OLABISI ONABANJO UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES, IBOGUN

CAMPUS.
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL

2020/2021: HAMMATTAN SEMESTER COURSE OUTLINE

COURSE: MEG 203: Engineering Thermodynamics (2 UNITS)

Lecturer: SA Aasa
• Lecturer Hours: Monday, 10am-12pm
• Lecture Room: Online/LH
• Email: aasa.samson@oouagoiwoye.edu.ng
• Phone No: +2348018745722
Study Division
This course MEG 203 is a 2-unit course divided into
Basic concepts; UNITS IN USE; open and close
system; thermodynamics as the study of inter-
relationships between work, heat and the properties
of system, thermodynamics properties of a system;
pressure, specific volume, temperature, internal
energy. The first law of thermodynamics and its
corollaries. Flow and non-flow processes, steady
state equation and its application
 Guide Organization

Using Study Guide

The students are advised to follow the study guide as the content consists what students require to succeed in the
course.
The guide consists of two major parts;
The first part; introductory and organisational section; For instance, who is the lecturer in charge, what to expect from
lecturer and what is expected from students.
The second part; Details about the course study component information, application and required laboratories and
experimental guides
NOTE!
Special attention must be given to study guide on;
1. Safety,
2. Plagiarism
 Educational Approach and General Premise of the
Course
• This course MEG 203 – Engineering thermodynamics aims to give student basic principle of fluid flow in
thermodynamics and their application in various aspect of Mechanical Engineering. After a successful study of
this course all students will be able to analyse solve and apply the knowledge to a given problem autonomously.
It is advised that students should understand rather than memorising any part of this course. This will
stimulate creative thinking and innovative skills for development in the area of thermodynamics analysis.

• Engineering thermodynamics is a science that explains the study of relationship between energy and entropy, which deal
with heat and work. It is a set of theory that correlates macroscopic properties that we can measure (such as
temperature, volume and pressure) to energy and its capability to deliver works. To explain the problem at hand, three
laws are continuously cast in the most applicable and simplest form. The Engineering thermodynamics application field
covers a wide range of disciplines, including aircraft and vehicle propulsion, ship and submarine stability and buoyancy,
fluid flow numerical simulation, experimental model testing, drag on passenger cars, aircraft and projectiles, and
channel flow, to name but a few
Learning Outcomes:

• On successful completion of this course students will be able to:

• identify the unique vocabulary associated with thermodynamics
• explain the basic concepts of thermodynamics
• distinguish between ideal gas and pure substance.
• explain the concept of thermodynamic work.
• state and apply the first law of thermodynamics for closed and open
systems undergoing different thermodynamic processes
• state and prove the equivalence of two statements of second law of
thermodynamics.
 Lecturers and Venue(s)

Name Lecturer Room Emails

Aasa SA Online aasa.samson@oouagoiwoye. edu.ng

Laboratories for Practicals -

Expectations from Lecturer
• The lecturers will be available to:
1. Share with the students their experience and knowledge to preparing the students for
course of this study and future practices.
2. Inspire the students to be passionate doing this module to have a lasting impression and
assist their academic development.
3. Do all to ensure proper understanding of the course as possible and be professional
Expectation from the Students
• Be discipline and compose
• Show loyalty and integrity;
• Be open-minded and ask honest question to give understanding of the course.
Textbook(s) for the study
• Engineering Thermodynamics By T.D. Eastop and A. Mcconkey
• Thermodynamics: An Engineering approach By YA Cengel and MA Boles
• These books will be used extensively and it is imperative that each student obtains copies.
There are many other text books for these classical fields of engineering that contain
essentially the same information.
• The internet also has many sources for fluid mechanics and heat transfer.
• Class notes:
• Class notes of a fill‐in type will be provided electronically to students in PDF
format.
These will compliment the Power point slides used in class.
• Study guide:
• This study guide compiled to support you for independent study and to include a
structured learning environment. This can be changed alongside the note by means
of a notice in class or other electronic means
Tests and exams: All class tests will be open book in an attempt to simulate the engineering

environment with the availability of reference material.

The semester tests and exams will however be closed book,

Additionally, a formula sheet may be provided in the question papers to remove the emphasis

from memorisation and repeating of facts.

The standard practice of the Mechanical Engineering department is followed when students are

absent from tests and exams. Refer to Departmental Study Guide.

• RULES OF ASSESSMENT
• Semester marks are
calculated as follows:
• Test 1: 15 Marks Semester mark: 40%
• Test 2: 15 Marks
• Semester Assignments Exam mark: 60%
and or Practical – 10 Mark

To gain entrance in this

Examination, a candidate must have
attended 75% of the class
 N AT I O N A L NUMBER OF
ST U DY T H E M E ST U DY U N I T S HOURS L EC T UR ES L EC T UR ER

Basic concepts; open and close 2 1 SA Aasa

UNITS IN USE; system;

Thermodynamic Thermodynamics as 4 2 SA Aasa

s as the study of the study of inter-
inter- relationships
relationships between work,
Structure of between work,
6 3 SA Aasa
Heat and the Heat and the
the Course properties of
system,
properties of system

thermodynamics specific volume, 4 2 SA Aasa

properties of a temperature,
system; internal energy:
pressure,
 STUDY NATIONAL NUMBER OF LECTURE
THEME STUDY UNITS HOURS LECTURES R
The first law 2 1 SA Aasa
of
thermodyna
mics and its
corollaries.
Flow and 4 2 SA Aasa
non-flow
Structure of processes,

the Course
steady state 4 2 SA Aasa
equation and
its
application,
 Background
• Thermodynamics is an exciting and fascinating subject that
deals with energy, which is essential for sustenance of life, and
thermodynamics has long been an essential part of engineering
curricula all over the world. It has a broad application area
ranging from microscopic organisms to common household
appliances, transportation vehicles, power generation systems,
and even philosophy. This introductory book contains sufficient
material for two sequential courses in thermodynamics.
Students are assumed to have an adequate background in
calculus and physics.
 Basic Concepts
Every science has a unique vocabulary associated with it, and thermodynamics is no
exception. Precise definition of basic concepts forms a sound foundation for the
development of a science and prevents possible misunderstandings. We start this
chapter with an overview of thermodynamics and the unit systems, and continue with
a discussion of some basic concepts such as system, state, state postulate, equilibrium,
and process. We also discuss temperature and temperature scales with particular
emphasis on the International Temperature Scale of 1990. We then present pressure,
which is the normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area and discuss absolute and
gage pressures, the variation of pressure with depth, and pressure measurement
devices, such as manometers and barometers. Careful study of these concepts is
essential for a good understanding of the topics in the following chapters. Finally, we
present an intuitive systematic problem-solving technique that can be used as a model
in solving engineering problems
Thermodynamics can be defined as the science of energy. Although everybody has
a feeling of what energy is, it is difficult to give a precise definition for it. Energy
can be viewed as the ability to cause changes. The name thermodynamics stems
from the Greek words therme (heat) and dynamis (power), which is most
descriptive of the early efforts to convert heat into power. Today the same name is
broadly interpreted to include all aspects of energy and energy transformations,
including power generation, refrigeration, and relationships among the properties
of matter. One of the most fundamental laws of nature is the conservation of
energy principle. It simply states that during an interaction, energy can change
from one form to another but the total amount of energy remains constant. That
is, energy cannot be created or destroyed. A rock falling off a cliff, for example,
picks up speed as a result of its potential energy being converted to kinetic energy
The change in the energy content of a body or any other system is equal to the
difference between the energy input and the energy output, and the energy
balance is expressed as Ein – Eout = ∆E.
What is thermodynamics
Engineering thermodynamics is a science that
explains the study of relationship between energy
and entropy, which deal with heat and work. It is a
set of theory that correlates macroscopic properties
that we can measure (such as temperature, volume
and pressure) to energy and its capability to deliver
works.
 Application Areas of Thermodynamics

• All activities in nature involve some interaction between energy and matter; thus, it is hard to
imagine an area that does not relate to thermodynamics in some manner. Therefore, developing
a good understanding of basic principles of thermodynamics has long been an essential part of
engineering education. Thermodynamics is commonly encountered in many engineering
systems and other aspects of life, and one does not need to go very far to see some application
areas of it. In fact, one does not need to go anywhere. The heart is constantly pumping blood to
all parts of the human body, various energy conversions occur in trillions of body cells, and the
body heat generated is constantly rejected to the environment. The human comfort is closely
tied to the rate of this metabolic heat rejection. We try to control this heat transfer rate by
adjusting our clothing to the environmental conditions. Other applications of thermodynamics
are right where one lives. An ordinary house is, in some respects, an exhibition hall filled with
wonders of thermodynamics
Introduction Continues
• Careful study of these concept is essential for good understanding of
topics in thermodynamics.
• •specifically, it defines macroscopic variables, such as internal energy,
entropy, and pressure.
• The history of thermodynamics as a scientific discipline generally
begins with Otto von Guericke who, in 1650, built and designed the
world's first vacuum pump and demonstrated a vacuum using his
Magdeburg hemispheres
 TERMINOLOGY
• Thermodynamic system – It’s defined
as a definite area or a space where
some thermodynamic process takes
place.
• Surroundings – Boundaries and
anything outside the boundaries is
called surroundings.
• Boundary- The real or imaginary
surface that separates the system
from its surroundings. The boundaries
of a system can be fixed or movable.
Mathematically, the boundary has
zero thickness, no mass, and no
volume.
 TERMINOLOGY
❖Closed system- Fixed amount of
mass. only heat or work, can cross
the boundary.
❖Open system- Both mass and
energy can cross the boundary of a
control volume.
❖Isolated system- fixed mass and no
heat or work cross its boundary
❖Rigid system: A closed system that
communicates with the
surroundings by heat only.
 TERMINOLOGY
Properties of system- all the quantities
such as volume, pressure,
temperature, density and internal
energy etc identify state of a system
are called properties.
1)Extensive- The properties whose value
for the entire system is equal to the
sum of their values for individual part
of the system. i. e. Total volume, total
mass, total energy
2)Intensive- The properties whose value
for the entire system is NOT equal to
the sum of their values for individual
part of the system. i.e. temperature,
pressure, density etc
Thermal equilibrium- when the
temperature is the same throughout
the entire system.
• Mechanical equilibrium- when there
is no change in pressure at any point
of the system. However, the pressure
may vary within the system due to
gravitational effects.
• Phase equilibrium- in a two phase
system, when the mass of each phase
reaches an equilibrium level.
• Chemical equilibrium- when the
chemical composition of a system
does not change with time, i.e., no
chemical reactions occur
• Perfect Gas- Its define as a state of
substance whose evaporation from its
liquid state is complete, If evaporation
is partial the substance is called
Vapour.
• Absolute zero Temperature- At which
the volume of a gas becomes zero. Its -
273°c OR 0 k.
• Specific Heat- The amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of its
unit mass through 1°.
• Joules Law- “The change of internal
energy of a perfect gas is directly
proportional to the change of the
temperature.”
Mathematically, dE = m.c dT
• Laws of Thermodynamics
• 1) Zeroth law of thermodynamics- When
two bodies are in thermal equilibrium
with a third body, they are also in thermal
equilibrium with each other.
• 2) First law of thermodynamics- Heat and
mechanical work are mutually
convertible. or Energy can neither be
created nor destroyed, it can transfer
from one form to another.
• 3) Second law of thermodynamics- There
is a definite limit to the amount of
mechanical energy, which can be
obtained from a given quantity of heat
energy
• Claussius states that “it’s impossible
for a self acting m/c working in a
cyclic process, to transfer heat from
a body at a low temperature to
higher without the aid of external
source”.
• Kelvin-Plank that “it’s impossible to
construct an engine working on a
cyclic process, whose sole purpose
is to convert heat energy in to
work”.
Properties of a system
Properties of a system is a
measurable characteristic of a
system that is in equilibrium.
Properties may be intensive or
extensive.
Intensive – Are independent of the
amount of mass: e.g: Temperature,
Pressure, and Density,
Extensive – varies directly with the
mass e.g: mass, volume, energy,
enthalpy
Properties of a system
Specific properties – The ratio of any extensive property of a
system to that of the mass of the system is called an average
specific value of that property (also known as intensives
property)
State, Equilibrium and Process

State – a set of properties that

describes the conditions of a
system. Eg. Mass m,
Temperature T, volume V
Thermodynamic equilibrium -
system that maintains thermal,
mechanical, phase and chemical
equilibriums
 State, Equilibrium and Process
Process – change from one
equilibrium state to another.
Process Property held constant
isobaric pressure
isothermal temperature
isochoric volume
isentropic entropy
State, Equilibrium and Process

The prefix iso- is often used to

designate a process for which a
particular property remains
constant. State, Equilibrium and
Process Isobaric process: A
process during which the
pressure P remains constant.
Pressure is Constant (ΔP = 0)
State, Equilibrium and Process

Isochoric (or isometric) process:

Isothermal process: A process during which the temperature T
A process during which the remains constant.
specific volume v remains
constant
 Types of Thermodynamics Processes
Cyclic process - when a system in a
given initial state goes through
various processes and finally return
to its initial state, the system has
undergone a cyclic process or cycle.
Reversible process - it is defined as a
process that, once having take place
it can be reversed. In doing so, it
leaves no change in the system or
boundary.
Irreversible process - a process that
cannot return both the system and
surrounding to their original
conditions JIT 15 06/10/17 Types of
Thermodyna
Types of Thermodynamics Processes
Adiabatic process - a process that
has no heat transfer into or out
of the system. It can be
considered to be perfectly
insulated.
Isentropic process - a process
where the entropy of the fluid
remains constant.
. enthalpy, no work is done and
Polytropic process - when a gas
undergoes a reversible process
in which there is heat transfer, it
is represented with a straight
line, PVn = constant.
Throttling process - a process in
which there is no change in
the process is adiabatic
 Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
“ If two bodies are in thermal
equilibrium with a third body,
there are also in thermal
equilibrium with each other.”
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
Point Function
• When two co-ordinates are
located on the graph, They
define a point and the two
properties on the graph define
state. These properties (p, T, v)
are called point function.
Path Function
• There are certain quantities like
heat and work can not be
located on a graph by a point but
there are represented by the
area. It is not a state or point
function, rather it depends on
the path of the process. Such
quantities are called path
function and they are inexact
differentials
Thermodynamic equilibrium
Process
If any one or more properties of the system
undergo a change due to energy or mass
transfer we say that the system has
undergone a change of state
• The successive change of state of the system
due to energy or mass transfer defined by
definite path is called a process.
• The curve joining the successive state
represents the process path
• If a system undergoes two or more processes
and returns to its original state after
conclusion of processes, the system is said to
have undergone a cycle
Thermodynamic equilibrium
A system is said to be in thermodynamic
equilibrium which is incapable of any
spontaneous change of its macroscopic
properties (p, v, t) and it is in complete
balance with its surroundings. • A system will
be in thermodynamic equilibrium if it satisfies
the condition of mechanical, thermal and
chemical equilibrium 1.Mechanical
equilibrium :- No unbalance forces 2.Thermal
Equilibrium :- Uniformity of temp. inside with
surrounding 3.Chemical Equilibrium :-
Absence of any chemical reaction JIT 19
06/10/17
Thermodynamic equilibrium

Quasi Static Process / Reversible Condition for reversible process are

• A quasi static process is defined as a 1. No Friction 2. Heat transfer is through
process in which the properties of the infinitely temperature difference. 3. There
system depart infinitesimally (extremely are no spontaneous changes in the
small) from the thermodynamic system. • All processes in nature are
equilibrium path irreversible.
• If the properties of the system has finite
departures from thermodynamic
equilibrium path the process is said to be
non quasi static
• Quasi static process is the succession of
thermodynamic equilibrium state while in
case of non-quasi static process the end
states only represent the thermodynamic
equilibrium.
 Thermodynamic equilibrium
Work done in moving boundary of close system in quasi-
static process displacement work
Work of Quasi equilibra expansion or compression
Force Exerted on piston, F = P A •
Small work done, δw = F dl,
δw = P A dl,
δw = P dV
Thermodynamic equilibrium

Heat Work
• Heat is the form of energy which transfer
without transfer of mass, from one body
to another body (or between system and
surroundings) from higher temperature
to lower temperature by virtue of
temperature difference between two
bodies.
• Abbreviated as ‘Q’ and Unit is J (Joule)
• Heat Addition into system :- Positive ( +Q)
• Heat Rejection from system :- Negative
(-Q)
• Extensive Property and Path Function
(Inexact Differential)
Heat and Work
Difference between heat and work
1. Heat can only transfer when there is
difference of temperature between the
system and surrounding, while work
transfer can take place even without
the change in temperature
2. In constant volume process though
work can not take place, however heat
can be transferred. 3. In case of work
transfer, its sole effect could be raising
or lowering a weight in the
surrounding but in case of heat
transfer other effects are also observed
Similarities between heat and work
1. Both heat and work exist in transit and
these are never possessed or contained
in a system.
2. Both heat and work refer to boundary
phenomena.
3. Both heat and work are path function
and do not represent as the properties
of system (Inexact difference
first law of thermodynamics
first law of thermodynamics
Enthalpy
• It is total energy of the system
• Specific Enthalpy,
• U, p, V are point function, so H is
point function and property of
system
• Unit of Enthalpy (H) is kJ
• Unit of Specific Enthalpy (h) is
kJ/kg H = U + pV,
h = u + pv
first law of thermodynamics
Limitations of the first law of
thermodynamics
1. No restriction on the direction of
the flow of heat: the first law
establishes definite relationship
between the heat absorbed and
the work performed by a system.
The first law does not indicate
whether heat can flow from a cold
end to a hot end or not. For
example: we cannot extract heat
from the ice by cooling it to a low
temperature. Some external work
has to be done.
Limitations of the first law of
thermodynamics
2. Does not specify the feasibility of
the reaction: first law does not
specify that process is feasible or
not for example: when a rod is
heated at one end then equilibrium
has to be obtained which is
possible only by some expenditure
of energy.
3. Practically it is not possible to
convert the heat energy into an
equivalent amount of work.
The First Law of Thermodynamics: Control
Volumes
Here we will extend the conservation of energy to systems that involve
mass flow across their boundaries, control volumes.
Any arbitrary region in space can be selected as control volume. There
are no concrete rules for the selection of control volumes. The
boundary of control volume is called a control surface. Conservation
of Mass Like energy, mass is a conserved property, and it cannot be
created or destroyed.
Mass and energy can be converted to each other according to Einstein’s
formula: E = mc2 , where c is the speed of light. However, except for
nuclear reactions, the conservation of mass principle holds for all
processes.
For a control volume undergoing a process, the
conservation of mass can be stated as:

total mass – total mass = net change in mass

entering CV leaving CV within CV
mi – me = ∆mcv

Principle of Conservation of mass for a CV

Conservation of Energy
For control volumes, an additional mechanism can change the energy
of a system: mass flow in and out of the control volume. Therefore,
the conservation of energy for a control volume undergoing a process
can be expressed as

Energy content of CV can be changed by mass flow in/out and heat and work interactions
 Work flow:
is the energy that is required to push fluid into or out of a control volume.
Consider an imaginary piston (that pushes the fluid to CV) where the fluid
pressure is P and the cross sectional area is A. The force acting on the piston is
F = PA.

schematic for flow work

H/m =h, 2
KE=v /2, PE=gz
 Steady‐State Flow Process
A process during which a fluid flows through a control volume steadily is called steady‐ state process.
A large number of devices such as turbines, compressors, and nozzles operates under the same
conditions for a long time and can be modeled (classified) as steady‐flow devices. The term steady
implies no change with time. The term uniform implies no change with location over a specified
region
A steady flow is characterized by the following:
1‐ No properties within the CV change with time. Thus, volume, mass, and energy of CV remains
constant. As a result, the boundary work is zero. Also, total mass entering the CV must be equal to
total mass leaving CV.
2‐ No properties change at the boundary of the CV with time. It means that the mass flow rate and
the properties of the fluid at an opening must remain constant during a steady flow.
3‐ The heat and mass interactions between the CV and its surroundings do not change with time.
Using the above observation, the conservation of energy principle for a general steady‐ flow system
with multiple inlets and exits can be written as:
Nozzles and Diffusers
A nozzle is a device that increases the velocity of a fluid at the expense
of pressure. A diffuser is a device that increases the pressure of a fluid
by slowing it down. The cross sectional area of a nozzle decreases in
the flow direction for subsonic flows and increase for supersonic
flows
Example 1: Nozzle
Steam enters a converging‐diverging nozzle operating at steady state with P1
= 0.05 MPa, T1 = 400 °C and a velocity of 10 m/s. The steam flows through
the nozzle with negligible heat transfer and no significant change in
potential energy. At the exit, P2 = 0.01 MPa, and the velocity is 665 m/s.
The mass flow rate is 2 kg/s. Determine the exit area of the nozzle, in m2
Assumptions:
1. Steady state operation of the nozzle
2. Work and heat transfer are negligible, Q° = W°= 0.
3. Change in potential energy from inlet to exit is negligible, ΔPE = 0.
The exit area can be calculated from the mass flow rate m°:
 A2 = m°v2 / V2
We need the specific volume at state 2. So, state 2 must be found. The
pressure at the exit is given; to fix the state 2 another property is required.
From the energy equation enthalpy can be found:
T1, T2?, P1, P2
T1/T2 = P1/P2
T2= P1/(P2*T1)
Turbines and Compressors
In steam, gas, or hydroelectric power plants, the device that derives the
electric generator is turbine. The work of turbine is positive since it is done
by the fluid. Compressors, pumps, and fans are devices used to increase
the pressure of the fluid. Work is supplied to these devices, thus the work
term is negative. Common assumptions for turbines and compressors:
Q° = 0. ΔPE = ΔKE = 0.
Example 2:
Turbine Steam enters a turbine at steady state with a mass flow rate of 4600
kg/h. The turbine develops a power output of 1000 kW. At the inlet the
pressure is 0.05 MPa, the temperature is 400 °C, and the velocity is 10 m/s.
At the exit, the pressure is 10 kPa, the quality is 0.9, and the velocity is 50
m/s. Calculate the rate of heat transfer between the turbine and
surroundings, in kW.
Assumptions:
Steady‐state operation. The change in potential energy is negligible.
The energy balance for the turbine is:

Schematic for turbine.

 Solutions

Note that change in specific kinetic energy is very small. Also Q°CV is small compared to W°CV. The negative sign
inQ°CVmeans that heattransfer is from CV to surroundings
 Throttling Valves

Any kind of flow restricting devices that causes a significant pressure

drop in the fluid is called throttling valve.

The pressure drop in fluid is often accompanied with a temperature drop in fluids. The magnitude of this temperature is
governed by a property called the Joule‐Thomson coefficient.
Common assumptions for throttling valves:
Q° = 0
W° = 0
ΔPE = ΔKE = 0.
The conservation of energy becomes: h2 = h1
u1 + P1v1 = u2 + P2v2
The flow energy increases during the process (P2v2> P1v1), and it is
done at the expense of the internal energy. Thus, internal energy
decreases, which is usually accompanied by a drop in temperature.
For ideal gases h = h(T) and since h remains constant the temperature
has to remain constant too.
Mixture Chambers (Direct Contact Heat
Exchangers)
Mixture chambers are used to mix two streams of fluids. Based on
mass principle, the sum of incoming flow equals to sum of leaving
fluid.
Heat Exchangers
Heat exchangers are devices where two moving fluid streams exchange
heat without mixing. Common assumptions for heat exchangers:
W° = 0
ΔPE = ΔKE = 0.
Q° could be different depending on the selected CV, see the next
example.
The mass and energy balance become:
m*1=m*2 and m*3 = m*4
m1h1 +m3h3=m1 h2 +m1h4
 Example 3: Heat exchanger
Engine oil is to be cooled by water in a condenser. The engine oil enters the
condenser with a mass flow rate of 6 kg/min at 1 MPa and 70°C and leaves at 35°C.
The cooling water enters at 300 kPa and 15°C and leaves at 25°C. Neglecting any
pressure drops; determine a) the mass flow rate of the cooling water required, and
b) the heat transfer rate from the engine oil to water.
We choose the entire heat exchanger as our
control volume, thus work transfer and
heat transfer to the surroundings will be
zero.
From mass balance: m*1=m*2 =m*w
and m*3 = m*4 = m*oil
 Force, Energy and Power
From 2nd Newton’s Law: Force is directly proportional to mass and acceleration i.e.
F = Kma where F=force, m=mass, a acceleration and k is proportionality constant
This could be written as
F=ma in a situation where k =1
Note the SI unit of each of this parameters apply.
Check for the relationship of Pressure, Temperature and the respective units
NOTE: in all thermodynamics problem we are concerns with energy transfer to or from
the system.
Working fluid is a matter contain in or within a region or boundary, this can be liquid,
vapour or gas.
The characteristic of an instant of state of working fluid is called properties
Mention various properties applied to thermodynamics
Two independent variables are enough to define state of a system performance
Fixed and the state point can be located on diagram of P against Tand T
against v
Reversibility
 Therefore, when a fluid undergo a reversible process both the
fluid and the system can always be restored to its original state.
Criteria for a reversible process:
1. The process must be continuously frictionless
2. The different in pressure between the fluid and
its surroundings must be infinitely small.
3. The different in temperature between the fluid
and its surroundings must be infinitely small.

Reversible Work: this is the product of force and the

distance with which its moves. But force F = PA
i.e. Work done dW = -(pA) xdl = -pdV
The –ve is because volume is decreasing
dW = -mpdv
So, work done of a process during reversible process
2 1
is W= - m‫׬‬1 𝑝𝑑𝑣 = m‫׬‬2 𝑝𝑑𝑣 = m
Calculations:
1. Unit mass of a fluid at pressure of 3 bar and with a specific volume of 0.18m3/kg
contain a cylinder behind a piston reversibly to a pressure of 0.6bar according to
a law p=c/v2 Where c is constant. Calculate the work done during the process.
2. A unit mass of a certain fluid is contain in a cylinder at initial pressure of 20 bar.
The fluid is allowed to expand reversibly behind a piston according a law pV2 =C
until the volume is doubled. The fluid is then cooled reversibly until at constant
pressure until piston regain its original position; Heat is then supply reversibly
with the piston firmly locked in position until pressure rises to its original value
of 20bar. Cal the work done by the fluid for an initial volume of 0.05m3
3. ..
4

6
7
 Second Law of Thermodynamic Cycles
States that in any thermodynamic complete cycle the gross heat supply plus the net
work input must be greater than zero.
Thus for any cycle Work output = -Ve, Heat rejected =-ve, for any cycle in which heat is
supply at low temp and rejected at high temp there must always be positive work
input.
HEAT ENGINE
A heat engine a system which
operate continuously and across
whose boundary flow heat and work.
Reservoir simply mean: Energy
Source at uniform temperature.
σ 𝑄 + σ 𝑊 = 0 using this figure
Q1+Q2 +W = 0
 Statements of 2 nd Law of Thermodynamics

Q1>-W: The cycle efficiency of a forward heat engine is can then be defined as
−𝑊
ή𝑐 =
𝑄1
Cycle efficiency must always less than Unity.

2nd Statement states that

This statement implies W > 0: From this statement it implies that there must always be heat rejected to low-temperature
reservoir, whereas in case of reversed engine there is no reason why Q2 should not be (≠) 0
𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
Note: for a reversed heat engine; the effectiveness is measured in term of Heat COP, coefficient of Performance.
𝑄2
𝐶𝑂𝑃𝑅𝑒𝑓(𝑟𝑒𝑣) =
𝑊
−𝑄
For reversed HE is use as pump we have 𝐶𝑂𝑃ℎ𝑝(𝑟𝑒𝑣) = 𝑊1
Using figure below is cleared that the COP is always greater that 1:
𝑄2 70 100
𝐶𝑂𝑃𝑅𝑒𝑓(𝑟𝑒𝑣) = = ; 𝐶𝑂𝑃ℎ𝑝(𝑟𝑒𝑣) =
𝑊 30 30
Note in first law internal energy happened to be the consequence of the first law.
For the second Law entropy is the consequence: i.e
So for a non flow energy equation
dQ = du + pdv and for a perfect gas we have
dQ = CvdT + RT(dv/v) →≫ dQ/T = CvdT/T + R(dv/v)=0
Note: dQ/T = 0 for reversible adiabatic process
For all other process dQ/T ≠0
Which implies ds = dQ/T for all working substance.
where s = entropy
On integrating the above we have
2
𝑑𝑄
𝑠1 − 𝑠1 = න
1 𝑇
dQ = Tds or we can say for a reversible process
2 2
Q = ‫׬‬1 𝑇𝑑𝑠; W = − ‫׬‬1 𝑝𝑑𝑣 for any reversible process
T-S diagram
𝑠𝑓 − 𝑠𝑔 = 𝑠𝑓𝑔
𝑠 = 1 − 𝑥 𝑠𝑓 + 𝑥𝑠𝑔
𝑠 = 𝑠𝑓 − 𝑥 𝑠𝑓 − 𝑠𝑔 = 𝑠𝑓 + 𝑥 𝑠𝑔 − 𝑠𝑓 = 𝑠𝑓 +𝑥𝑠𝑓𝑔
𝑠 − 𝑠𝑓
𝑥=
𝑠𝑓𝑔
Complete this
Complete This