long as they are considered safe. Essential
oils are highly concentrated and are extremely powerful. Some are beneficial while others can be
harmful. It is best to research on oil before using it to: a) determine the safety of the oil, and b) ensure
that the oil(s) are compatible with your body type. For the soap maker, the only oils that have a habit of
causing some problems (if added in high volume) are the citrus oils. They can disrupt the soap making
process causing the soap to curdle. Limit these oils to no more than 2 tablespoons (30ml) per 700g
batch

DIAGONISING SIGN OF TROUBLE IN SOAP

1. Troubles in Mixing Bowl

 If your mixture does not trace after the time listed in the formula passes: You may have one
of the following problems: incorrect temperature, stirring too slowly, or too much water.
Make sure you get all the oil blend and caustic soda out of their containers. Measure water
accurately to ensure the correct amount used, stir mixture smoothly and consistently. The
perfect blend kit should trace within 45 minutes.
 If your mixture suddenly begins to streak: Your temperatures may have been too much. If
your soap still traces then quickly pour into moulds.
 If your mixture suddenly begins to curdle in the bow: synthetic fragrances may cause this.
 If small chunks form in the bowl while mixing: Your oils, caustic soda, or both may have
been poured too hot, or you are stirring inconsistently or too slowly. Soap mixture may still
trace but this mixture is unsuitable, leading to poor soap quality. Test after un-moulding
 If your mixture becomes, or is slightly grainy: Temperatures were either too low or too
high, or your stirring wasn’t brisk and consistent. Maintaining temperature is very
important for soap making. If your soap batch is split up poured into small mould after
tracing, it may lose temperature too quickly and not completely neutralize.

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 Trouble Signs in Finished Soap
 If your soap cracks or breaks when un-moulded or when being cut: you may have added
too much dry ingredients, or traced your soap batch too long.
 If your soap has a thin layer of white on the surface: your soap mixture has reacted to the
oxygen in the air. This is only an aesthetic problem, refer to step #6 in the cold process
method section to avoid this next time.
 If your soap has hard, shiny chunks of solid caustic soda, the rest soap is soft with a
slippery liquid on the bottom: your soap may have been poured into the mould before it had
traced, or you stirred too slowly or inconsistently. Do not use these bars, they will irritate
the skin.
 If you see air bubbles in your soap: You may have stirred too quickly, or too long
 If your soap has an excessive amount of white powder on top of the bars is cakey, or
crumbly: Hard water may have been used to dissolve the caustic soda. You should not use
these bars, as they may irritate your skin. Be sure to use only distilled water in the future.

19
 DETERGENT

Detergent simply means any substance which has ability to cleanse an object. But a scientist also
defined detergent as chemical formulation which essentially consist of a surface active agent,
surfactants and emulsifier which penetrates and break up the oily firm that bind dirt particles and as a
wetting agent subsidiary constituents such as booster, builders fillers etc. it contains an alkaline
‘builders’ which helps to bind the dissolved metal ions and support emulsification (i.e. the breaking
down of fats). It also has a wetting agent, which helps them to float off. The builder includes soda ash
or sodium carbonate, which increase the quantity of the detergent. The builders help in improving the
cleansing performance of detergent. Detergent is an emulsifier molecule, which has an oil-like non
polar portion which is drawn into the oil and a polar group that is water soluble by bridging the oil-
water interface. The emulsifier helps in breaking the oil into dispersible droplets through the process of
emulsion. Many additives are used in detergents to produce aesthetic appeal such as fluorescent
brightening agents, perfume, colourant and bleaching agents. For a time, enzymes which cleave to
protein molecules (proteolytic) or fats (lipolytic), were widely used as additives, but they do not
significantly add cleansing action.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF DETERGENT

Historically, synthetic detergents sometime termed syndents are surfactants which decrease the
surface tension of water and help in penetrating soil.

Soap, the sodium salt of long – chain fatty acids was the principal detergent until superseded in 1954
by synthetic detergent (syndents) which unlike soap, do not form insoluble products with the calcium
in hard water. This syndent was introduced early 20th century in United State of America the
consumption then was very little. It gets to sometimes early 1970 when there was a great yield in the
consumption of this product. Synthetic detergents thus have a place among the most successful
industrial development of modern chemical technology. Most syndents are of the anion type that is
sodium salts of alkyl sulphate or sulfonates which contain a chain of 7 – 8 carbon atoms.

20
Types of detergent

Detergent are divided into two main types

1. Soapless detergent
2. Soapy detergent

Soapless Detergent
Soapless detergents are formed by sulphonation reaction i.e. action of alkyl benzenes with
oleum to give akyl benzenesuphonic acid which is then neutralized with caustic soda to the
sodium salt. Soapless detergent is also referred to as a synthetic detergent or simple detergent.
The most widely detergent are the alkyl benzene sulphonate (ABS) like the soaps, they are
sodium salts of an acid.

Manufacture of a soapless detergent

A more recent use of sulphuric acid is in the production of soapless detergents. These are
detergents that can be used more effectively than soap in hard water areas, are fairly cheap to
make and are gradually replacing soaps.
The general process involves the reaction of a long, straight-chain alkene, such as dodecene,
with benzene.
Benzene + dodecene --------------> dodecylbenzene
C6H6(l) + CH3(CH2)9CH=CH2(l) ---------->C6H5(CH2)11CH3(l)
The molecular formular of dodecylbenzene is C18H30. This compound is then reacted with
concentrated sulphuric acid to give a compound that is known as a sulphonic acid.
C18H30(l) + H2SO4(l) -----------> C18H29SO3H(aq) + H2O(l)
Finally, this is reacted with the alkali sodium hydroxide, NaOH.
Dodecylbenzene sulphonic acid + sodium hydroxide --------> sodium dodecylbenzene

sulphonate + water.
C18H29SO3H(aq)+NaOH(aq)----------->C18H29SO3-Na+(aq)+H2O
(soapless detergent)

21
 Soapless detergents such as these are to be found in most washing powders.

Soapy Detergent

Soapy detergent or soaps are the sodium salts of fatty acid. Their production process is based on
alkaline hydrolysis reaction (saponification) products of fats and soap.

The processes involves in the manufacturing of detergent are of two types. They are;

a) Local Process
b) Industrial Process

The commonest detergent containing alkyl benzene sulphate made from a polymer of propene by a
fried craft’s reaction. The continuous flowchart can be split into the following co-ordinate sequences:-

a) SULPHONATION: the alkyl benzene is introduced continuously into the sulphonation with
the required amount of oleum using the dominant bath principle to show how to control the best
of sulphonation conversion and maintain the temperatures of about 130 0F. The mixture is fed
into the fatty alcohol and more of the oleum. All are pumped through the temperature at 120 0F
to 1300F, thus manufacturing a mixture of surfactants.
b) NEUTRALIZATION: The sulfonated sulphate is neutralized with NaOH solution under
controlled temperature to maintain fluidity of the surfactant slurry.
The surfactant slurry, the sodium tripolyphosphate, and most of the miscellaneous additives of
the water are removed; the paste is thickened by the tripolyphosphate hydration reaction

Sodium tripolyphosphate, sodium tripolyphosphate hexahydrate. This mixture is pumped to an upper

story high spray furnace where it is spray under high pressure into the SO-PT- high spray furnace.
Here are formed d ried granules of acceptable shape and size and suitable density. The dried granules
are sent to an upper store again by air, which is cooled at 2400F and stabilizes the granules. The
granules are separated in cyclone creamed, perfumed and packed.

PRINCIPLE OF CLEANSING ACTION OF DETERGENT

22
 Detergent and soap are functionally similar. They dissolve or tend to dissolve in water and also
in non-aqueous materials under certain conditions. In order to achieve this dual function, they have to
be grouped into their molecular structures.

(1) A hydrophobic or water – hating group which makes these compounds soluble in oil.
(2) A hydrophilic or water – attracting group which makes these compounds soluble in H2O.

When such a compound is added to water containing some oil orientation molecules of surfactants
occurs in such a way that hydrophilic group goes into the water whereas the hydrophobic group
dissolves in oil or other hydrocarbon material such as dirt.

As a result of this, the interfacial tension between water and oil is reduced when such a mixture is
shaken, an emulsion is generated.

The cleansing action of a detergent includes the following.

(1) Thoroughly wetting the dirt and the surface of the article being washed.
(2) Maintaining the dirt in a stable solution or suspension when washing is done with a detergent,
the detergent increases the wetting ability of the water so that it can easily penetrate the fabrics
and get into the location of the soil, followed by soil removal.

GROUPING OF DETERGENTS

Grouping of detergent was due to the ionization, which occurs when some water soluble surface are
actively being dissolved in water whereas there are some which cannot ionize. In this case, they are
divided into anionic, non-ionic and cationic.

ANIONIC

Anionic surfactants consists those substances, which the surface active properties are resided in the
anionic. This class involves many different types of sulphates and others which are best for water
absorption fibre such as cotton wool and silk. They can be exemplified by soap in which its solution
yielding a simple action. Example is Na+ and surface active carboxylate anion (RCOO-).

CATIONIC
23
These are surfactants, that is, surface active agents which include amine salts, quaternary ammonium
compounds (NRS4-) +X- and various other nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous bases. In most cases they
are more or less important as detergents than as wetting agent and act as a germicidal. Some
compounds of these types are used as “softeners” for textiles and paper. They are very costly. They are
also used as emulsifying agent for asphalt on the surface of roads.

NON – IONIC ACTIVE AGENT These

contain groupings which are hydroxyl example is phenol or alcohol with ethylene oxide or propylene
oxide. Detergent polyethers are made by joining ethylene oxide with a 12 carbon lauryl alcohol
obtained from tail oil waste product from the industry. They are used for water repelling “permanent
press” fabrics and low foaming property is desirable for automatic washers.

ADVANTAGES OF DETERGENT OVER SOAP

1). Detergent has less ability to form scum in water than soap

2). It is more active than soap in comparatively low concentration.

3). It is an excellent foaming agent.

4). Detergent can be used to wash dishes, walls and floors.

5). It can be used in textile processing industry.

6). It can be used in hard water.

7). It has germicidal and bactericidal properties.

PROPERTIES OF DETERGENT

1.) It decreases the surface tension of water

2.) It has ability to penetrate soiled area better than soap
3.) Detergent has ability to clean effectively in all kinds of water.
4.) The “builders” in detergent help in controlling minerals in hard water.
5.) Detergents do not leave any deposit that interferes with the drying of fabrics.

USES OF DETERGENT

24
 1.) It can be used to shampoo hair.
2.) Detergent can be used for washing dishes and laundry, scrubbings of floors.
3.) Cotton silk and wool fabrics are washed with detergents before made into clothing.
4.) It is used in industries as cleaners, lubricants, softeners and polishers.
5.) Detergents are used as emulsifies (i.e. breaking down of fats).

RAW MATERIALS FOR MANUFACTURING DETERGENT

Most of the raw materials for the production of detergents involve the following sub-headings:

1. Oils
2. Alkalis
3. Colourant
4. Acid
5. Perfumes
6. Builders

Oil

Palm kernel oil (P.K.O) is being made use of in the production of detergent. This oil is
produced locally by using traditional techniques. It is produced from palm kernel. It is very useful in
the production of detergent. In the production of soap, it also performs the same function. The colour
could be black or light yellow depending on the method of production either by roasting or by boiling
methods respectively.They are used for the manufacture of detergents and marine soap.

ALKALIS

This can be discussed in various sub groups.

(a) Sodium sulphate: - help to increase detergency of the detergent and also act as filler.
(b) Caustic soda (sodium hydroxide):- commercially caustic soda is fibrous and looks creamy. It
absorbs moisture and carbonic acid from air to form carbonate because of the hydroscopic
property and because of its moisture absorption, it must not be exposed to air. It is very
corrosive to skin and aluminum container. It should also be handled with care due to its nature.
25
 (c) Ammonia solution: - it contains germicidal and bactericidal properties, it changes a soap
solution into powdery form and serves as a disinfectant in household cleaning.
(d) Soda ash (Sodium Carbonate): is one of the inorganic materials (alkalis) that increase the
lathering ability of detergent. It is also an inexpensive source of alkali.

COLOURANT

Colour is very important in detergents production. Colour is added to make it more attractive and bring
out fine outlook. There are different kinds of colours and its choice depends on the manufacturers taste
and market demand. The colour must be able to meet the purpose of the consumers.

ACIDS

A) Sulphonic Acid – they are hardly acidic, water soluble, non-volatile and hydroscopic and they
do not behave as an oxidizing agent (-So3H). They also help to boost the foaming property of
detergent.

B) Hydrogen peroxide: - hydrogen peroxide is used as an oxidizing agent, when it is added to any
powerful oxidizing agent, it is forced to act as a reducing agent. It is also used as a bleaching agent and
photography. In medical line, hydrogen peroxide is useful in cleansing would and cuts. It is also used
in the preparation of antiseptics.

PERFUMES

Perfumes are compound extracted from plant and other odorous substances. Perfumes are important
since some of the oils and fats used in the production of detergent produce unpleasant odour so as to
improve the odour to suit taste. Perfumes are added at low temperature because they are volatile at
high temperature, perfumes vary in term of cost, and those used in industries are very expensive
compared to those used at homes.

BUILDERS

In detergent production, building agent increases the quantity and detergency of the powder detergent.
The builders are always added in small quantity. These builders include kaolin which is used to

26
increase the detergent without affecting the chemical properties of the detergent. It improves
smoothness of the finished product. They support emulsification of sodium or polyphosphate.

PRODUCTION OF DETERGENT

In the first instance, several complicated processes are used in making detergent. These
surfactants can be made from a variety of starting materials. There are many processes that involved
in making detergent with various materials into surfactant such as alcohol, hydrogen gas, sulphonic
acid and alkali. Perfumes are also mixed with the surfactant. Detergent was then mixed and made into
granules flakes and finally into powdery form.

PROCRDURE INVOLVED IN PRODUCTION OF DETERGENT

In detergent production, sodium salt of sulphate fatty alcohol with builder, perfume and some other
reagents give detergent. This involves the reaction of detergent formed by sulphonation of alkyl
benzene with oleum, to give alkyl benzene sulphonic acid which then neutralizes with caustic soda to
produce the sodium salt.

Moreover, detergent is very important in the area of cleaning mostly on oily or any materials, which
are extra ordinarily dirty in which soap may not have ability to clean.

Required Materials

a) Plastic containers
b) Stirring rod
c) Measuring cylinder
d) Drying machine, oven sun
e) Clay pot
f) Grinding machine (mortar and pestle)
g) Heater
h) Nylon
i) Sealing machine
j) Mould
k) Hydrometer
27
Chemicals Required

a) Caustic soda (NaOH) or sodium hydroxides is a base chemical

b) Hydrogen peroxide: Bleaching agent
c) Sodium sulphate (Na2So4): increases the quantity and acts as a foaming agent.
d) Kaolin: it is a builder
e) Sulphonic Acid: it is also a foaming agent.
f) Ammonia solution: turn solution to powdery form.
g) Perfume
h) Colourant

PREPARATION OF THE CHEMICALS

Sodium hydroxide solution: - Dissolve 1 cup of caustic soda in three cups of water and determine the
specific gravity of the solution with hydrometer, in which the value must be between the given
range(1.250-1.275g/cm3) and ferment it for atleast 24hours.

Soda ash + sodium sulphate + kaolin solution (optional): Dissolve one cup of soda ash, one-sixth
cup of kaolin, one eight cup of sodium sulphate in four cups of water and ferment it for 24hours. The
hydrometer reading must be in the range above.

METHOD OF MANUFACTURE OF DETERGENT USING PALM KERNEL OIL (P.K.O)

Switch on the heating system. Put the pot on the heating system, measure 3 litres of palm kernel oil
into the pot and heat. Add the colourant to taste, allow it to mix properly with P.K.O by stirring with
the stirring rod, gradually add 1167ml of sodium hydroxide solution to the mixture and heat properly.
After that, add 664ml of soda ash + sodium sulphate, + kaolin solution, also add 33ml of sulphonic
acid one after the other. Intensify the heating rate, add 56ml of ammonia solution, 83ml of hydrogen
peroxide. After that, add perfume to taste, ensure that the mixture is heated intensively until the
moisture in the soap dried off. Put off the heating system and take the product to the drying machine
for drying after drying, take the product to the grinding machine for grinding and then package it.

28
 SHAMPOO

Shampoo is the most commonly used product on hair and scalp which is of many different
formulations marketed on basis of consumer specific concerns such as hair manageability, dandruff,
psoriasis etc. Shampoos are typically composed of 10 to 30 ingredients although product with as few
as four ingredients are available likewise product with more than 30 ingredients .Among these
ingredients are surfactants that aid cleansing and lathering, conditioner and active ingredients that
affect hair and additives that stabilize the product likewise modify the effect of surfactant. Some
shampoos are acidic and others are alkaline in nature. The pH is measured on the scale of 1-14, taking
number 7 as neutral and any number less than 7 is acidic.

DEFINITION
Shampoo are cleaning formulation made up primarily of chemicals called surfactants that have ability
to surround materials on surfaces and allow them to be rinsed away by water. Shampoo is the hair care
product used for removal of oils, dirt, skin particles, environmental pollutant and other contaminants
that gradually build up in hair. In general terms, shampoo is simply detergent used to remove excess
dirt and skin debris from the hair known as sebum leaving hair manageable. Shampoo is also special
soap which can be of powdery form or in solution containing substance of soap molecules.

The primary ingredient of shampoo is the detergent either from an organic soap or a synthetic. In most
cases, the cleaning agent in shampoo dissolved in a liquid such that the liquid solution is massaged into
wet hair and create lather that break up of deposited oil and dirt the lather is then rinsed from the hair
after a few minutes leaving the hair clean. Shampoo has a number of qualities that should be
considered before used such as how well a shampoo cleanse, fragrance that the shampoo leaves in hair
which contributes to the popularity of the shampoo, other factors often taken into account include how
shinning the shampoo makes the hair, possible irritation of the scalp, toxicity, price among others.
Modern shampoo is formulated using chemicals and fragrances that balance the ability to clean hair
with other factors including scalp irritation and special look. The chemical composition of modern
shampoo is far superior to that of soap based original.

SHAMPOO AND ITS COMPOSITION

Shampoos are combination of many chemicals and water. The general compositions of shampoo
are:

(A) Cleaning agents: - The prime ingredients in all shampoos are substances called surfactants
responsible for cleaning action and lathering properties. These agents are refer to as conditioning
agents containing ingredient that replace protective coating thereby determining hair condition after
shampooing. Surfactant has four major types which are anionic, cationic, nonionic and amphoteric.

Anionic surfactants carry a negative charge when ionized and provide a lot of lather detergency in
shampoo. The most commonly used anionic is sodium laureth sulphate and sodium lauryl sulphate.
29
Cationic surfactant carry positive charge when ionized used less frequently dew to their dangerous
threat to eyes if used in large quantities and not easily removed during the rinsing process with poly
quarternium-10 as most cationic conditioners.
Non-ionic surfactant has no charge to the molecule and it is used as cleaning agent but aid in solubility
and it include laureth-3or 4. While amphoteric
surfactant carries both positive and negative charge when ionized which is used for decreasing the
irritancy for formulation which increases active contents level of product and quality of lather
produced. Most amphoteric shampoos are used in baby shampoo because they are gentle and do not
burn eyes.

(B) Modify agents:- Shampoos contain far more components other than surfactant which are
functional ingredients added to shampoo to keep it uniformly mixed, thicken so that it is easier to
apply, pre vent the growth of bacteria and mold likewise preserve it to extend its shelf life. These
agents include emulsifying agent of glycol distearate which is a general purpose emulsifier and
emulsion stabilizer widely used as emollients and viscosity builder in the shampoo. This emulsifier act
by reducing interfacial between two phases of shampoo and water thereby forming a stable interfacial
firm as a result of its solubility in both fat and water enable fat in form of oily dirt on hair to be
uniformly dispersed in water as emulsion. Modify agent also consist of thickeners such as xanthan gum
as a stabilizer in the shampoo preventing shampoo ingredient from separating which is produced from
formulation of glucose, sucrose or lactose i. e simple sugar. The xanthan gum thickener used in
shampoo has ability to produce large increase in viscosity or shampoo by adding small quantity of
gum, also helps to prevent the oil from separating by stabilizing the emulsion though not an
emulsifier.

(C) Cosmetic ingredients:- Shampoo contain aesthetic ingredient that don’t affect how well the
shampoo cleans the hair but may make shampooing more pleasant or affect colour or fragrance of hair.
These additives include apearlising ingredients which add sparkle to the product which may leave a
faint glimmer on hair, colorant, and perfume to scent the shampoo and hair. Many shampoos contain
additional ingredients known as protectants such as sun scream which is most protectants additives
while other chemicals protect against heat damage from hair dryers or styling aids, chemical damage
from swimming pools or build up from styling products.

FORMS AND TYPES OF SHAMPOO

Shampoo is available in a variety forms. A classification according to product form would consist of
clear liquid, lotion, paste, gel, aerosol and dry products. Shampoo may be further differentiated by
specialized appeal that unusual component or combination of component may produce e.g. shampoo
for a particular hair or scalp condition, children’s or infant’s shampoo, shampoo for men etc.

(i). SOLID SHAMPOO: - These are as surfactant soap and other surfactants conveniently formulated
as solids. These shampoos have advantages of being spill-proof but they are easy to be applied because
one may simply rub the shampoo bars over wet hair and work the soaped hair into low lather.

30
(ii). LIQUID SHAMPOO: - Liquid soap, achieved almost instantaneous popularity because of ease of
application, rapidity of lathering and better rinse ability. Liquid soap shampoo are frequently based
potassium soap because of its greater solubility, usually the soap shampoos are protected with agent
such as poly phosphate or salt of ethylenediamine tetra acetic acid which hinder the formation of
insoluble calcium when ions are introduced through hard water. Liquid shampoos are made from
surfonated oils and promoted as oil shampoo. Mineral oil may be added to these formulations, since
the oil does not readily rinse out, it remains as dressing to hair.

(iii). CREAM PASTE AND GEL SHAMPOO: - Both are popular forms of shampoo with stiff
consistence allowing them to be package in jars or tubes. They must be thick enough to resist spillage
by clinging to the hand and yet readily dispersed through the hair upon application. Both cream and gel
shampoo form usually carry higher level of detergent and other activities than their liquid counterparts.
Soap jelly shampoo was formerly made at home by dissolving sodium soap in hot water before being
used to shampooing or other purposes.

(iv). AEROSOL AND DRY SHAMPOO:- These may be either aqueous liquid that form up as the
shampoo is released from the container or dry shampoos that are sprayed on the dry hair for the
waterless operation. The foaming aerosols are applied to the wet hair and upon application follow the
traditional pattern of lathering and rinsing. Aerosol shampoo may be packed in either glass bottle or
cans. Dry shampoos which are of powdered are designed to work without water which are typically
based on powder such as starch, silica, or tale and are intended to physically absorb excess sebum from
the hair before being brushed out. Those with dark hair may prefer to use brown powders such as
cocoa or carob powder.

(v). MEDICATED SHAMPOO: - This produces an antiseptic action to clear dandruff. The detergent
substance in shampoo is added in small proportion to give finish consistency, colour, foam effect,
clarity to preserve from mold growth and to give antibacterial action. Any of these can be chosen
depending on the ability of the shampoo to remove grease that binds particular dirt to the hair and
scalp. Many medicated shampoo come with conditioner as a part of the base formular. These
shampoos and conditioner combination produced replaced the need for two or more hair care products
with one.

(vi). LOTION SHAMPOO: - These form of shampoo usually promoted for conditioning action, it is
often claims that it leaves in an advantageous state. Some contains lanolin other dispersed egg powder
and many contain alkanolamines of higher fatty acids which are noted for their conditioning action.
The alkanolamine serves as solvents with hydroxyl and amino functional groups on an alkane
backbone.

TYPES OF SHAMPOO

(i). pH- BALANCE SHAMPOO: - This has a pH factor similar to that of one’s skin and hair. The pH
measured on a scale of 1-14 taken 7 as neutral any number greater than 7 is alkaline and less than is
acidic. The skin hair and scalp have pH between 4 and 6 due to the slightly acidic natural state as a
31
means of fighting infections. The pH balance shampoo brings hair back to right pH and balance it
back to proper pH it supposed to be at which it is either too high or low. It is applied after giving a
chemical service or if someone’s hair is damage and dry.

(ii). CONDITIONING SHAMPOO: - This is also called moisturizing shampoo, it improves the
manageability of the hair and makes the hair appear smooth and shinning. It also restores moisture,
elasticity, strengthens, adds volume and non-stripping which can be used on dry, brittle, color treated
or thick hair.

(iii). TWO IN ONE COLOUR ENHANCING SHAMPOO:- Two in one shampoo contain detergent to
clean hair and few drops of conditioner to moisturizing the hair, color enhancing shampoo is used to
brighten hair , add a limit of colour and eliminate unwanted color tones like brassiness or overly cool
strands. It can be used on people who want to enhance their hair colour.

(iv). HERBAL AND CLARIFYING SHAMPOO: - Herbal shampoo is available for all hair types from
dry to greasy. It contains extracts of plants and herbs which are beneficial to each hair type which
clarifying shampoo remove metal from hair like iron or copper which is used when someone has lot of
build up in hair after swimming and prior after all chemical activities.

(v). ANTI-DANDRUFF AND HAIRPIECE SHAMPOO:- Anti-dandruff shampoo contains chemicals

that slow down the cell multiplication that causes dandruff but can dry hair , it is therefore preferable
to use once a week alternating with an ordinary shampoo. Hairpiece and wig shampoos are shampoos
that are gently cleans without shedding hairpiece and can be used on all types of wigs and synthetic
hair.

HOW DIFFERENT TYPES OF SHAMPOO AFFECT DIFFERENT TYPES OF HAIR

Generally, the way the hair turn out depends on the type of shampoo one choose to use because the
ingredients that go into each different type of shampoo are chosen precisely for the way they would
affect the hair.

There are a lot of different shampoos but there is always one to best suit particular hair type.
The type of shampoo use is not the only factor in healthy, shiny, silky hair. There are a few other
factors that are involved in hair well-being which include hair type, hair style and lifestyle overall,
shampoo is not the only thing that affects one’s hair though it plays a major part. The way hair washed
and kind of shampoo use have impact on the hair and it is best to ensure that best routine and products
for specific hair are used to consistently be at its best. Using proper shampoo and conditioner for hair
is vital to make hair receives cares it needs. For example, creamy, moisturizing shampoo that will
soften hair when reducing frizz is recommended fir curly hair but not situation for everyone as there
are different types of hair. So to have healthy, happy hair, best suites shampoo must be formulated

32
FUNCTIONS OF SHAMPOO

Depending on their function, shampoos are used in various ways among which are;

(i). Cleaning agent: Shampoos remove dust and excess oil from hair. These shampoos should be mild,
effective without causing irritation and should be used on daily basis or alternate days as the need
arise.

(ii). Anti-dandruff agent: Shampoo treats dandruff due to fungi like pityriases veriscolor. Rapidly
relieves scaring and pruitis which are associated with fungi infections.

(iii). Antiseborrhoeric agent: Shampoo have cytoslatic effect on cells of the epidermic and follicular
epithelium thus reducing corneocyte production.

(IV). Keratolytic agent: Shampoo are used to remove ointment, paste which are used in treatment of
psoriaris. They also remove hard scales from the scalp

(v). Nutritional shampoo that contain collagen protein and glycolic liquid could rapidly supplement
hair nutrition making hair becomes more cluster, smoothing and manageable.

ADVANTAGES OF SHAMPOO OVER SOAP

 Shampoos such as antibacterial are often used in veterinary medicine for various conditions as
well in human before some surgical procedure.
 Some shampoos are designed to work without water in which soap cannot. These shampoos are
typically based on powder such as starch, silica, or talc which absorb excess sebum from hair
before being brushed out.
 Shampoos have advantages over soap as it can be manufacture in form of paste or cream
market In tube for faster application than soap.
 They have advantage of being spill-proof over soap majorly solid firm of shampoo
 Another advantage is ability to remove dandruff and other contaminant particles that gradually
build up in hair completely with faster application.

SUB GROUP OF INGREDIENTS USED IN SHAMPOO

a. Water
b. Surfactant
c. Foaming agents
d. Acidic ingredients
e. Silicones
f. Polyquaterium
g. Fatty alcohols
h. Thickening ingredients

33
 i. Preservatives.

WATER: - Up to 80 percent of most of the shampoos produced is water, without enough of it the
lathering liquid would not pour from the bottle and container. Water is used in the production of
shampoo irrespective of its form.

SURFACTANT: - Ingredient like ammonium lauryl surface and ammonium laureth surface tend to be
easier on sensitive scalp than sodium lauryl surface shampoos sold today contain conditioner that
compensate for the stripping quality of surfactants.

FOAMING AGENT: - Ingredient like cocamide provides the satisfying acids that complete the hair-
washing experience. Manufacturer put lathering agent in shampoos because this is what the customers
expect I n foaming with hair when been applied.

ACIDIC INGREDIENTS:- Items like sodium citrate or citric acid are added to keep shampoo at right
pH level such that the acidic pH interact with hair’s slightly negative charge to help cuticle, outer layer
of the hair maintain a smooth and flat surface.

SILICONES: - Like dimethicone which is polymer that deposit a light weight coating on the hair
thereby help to create smoothness and add shinny properties to the shampoo products.

FATTY ALCOHOL AND NUT OILS: - Among these include coconut oil, olive oil, glycerol, and
castor oil which are most common additives moisturize and maintain hydration of the shampoo
products.

THICKENING INGREDIENTS: - These help the shampoo at the right consistency ensuring a
product that is thick and creamy. These include xanthan gum, ethyl alcohol, sodium chloride and
stearyl alcohol. Many of these chemical compounds also act as conditioning agents on hair.

SHAMPOO MANUFACTURING PROCESS

The manufacturing process can be broken down into two steps. First, a large batch of shampoo
is made and then the batch is filled into the packaging.
Compounding:- The process of any large scale cosmetics production is called compounding. All the
ingredients are mixed together in large, stainless steel tanks(3000 gallons or more). The raw materials
which are typically provided in drums as large as 55 gallons or 50 bags are poured into the batch tank
and thoroughly mixed. The order and temperature are determined by the formulating chemist. Some
ingredients like water or the primary detergents are pumped and metered directly into the batch tank.
A computer interface is often used to control mixing speed and temperature depending on the size and
type of shampoo.

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QUALITY CONTROL: - After a batch is approved by the quality control department it is pumped out
of the main batch tank into a holding tank where it can be stored until the filling lines are ready. From
the holding tank it gets pumped into the filler which is positioned on the filling line.

SIMPLE FORMULATION AND PROCEDURE FOR PRODUCTION OF SHAMPOO

Ingredients

 Distilled water: It is a universal solvent in which almost every chemical dissolves.

 CMC: It increases the volume and stability of the shampoo. It also adds to the viscosity or
thickness of the shampoo.
 Glycerin: It serves as shinning agent to the hair.
 Texapor: It serves as forming agent in the shampoo.
 Soda ash: It increases the lathering ability of the shampoo, it also acts as filler.
 EDTA: It serves as anti-coagulant
 Propylene glycol: It is a conditioning agent. It also act as clarifier.
 NaCl: Serves as thickening agent
 Salicyclic acid: It serves as antidandruff agent in the hair
 Methylparaben: It prevents and stops the corrosion of the hair.
 Citric acid: For pH balance and it serves as preservative.
 Colourant: It gives desirable appearance to the shampoo.
 Perfume: It gives good and attractive smell to the shampoo.

PROCEDURE

 Measure distilled water into a bowl or mixer

 Divide the water into two
 Add CMC(carboxylmethylcellulose) into a portion of the water, stir and allow it to dissolve
completely. Use the other portion of the water to dissolve the ingredients needed to be
dissolved.
 Add texapor into the solution containing CMC and stir
 Dissolve soda ash, add it into the solution and stir
 Dissolve EDTA, add and stir
 Dissolve NaCl and add
 Add propylene glycol
 Dissolve methylparaben and add
 Add glycerin(in drops based on the quantity of shampoo to be produced)
 Dissolve salicyclic acid and add with continuous stirring
 Add colourant to taste
 Add perfume to taste. Stir thoroughly, allow it to settle and package it for sale.

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