Understanding distinguish between narrow and wider meaning of education;

Education th
discuss reasons behind cducation being defined in varied ways; and l
describe nature of the process of education.

1.3 MEANING OF EDUCATION

such
Concept of education is very wide. It is a combination of many concepts as
has various
feaching, leaming, training, indoctrination etc. So the word education
meanings. The field of education is so vast and varied that a single definition
on

which all educationists and thinkers agree cannot be given. Since the time of Plato
to the modern time of John Dewey and Mahatma Gandhi various thinkers and
educationists have defined education in different ways. Their different definitions
aims of human life according to their
sprang from their philosophies of life and
thinking.
Let us study some of them to understand
the meaning of education.
of Education
1.3.1 Etymological Meaning
the word. It would be easier to understand
Etymological means root meaning of
the word education by knowing its
roots.

1.3.1.1 The Latin Roots

derived from two Latin words -'Educare

In English the term 'education' has been
or Educere' and
'Educatum'.

The Latin word 'Educere' or 'Educare, means to lead out, to draw out, to raise
inside and catum means 'to draw
or to educate. In 'Educatum', 'E' means from
out.' If we combine the meanings of the two then it means 'to draw from within'
borm with some innate qualities and capabilities.
We all know that every individual is
This explains that education is a process through which
simple interpretation
innate tendencies, capacities;, powers and potentials are brought out and developed

to the full.

1.3.1.2 The Indian Roots

In Hindi, the term 'Shiksha' has from the Sanskrit word 'Shash'. "Shash
come

means to disclipline, to control, to order,

to direct, to rule etc. Education in the
individual.
traditional sense means controlling or disciplining the behaviour of an
has six
In Sanskrit 'Shiksha, is a particular branch of the Sutra literature, which
branches- Shiksh, Chhanda, Vyakrana, Nirukta, Jyotisha and Kalpa. The Sutra
literature was designed to leam the Vedas. Siksha denotes rules of pronunciatno
There is another tem in Sanskrit, which throws light on the nature of education.
The term 'Vidya' has originated from "Vid' which means 'knowledge.

1.3.1.3 The Dictionary Meaning

Webster defines education as the process of educating or teaching.

ofthe
educate is further defined as "to develop the knowledge, skill or characie
leamers.' This definition ofiers litle unless we further define words such asa evelop
knowledge and character.

1.3.2 Narrow Meaning of Educatioon

which

Let us read and try to understand the following definitions of educa

6 present education in somewhat narow sense. That means, these definitionsp
 Meaning and Nature
the concept of education in such a manner that education seems to be an activity of Education
limited in its scope.

Education is the culture which each generation purposely gives to those who are
to be its successors, in order to qualify them for at least kecping up and if possible
for raising the level of improvement which has been attained.

It thus includes special and specific influences. This type of education is intentional
rather than incidental. Education is regarded as synonymous with instruction.

In narrow sense, education may be taken to mean any consciously directed effort
to develop and cultivate our powers.

Education is a process in which and by which knowledge, character and behaviour

of the young are shaped and moulded.

The influence of environment on the individual with a view to producing a pemanent

change in his habits of behaviour, of thought and attitude.
After reading these definitions and thinking upon them you must have understood
that in its narrow sense, education is a formal conservative process mainly confined
to school campus. Here school instruction is called education. It is a deliberate,
conscious and systematic influence exerted by the mature person i.e. the teacher
on the immature person i.e. the child. In this process, the elders of society strive
to attain predetermined aims during a specified time by forcing down pre-structured
tit-bits of knowledge to children through set methods of teaching and ignoring the
basic tendencies, interests and capacities of children .It is limited to teaching of
ready-made material. Here knowledge is considered as the accumulated experience
of the human race. The purpose is to achieve mental development of children
entering school. It does not promote the natural development of the child. The
teacher is one of the most important factors in this process and the child is
secondary; who crams the knowledge instilled by the teacher mechanically. Child
is passive receiver of the infomation provided by the teacher, which s/he reproduces
in the examination. This type of education has merits and demerits of its own.

Check Your Progress 1

1) What is the etymological meaning of the word 'education'?

*.

2) What is the meaning ofeducation in narrow sense?

lerstanding 3) What are the demerits of narrow understanding of education?
ication "The highest educationi is that
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makes our life in w
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hamony wi
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"Education is something, which mas
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Education is that whose end
pro
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Education according to Indian tra
nor it is only a nursery of though
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the life of spirit and

training of hur
of virtue".- Radhakrishnan
1.3.3 Wider Meaning of Education
Education develops in the body-
education in its the perfection he is
Most of the educationists, thinkers and philosophers have defined capable of.
of education
broader sense. Let us read and try to understand the broader meaning Education is the creation of sc
which explains education as a process with much wider scope.
faculty specially his mind so thaæ
which total development of
In its wider sense, education is the process through supreme truth, goodness and be
Education consists of all those experiences
personality of an individual takes place. It is a life long process of growth Education is the child's develo
birth till death.
which affect an individual from
and development. "In the wider sense, it is a
proce-
exhorted his philosophy called Naturalism, by almost every experience of
Famous educationist J.J. Rousseau
education in his view-point.
keeping this wider concept of Education is the harmonious ane
lived is education. Education is and faculties of man-
From the broad point of view, all life thoughtfully physical, ?
all influences, social, cultural, political,
thus life and life is education. It includes "Education is the enfoldment c
Even the soil, climate and surroundings
educate us,
domestic, geographical etc. process through which the chil
In this sense, "whatever broadens
our horizons, deepens our insights, refines our
educates us." "By education, I mean the all-r
reactions and stimulates thoughts and feeling, mind and soul."- MKGand
wider concept of education in the
Some other eminent scholars interpret the Education is the developmen
following way-
does education include whatever we do
Education in its widest sense inc
John Stuart Mill (1867) says, "Not only during his passage from cradle=
for ourselves and whatever is done
for us by others, for the express purpose of
of our nature, in its largest acceptance, After going through the
bringing us somewhat nearer to the perfèction on character, and on human
above-
it comprehends even the indirect effects produced
is really a very broad concept
are quite different, by laws, by concepts and activities in it. L
faculties by things of which the direct purposes
the modes of social life, nay even
forms of government, by the industrial arts, by
byphysical facts not dependent on human will, by climate, soil and local position. 1.4 INTERPRETA
the human
Every environment, every surrounding, every activity helps shape
to
environment. The interaction
EDUCATI1ON
being. A human soul is in constant interaction with its MEANINGS
results in the modification of human behaviour or education."
be After studying various defini
Lodge (1937) says, "In the wider sense, all experience is said to educative. in love, western scholars, let us try to
The bite ofa mosquito, the taste of water-melon, the experience falling
of
have education does not lead to all
of fly in an aeroplane, of being in storm in a small boat- all such experiences
a direct educative effect on us. The child educates the parents, the pupil educates leads to only mental develop
his teachers..everything we say, think or do educates us no less than what walls of the school.
sense,
said or done to us by other beings, animate or inanimate. In the wider In its wider sense, education
at nothing, but allowing
is education and education is life." iming
piece Through such a process it is r
"Education is the manifestation of perfection already in man. Like tire1os values to the child. Thus bo
offlint, knowledge exists in the mind. Suggestion is the friction, whicn
out."-SwamiVivekananda.
The highest education is that which does not
merely give usinformation but Meaning and Nature
makes our life in harmony with all existence."- Rabindranath Tagore. of Education

"Bducation is something, which makes a man self-reliant and self-less."- Rigveda

Education is that whose end product is salvation."-
Upanishada
Education according to Indian tradition is not merely a means of
earning a living,
nor it is only a nursery of thought or a school for citizenship. It is initiation into
the life of spirit and training of human souls in the
pursuits of truth and the practice
ofvirtue"-Radhakrishnan
"Education develops in the body and the soul of the pupil all the beauty and al1
the perfection he is capable of."- Plato

"Education is the creation of sound mind in a sound body. It develops man's

faculty specially his mind so that he may be able to enjoy the contemplation of
supreme truth, goodness and beauty."-Aristorle
"Education is the child's development from within."--Rousseau
In the wider sense, it is a process that goes on throughout life, and is promoted
by almost every experience oflife." -S.S. Mackenzi

"Education is the hamonious and progressive development of all the innate powers
and faculties of man- physical, intellectual and moral."-Pestalozzi
"Education is the enfoldment of what is already enfolded in the germ. It is the
process through which the child makes the internal-external."-Froebel

"By education, I mean the all-round drawing of the best in child and man-body,
mind and soul."-M.KGandhi
Education is the development of good moral character." --J.E.Herbert
Education in its widest sense includes all the influences which act upon an individual
during his passage from cradle to grave."-Dumvile
After going through the above definitions, you must have realized that education
is really a very broad concept having very wide scope to include several other
concepts and activities in it. Let us try to interpret the word 'education' further.

1.4 INTERPRETATION OF THE WORD

EDUCATION' FROM ITS VARIOUS
MEANINGS
After studying various definitions of education given by different eastern and
western scholars, let us try to interpret the term education. In its narrow sense
education does not lead to all round development of the child. School education
leads to only mental development of the child up to certain extent inside the four
walls of the school.
In its wider sense, education becomes a vague and too much informal process
aiming at nothing, but allowing the child uncontrolled freedom for arbitrary activities
Through such a process it is not possible to inculcate social, moral and spiritual
values to the child. Thus both the meanings of education are one sided and
Understanding emphasize two extremes. The real meaning of education lies in the synthesis of
Education
both. Generally speaking, "Education' is utilized in three senses: Knowledge
Subject and a Process. When a person achieves degree up to certain level we
do not call it cducation. A person may pursue education as a subject in a discipline
Most debate on cducation is on education as a process where it has certain aims
and objectives.

Check Your Progress2

| 1) What does cducation mean in the wider sense?
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2) As per your own opinion what will be comprehensive definition of

education?
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1.5 REASONS FOR DIFFERENT

INTERPRETATIONS OF EDUCATION

Complex nature of human personality: The subject matter of education

is human personality. The personality of an individual is complex. It has
different aspects; physical, social, intellectual, emotional, moral, spiritual,
aesthetic etc. Emphasis on one or the other aspect has led to different
definitions of education. A spiritualist thinks of educatiorn as a process that
leads to self-realization of man. A moralist thinks of education as an activity
that must lead to formation of character.

Complexity of human environment: Education is a process which enables

an individual to adjust to the environment. This environment is different a
different places and at diferent times. Environment also has different aspecs
social, physical, cultural, economic etc. Various thinkers have tried to define
education according to one or the other aspect of environment. In the pa
life was very simple and there was less emphasis on vocational education
But with the changing times economic aspect of education has taken a ver
important role. So education is thought to be a process that leads a perso
to be self dependent economically and a useful member of the society

ii. Different philosophies of life: Different

philosophers have ditfere
philosophies of life which led them to define education according to the
own thinking and
experiences of the times in which they lived. Accoring
Idealists, the aim of life is spiritual,
according to the naturalists educanou
everything that nature teaches us in a natural way and in the natural
se
10 and pragmatists want education to be utilitarian in nature and
so
 lies in the synthesis of
ing of education 1.6 NATURE OF EDUCATION Meaning and Nature
three s e n s e s : Knowledge, of Education
s utilized in to certain level we
achieves degree up After studying and understanding various definitions of
as a subject
in a discipline. education, let us think and
sueeducation where it has certain aims try to understand the nature of the process called education. You
may develop the
on as a process understanding after reading the following paragr hs
1.6.1 Education is a
Life-Long Process
From the broader understanding of education it is clear that
education is a process
that starts at birth and ends with death. So it continues from
wider sense? cradle to grave. It
is a dynamic process which continues
throughout life. It is not just confined to the
***
classrooms and laboratories of schools, colleges and universities. An
**

mother is advised to read good literature and see

expectant
* * * * * * * *

good images in the belief that

***
the child in the womb would be affected
by what the mother sees, hears and
reads. That means education of a child starts in the mother's womb itself.
Education
definition of takes place all times and everywhere through both
be comprehensive good and bad experience.
will
1.6.2 .Education as Process of
a
Development
You must be that
**** aware
development is
qualitative word which includes
a
continuous improvement in all aspects of personality of a person. It is the process
to develop innate powers of the learner. Education also
****

leads to the development

of society, nation and world through the development of human beings.
1.6.3 Education as a
Bi-polar Process
Both the educator and the educand influence each other. The learner is affected
FFERENT by the personality, knowledge, methodology, behaviour and values of the teacher
The teacher also in tum leams something out of this
S OF EDUCATION process and continuously tries
to improve to be a better and better teacher.
matter of education
onality:The subject 1.6.4 Education as a Tri-Polar Process
of an individual is complex. It has
ality In the sense that both the educator and the educand are affected
intellectual, emotional, moral, spiritual,
different or the social setting in which education takes
by the environment
r the other aspect has led to place. The unconscious influence of
that the environment is very subtle and pervasive. Environment
list thinks of education as a process plays a very important
activity role in the education of the learmer. If the environment is
oralist thinks of education as an conducive; education will
be effective and if the environment is non-conducive; education
acter. may not have
positive results.
enables
nt: Education is aprocess which
environment is different at
1.6.5 Education is Purposive
»nment. This
different aspects;
. Environment also has to define
Education is a deliberate process. It involves and guidance. Education is
care

etc. Various thinkers have tried In the past

planned. It is not haphazard. It is systematic. Education is a continuous
environment. reorganisation and integration of activities and experiences. Every society and its
theraspect of
vocational education. sub-systems plan education for its members so that there is continuous
ess emphasis on taken a very
quality
icaspect of education has a person improvement in every field at every level; form individual to
national and
leads international. Education is purposive even if imparted informally in the informal
ght to be a process that society.
and a useful member of the agencies of education such as homes and communities. Most of the time purpose
of education is to provide knowledge,
have different
impart
skills or desired
develop values in
the learners.
ifferent philosophers
to define education according to tnc
lived. According to 1.6.6 Education is a Process of Self-Realization
mes in which they
naturalists
education
15
There are several aims which are achieved
cCording to the settng through the process of education but
the natural the ultimate aim of education is self realization
natural way and in according to many Indian
utilitarian in nature and so o
Understanding
Educationn
philosophers and even westem thinkers. This realization
towards one's role in the leads to
society
realization comes when all other by making a
person good
a self-awareneaa
human-being.
educational aims have been achieved. Self.
1.6.7
Stability through Education
Education is stabilizer of social
order, conserver of culture, an
change and social reconstruction. This is because cultural,
instrument of
are passed on
from traditional, moral values
of education. You present generation to the next generation through the process
must have read
school and chapters carrying the above values in your
college
books. These had been directly or
introducing you to your culture andmessages
societal indirectly
which result in social
control informally.
expectations from the individuals
autobiographies have been inspiring Religious and political leaders'
you to be agents of
reconstruction. So we can say that education change and social
the society. brings about and stability peace in
Check Your Progress 3
1) How is education a
bipolar process?
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2) What three factors which influence one another in education?

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1.7 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have realized the meaning of education a word which is usedby
many people several times in his/her daily life. The term education has its latin
roots, indian roots and also a dictionary meaning. The term education refers to
draw from within. Education in its nerrow meaning refers to a formal conservative
process mainly confined to school campus. In wider sense education is a broad.
concept that has very vide scop to include several concepts and activities. In its
narrow sense education does not lead to all round development of the child. n
its wide sense education becomes a rague and too much informal process aiming
at nothing but allowing the child uncontrolled freedom for arbitary activities. Ine

real meaning of education lies in the synthesis of both. There are several reasot
for having various interpretations of education. The reasons could be the ung
natures of people, preculiar human aura and different philosophies of life. Eauxa
basically is a life long process which brings forth development and takes pla
posive
dhuring the interaction ofhuman being with the environment Educationi5pu
12 which leads to self realization.
 discuss the meaning of idealism
along with its main tenets Philosophical and Sociological
explain how idealism has affected the various Perspectives of Education
of
aspects education,
discuss the meaning of naturalism
along with its main tenets;
explain how naturalism has affected various
aspects of education,
discuss the meaning of
pragmatism along with its main tenets; and
.explain how pragmatism has affected various aspects of
education.
2.3
AND
RELATION BETWEEN PHILOSOPHY
EDUCATION
Philosophy and education are considered to be two sides of the same coin.
Philosophy and education are inseparably related, they are dependent upon each
that
other. The persons possessing narrOW viewpoint
philosophy is related to the abstract (soul and God), and education
regarding philosophyis think
related to
the concrete (human behaviour), so they cannot be
interrelated. In our view, it is
their misunderstanding. Education in fact is the practical side of
philosophy. If
there is no philosophy behind education, then its aims would not be clear and due
to indefinite aims the curriculum too would become indefinite and in that situation
proper teaching methods cannot be developed either. Therefore education cannot
run without the help of philosophy.

Philosophy analyzes this universe and human life in it. It considers the ultimate aim
of human life and the means of its realization. Education helps us in realising these
aims. Education brings about change in our behaviour, thinking and develops in
us the powers of observation, testing, thinking and contemplation. On the basis
of this knowledge and skill, we reconstruct philosophy. New philosophy gives
birth to new education and new education gives birth to new philosophy, and this
cycle goes on continuously. In order to understand the interdependenceof
philosophy and education, we will have to see the impact of philosophy on
education and vice versa separately.

2.3.1 Impact of Philosophy on Education

The education of a society is chiefly based on the form of society, its
philosophical thought, political system, economic system, psychological facts and
scientific knowhow. Of these, the impact of philosophy is very stable. The aims
of education are determined by theory of reality of philosophy, the curiculum and
teaching methods, by epistemology and logic, and the duties of the teachers and
students are determined by axiology and ethics. The clarification is presented as
follows.
Philosophy and the concept of education: Philosophy analyzes the form of
education. We come to know the correct concept of education by this analysis.
For example, naturalistic philosophies consider education as a natural activity;
social philosophies consider it as a social activity and spiritual philosophies consider
it as a spiritual activity.

Philosophy and the aims of education: The foremost part of philosophy is

metaphysics. It analyzes creation and creator, soul and God, life and death, etc.,
and on this basis are determined the aims of human life. These aims are realized
15
 naturalistic philosophies consider mansas
For exanple,
Understanding with the help of education. of natural powers of
Education emphasis on the development
a higher animal, so they lay consider him as a social being and
social philosophies
human beings by èducation; consider man
social development, and spiritual philosophies
lay emphasis on his
emphasis on his spiritual
development
as having the soul and lay
of philosophy is
Philosophy and curriculum of education: The second part on its basis, such
and
the form of knowledge,
epistemology and logic. It analyzes which is considered to be
included in the curriculum of education
knowledge is curriculum is the means to
life. Moreover,
essential for the physical and spiritual infhuenced
aims are by philosophy,
realize aims of education therefore if cducational as well.
Historical
influenced by philosophy
it is natural for the curriculum to be has, say,
in which naturalistic philosophy
facts also support this fact. The society and for that physical
to lead a happy life,
man in such a society is prepared included in the
sciences and vocational subjects are chiefly
activities, physical has an infuence, man in
such
social philosophy
curiculum. The society in which
life and for that social subjects and social
a society is prepared to
lead a social
And the society in which
in the curriculum.
activities are given prominent place man is prepared for self
in such a society
an influence,
spiritual philosophy has are included in the

realization and for that literature,

religion and philosophy
cumculum
and logic branches
of
methods: In epistemology
Philosophy and teaching and the methods to attain the knowledge
knowledge
philosophy; human intellect, methods on this basis. For example,
are analyzed. The philosophers provide teaching
consider man as a psychophysical
being so they lay
naturalistic philosophies consider man as a
sense organs; social
philosophies
emphasis on learning by social activities; and spiritual
on training by
social being and they lay emphasis
a being having the soul, so they lay emphasis
philosophies consider man as living
on soul-centred methods.

The third aspect of philosophy

is axiology and
Philosophy and discipline: done refrained by human
the actions that should be
ethics. It analyzes in detail of is determined
the concept discipline
beings. On the basis of this knowledge, consider man as a natural creation and they
For example, naturalistic philosophies
natural morality, social
advise him to abide by the natural laws, they support only
they and advise him to abide bythe
philosophies consider man as a social being
social norms, they term abidance by the social noms as discipline, theysupport
social morality, and spiritualistic philosophies consider man as a living being having
the soul, they advise him to abide by divine laws. To them abidance by divine
laws is discipline, they support spiritual morality.
Philosophy, teacher and student: Axiology and ethics analyze the form ofman
and his doable and undoable actions in detail. According to this analysis, the tom
of teachers and students and their duties are determined. For example, naturaliste
philosophies consider that man is only a natural creation who is borm with certall
low
innate powers on the his development takes place,
basis of which so they
some freedom to man for self-expression. They expect of the teachers only
social
much that they would help in the natural development of the students,s
dens
philosophies consider man as a social being, and they advise teachers ands
to abide by the social conduct and on the
ofsocialsel
lay emphasis development i dono
Ao Dof
at
sense
first; and spiritualistic philosophies consider man as having the souaff sens
distinguish between teacher and student, and they advise about restramto
organs and self control.
Philosophy and school: Often all philosophers lay down code of conduct fo Philosophleal and Soeiologleal
man and they plan education on its basis. Perspectve of Educatton
conduct education. Naturalistic philosophers
They also discuss where and how to
oppose any type of imposed
by the teachers in schools. In naturalistic schools the children are system
free to do things
at any time and at any place of their frec
volition. Social philosophers lay emphasis
on creating higher social environment in the
schools. In these schools, the children
leam by taking part in collective activities in a
group. The schools with spiritual
philosophical ideology lay emphasis on creating spiritual environment. The teachers
in these schools are self-aware and the students are obedient.
Philosophy and other problems of education: Philosophy also considers other
problems of education, such as mass education, women education, state interference
in education, etc. Not only this, we also make use of
the solution of different problems
philosophical principles for
being confronted in educational fields. For
example, we want to give equal opportunity to all people for education in order
to expend education. Now the
question arises whether these opportunities should
be provide or not, and if yes, then how. This
question is answered in different
ways by different philosophies. Naturalistic philosophies consider man only a
natural creation and consider that man takes birth with certain innate powers and
his development dependents upon these
powers and because the innate powers
of man are different, therefore we cannot make individuals similar or
equal. So,
different type of education would have to be arranged for different children. It
means that if we want to give equal opportunity for education to all children, then
we would have to arrange education on the basis of their inherent individual
differences. So philosophies respect individuality of man, but only within social
context. These philosophies do not imagine the existence of man without
society.
These consider education as the birth right of man and this education should be
according to the society. They consider necessary for mass education to be
compliant to individual and social interests and welfare. On the contrary, spiritualistic
philosophies consider man complete from birth itself and consider education as
necessary for the experience of this completeness. In their views, all people are
equal and all of them eligible for education, and equal education should be provided
for them all

2.3.2 Impact of Education on Philosophy

It is not that only philosophy affects education; education too affects philosophy
a lot. Let us learn how-

Education is the foundation stone to development of philosophy: We all are

aware that observation, thinking and meditation are needed for the development
f philosophy. So long as man does not develop institution, he would not be able
to do all these tasks, and development of all these is done by education. We leam
language with help of education and by it we also learn to think. An illiterate
person camnot be expected to develop a subject like philosophy. From this viewpoint,
education is the basis of the development of philosophy.

Education keeps philosophy alive: Philosophers analyze creation and creator,

soul and Go, life and death, etc. The principles laid down by them develop
philosophy as a subject. The knowledge of principles is communicated to the next
generation by education. In the absence of education we can not get knowledge
of these philosophic principles. Thus, education keeps philosophical
knowledge
alive.

17
 principles: Philosophy
Understanding Education gives concrete form to philosophical
Education life in it. It determines aims of human life and
analyzes this universe and human Education is that process by which we
clarifies how these aims can be realized.
education gives concrete form
attain the aims asspecified by philosophy. Thus,
this truth, the English scholar John Adam said
to philosophical thought. Accepting
It is the active aspect of
that education is the dynamic aspect of philosophy.
the ideals of life. The American
philosophical belief, the practical means of realizing words. In his words: It
truth in different
scholar John Dewey has expressed this
its most general phases.
(philosophy) is the theory of education in
Man is a dynamic and
Education acquaints philosophy with new problems:
new problems in his path of development.
progressive being. He confronts
Education acquaints us with these problems and if we have sharp philosophical

it philosophy. The former

intellect, then we consider these problems and develops
of the educationists
Union Minister of Education, Shri Kaluram Shrimali expected "The
solutions to the new problems. In his own words,
to find out philosophical redefine
the country's philosophy and
task of an educationist is to reconstruct
life and thought."
values so that they may interpret our changing
Education develops our powers
Education maintains dynamism ofphilosophy:
makes us sensitive to the new problems of life.
of observation and thinking and
solutions to these problems. In the process of
Philosophers find out philosophical are propounded. All these become
the problem-solving, new philosophical principles
other branches of knowledge, philosophy also
the part of philosophy. Just like
which are proved untrue and it accepts those principles
forsakes those principles
is
It its dynamism. In the absence
which analyze the creation and creator property.
is not possible.
of education, this development of philosophy

Therefore education cannot run without the help of philosophy.

education will never attain complete cleamess

In the words of Fischte: "The art of
in itself without philosophy."
"The process of education can not go
Gentle also hold this view. In his words:
of
along right lines without the help philosophy.

2.4 EDUCATION IN SOCIOLOGICAL

PERSPECTIVES
now move on the-
After discussing education in philosophical perspective, let us
other important perspective that impacts education to a great extent; i.e. sociological
perspective.
form 0
Educational institution is a good sample of society. It is a miniature
society. You can find various groups like group of leamers (boys and girls), grou
of teacher (male and female), and group of non- teaching staff. Various roles ar
evaliano
played in educational institutions like evaluation (peer evaluation, tutor
evaluation of teacher by leamer etc).
n
Teacher play role of Judge (evaluation), helper (help leamer in achieving iea
objectives), detective (find out the law breaker), Idol (promotimg values
environment of educational institution is a complex one and various 1SSu
gender, Social background, language, technology, ideology interplay 1n a omp/a

18 social milieu at micro (within institution) and macro(broad perspective)

us go through these issues in brief, this will be useful in aanging effective learning Philosophleal and Soclologlcal
Perspectives of Education
experience.

Language
A language is a set of visual, auditory, symbols (gesture and posture) of
communication. We know that learning is a process resulting from the
communication. In a single language society where one language is used there is
no concem of language of cducation at local level. But in a bigger social sphere
(global) again language issue comes.
But in a multilingual society the issue of language selection comes at both local and
global level. We can see hue and cry over the language issue in schools. In India
we opt to put our children in English medium schools though our mother tongue
is not English. Non English speaking student need extra effort to get the better
results
Gender
Let us understand what gender is. Gender differs from sex. Sex is a biological
state that defines being male or female. Gender is the social difference a person
faces due to his sex. Did you notice the gender issue; I have uscd his not her.
Ours is a male dominated society and this reflects in educational institutions also.
We have some of the indexes which indicate the social biases in all sphere of
education like language and literature of texts, male female ratio of learners,
teachers.

You can find the status of gender issue in your institution by calculating these
indexes. As well you can decide these indexes by including these issues at policy
making stage.
Ideologies
The term ideology of education is a complex one. This can be defined as the set
of common agreed ideas and beliefs based on which the formal arrangement for
education is made. Ideology is deciding factor at every level of educational activities.
Ideology affects curriculum, flow of order in institution, teaching methods.

Curricula have the strong impression of Idealism, Pragmatism, Essentialism,

Reconstructionism, Existentialism. Generally no single philosophy guides curiculum
but the mixture of philosophies guides the curriculum. Any educational institution
can have any of the following teaching leaming strategies or the mixture of them.

Teacher centered strategy (word of mouth, demonstration)

Learner centered strategy (open school/university, Computer assisted learning,

individual project, Blended learning, flexi-study)

Group learning strategy (group project, tutorial, seminar)

Experiential learning strategy (play and leam, discovery learning, role play,
simulation method).
You can adopt democratic or authoritarian way of giving instruction

Authoritarian order generates fear and gap between learner and teacher whereas
democratic order fills the gap. It is up to you to choose the method of flow of
order.
19
 Philosophical and Soclological
2.5 SOME PHILOSOPHIES (WESTERN) AND Perspectives of Education

THEIR IMPACT ON EDUCATION

Let us now study some of the streams of thought in western philosophy

and sociology to understand education in philosophical and sociological
perspectives.

2.5.1 Idealism

Idealism is that school of westerm philosophy which considers this universe as

created by God and accepts the spiritual world superior to material world. It
considers God as the ultimate reality and soul as the part of God and propounds
that the ultimate aim of human life is self-realization which can be achived by
following moral laws. In philosophy, idealism is the family of views which assert
that reality, or reality as we can know it, is fundamentally mental, mentally
constructed, or otherwise immaterial. Epistemologically, idealism manifests as a
skepticism about the possibility of knowing any mindindependent thing. In a
sociological sense, idealism emphasizes how human ideas especially beliefs and
values-shape society. As an ontological doctrine, idealism goes further, asserting
that all entities are composed of mind or spirit. Idealism thus rejects physicalist
and dualist theories that fail to ascribe priority to the mind.

Religious and philosophical thought privileging the immaterial or supematural over

the material and natural is ubiquitous and ancient. However, the earliest extant
arguments that the world of experience is grounded in the mental derive from
India and Greece. The Hindu idealists in India and the Greek Neoplatonists gave
pantheistic arguments for an all-pervading consciousness as the ground or true
nature of reality. In contrast, the Yogacara school, which arose within Mahayana
Buddhism in India in the 4th century CE, based its "mind-only" idealism to a
greater extent on phenomenological analyses of personal experience. This turn
toward the subjective anticipated empiricists such as George Berkeley, who revived
idealism in 18th-century Europe by employing skeptical arguments against
materialism.

Beginning with Immanuel Kant, German idealists such as G W. F. Hegel,

Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, and Arthur
Schopenhauer dominated 19th-century philosophy. This tradition, which
emphasized the mental or "ideal" character of all phenomena, birthed idealistic
and subjectivist schools ranging from British idealism to phenomenalism to
existentialism to postmodernism.

Idealism is a term with several related meanings. It comes via idea from the Greek
idein , meaning "to see". The term entered the English language by 1796. In
ordinary use, as when speaking of Woodrow Wilson's political idealism, it generally
suggests the priority of ideals, principles, values, and goals over concrete realities.
Idealists are understood to represent the world as it might or should be, unlike
pragmatists, who focus on the world as it presently is. In the arts, similarly,
idealism affims imagination and attempts to realize a mental conception of beauty,
a standard of perfection, in opposition to aesthetic naturalism and realism.

21
 Understanding to the ideal or spiritual realm in
Education Any philosophy that assigns crucial importance"idealist". Metaphysical idealism
its account of human existence may be termed
itself is incorporeal or experiential
is an ontological doctrine that holds that reality
idealists on which aspects of the mental are
at its core. Beyond this, disagrec
abstractions are more basic to reality
more basic. Platonic idealism affirms that
idealists and phenomenalists tend to
than the things we perceive, while subjective
over abstract reasoning.
Epistemological idealism is
privilege
the weakersensory
viewexperience
that reality can only be known through ideas, that only
the mind.
psychological experience can be apprehended by
about a mind-independent
Subjective idealists like George Berkeley are anti-realists
Immanuel Kant are strong skeptics
world, whereas transcendental idealists like idealism. Thus
about such a world, affiming epistemological and not metaphysical
certain whether all
Kant defines idealism as
"the assertion that we can never be
However, not all idealists
of our putative outer experience is not mere imagining".
restrict the real or the knowable to our immediate subjective experience. Objective
that this world
idealists make claims about a transempirical world, but simply deny
to the mental. Thus Plato and
is essentially divorced from or ontologically prior
Gottfried Leibniz affirm an objective and knowable reality transcending our
-

-
idealism but propose that
subjective awareness a rejection of epistenmological idealism. Nor do
a form of metaphysical
this reality is grounded in ideal entities,
on the nature of the ideal; for Plato, the fundamental
all metaphysical idealists agree
while for Leibniz they were proto-mental
entities were non-mental abstract forms,
and concrete monads.

affirm idealism's epistemic side without

As arule, transcendental idealists like Kant
is mental; objective idealists
committing themselves to whether reality ultimatelymental or abstract
basis in the without
like Plato affirm reality's metaphysical
and subjective idealists like
restricting their epistemology to ordinary experience; idealism.
and epistemological
Berkeley affirm both metaphysical

2.5.2 Idealism and Education

Idealism has much influence on education. Several transformations have occured

in the world in the meanwhile, several schools of thought have taken birth and
they have influenced education in their own unique way, but education is still
influenced by idealism in one or the other way. We shall discuss idealist education
in brief.

Concept of education

Idealists accept education in both the forms, as a knowledge and as a

process. Ancient idealists often did not distinguish between education and
knowledge. According to Plato

"Education consists in giving to the body and soul all the perfection of which
they are susceptible." -Plato

However, the idealists of the modem age accept education as a process.

According to the German educationist Herbart."Education is the proces
ofattaining virtues."
22
 Aims of education as per idealism Phllosophical and Soclologlcal
al or spiritual realm in Perspeetives of Edueation
Metaphysical idealism
The ultimate aim is to know the form of soul and God: According to
rporeal or experiential
the ultimate aim ofhuman life is the acquaintance with the soul
ects of the mental are
the idealists,
and God, this is called self-realization, attainment of ideal personality, attainment
basic to reality
more
phenomenalists tend to of God,realization of spiritual completeness or attainment of supreme bliss.
Now the question arises how can the absolute form of soul and God be
emological idealism is
known. According to the idealists, man has to cross four stages for it. At the
gh ideas, that only
first stage, he has to develop his natural 'self". In it comes the physical
d. development of man. Under the second stage, man has to develop his social
"self'. In it are included social, culture, moral, character and citizenship
ut a mind-independent
skeptics development. At the third stage he has to develop his mental self. In it are
are strong
ant
bhysical idealism. Thus included the development of his mental, intellectual and reasoning powers.
whether all
And at the fourth and final stage comes the spiritual development. ldealists
be certain detemine all these as the aims of education. It becomes necessary to consider
not all
idealists
wever, them.
experience. Objective
this world
) Physical and mental development: Idealists consider that the first
and
lydeny that Plato
ntal. Thus requirement for the experience of spiritual completeness is the development
ity transcending our
of natural 'self', so they lay emphasis on physical and mental development
-

sm but propose that at first with the help of education. A person can effect his physical and mental
ical idealism. Nor do development only when he takes such nuterious food and thinks in such a
"lato,the fundamental
manner as may be beneficial for his physical and mental health. However,
y were proto-mental they do not approve of physical and mental development for their own sake.
For them, body and mind are the means for experience of spiritual
completeness and are not the end in themselves. Plato himself laid emphasis
oistemic side without on the physical and mental development in his academy, but he considered
; objective idealists it an auxiliary aim of education, and not the chief aim. The modern idealists
r abstract without too determine it as the first aim of education but they also accept it as a
jective idealists like means only.
m.
ii) Social and cultural development: According to idealists, the second stage
in the path of experience of spiritual completeness is social 'self', so education
should effect the development of social 'self of the individuals. By the
ons have occurred development ofsocial selfis meant that the individual follows the social rules
of behavior and his likings (selection) depends upon social approval or
ve taken birth and
disaproval. At this stage man controls his natural 'self (instinctive behaviour).
education is still In the sociological terminology it is called social developmet. ldealists consider
idealist education that the greatest feature of man is his culture, (living manners, eating habits,
customs, language, literature, art, music and values etc.) The culture takes
him forward from natural self to social self, and then from social self to
spiritual self. Therefore, they lay emphasis on the preservation and development
of human culture, and determine it as an aim of education. T. P. Nunn
and as a considered it as the chief aim of education.
cation and
iv) Moral and character development: Idealists lay emphasis on moral and
character development for the highest development of social self. They clarify
that when man have faith in social rules and abides by them willingly, then
ection of which
we say that his moral development has taken place, and when he does not
leave the path of truth under any circumstances we say that his character
development has taken place. Plato considered morality as the most essential
a process. from the viewpoint of individual, society and state. The German educationist
is the process Herbart even considered moral development as the ultimate aim of education.
Understanding
Education ) Creation of specialists for the state: We are aware that human hein
uman beings
have developed a higher social life in the course of development of t
their
civilization and culture, and has developed the state for ts proper organization
For the protection and development of this complex society or state, each
society or state needs specialists. According to Plato, the state needs all of
soldiers, merchants, administrators, rulers and servants. Therefore one of the
aims of education should be to create specialists for different fields. For it,
he advocated military education for the physically sturdy but lower intellect
people; education of production and industry for the people of higher mental
level and education of administration for the people of still more higher
mental level.
vi) Creation of able citizens: Several idealist philosophers, such as Plato,
Hegel and Fischte, have considered state as the supreme. In their viewpoint,
one of the educational aims should be to create able citizens; for the state.
By able citizens they meant such persons who are loyal to the state and are
always ready for the progress of the state and even forsake their own
interests for the interests of the state. This is the situation when a person rises
above his selfishness in order to look for others' welfare. It is evident that
the social self of such people is developed.
vii) Development ofintellect and wisdom: The third stage for the realization
of spiritual completeness is the development of intellectual self. This is the
situation in which human behaviour is controlled by his intellect and wisdom
rather than by social approvaldisapproval or by state laws. Plato reasons
that man's intellect and reasoning are the bases of all his ideals, activities and
spiritual endeavours. He argues that knowledge cannot be attained without
intellect and reasoning cannot be development without knowledge, and without
reasoning it is not possible to distinguish between truth and untruth
auspiciousness and inauspiciousness, beauty and unbeauty. Therefore
education should be used to develop intellect and reasoning powers in man
The Geman philosopher Kant has laid the most emphasis on the intellectual
development of man.
vii) Development of spiritual consciousness: The fourth and final stage o
the path of spiritual completeness is the development of spiritual self. Idealist
believe that when man rises above his natural self and social self in order t
be controlled by his intellectual self, then he begins to gradually enter th
spiritual self. Socrates considered it to be the basic aim of human life. Hi
pupil Plato clarified that the nature of human is inclined towards truth, beau
and goodness and s/he always makes effort to discover the truth and acoep
only that which is beautiful and good and negates what is not absolute trut
absolute beauty and absolute goodness. Idealists emphasize on training hum
in this process. To them such a human only can discover absolute tru
absolute beauty and absolute goodness. that is, she/he can realize the so
and God, because in its absolute form, the truth, beauty and goodnes u

acquired by the soul and God alone.

Curriculum of Education
Idealists determine self-realization as the ultimate aim of education and for
realizatton of this aim, they lay emphasis on the physical, mental, intellectial,u
and cultural, moral and character and spiritual development of human. And
realization of these aims they give chief place to language, literature, theol0g
24 ethics and secondary place to other subjects and activities in the curmiculum.
According to Greek philosopher Plato the ultimate aim of human life is self Philosophical and Soclologlcal
Perspeetives of Educatlon
realization or attainment of God, and for the achievement of this aim the achievement
of truth, beauty and goodness is essential and these three values are acquired by
the intellectual, moral and aesthetic activities respectively. So Plato laid emphasis
on the inclusion of those subjects and activities in the curriculum which provide
perfection to man in the above activities. He provided language, literature, history
geography, mathematics and physical science for intellectual activities; theology
ethics and spiritual topics for moral activities; and art and music for aesthetic
activities
The Geman cducationist Herbart laid emphasis on moral and character development
for spiritual development of man, and gave important place to language, literature,
history, art and music in the curriculum. According to his opinion, geography,
mathematics and science should be given secondary place in the curriculum.
According to English educationist Nunn only such subjects be included in the
curriculum which provide a glimpse of the human civilization and culure to man,
and by which the children can be disciplined and trained in certain activities. Nunn
has classified specific activities into two classes. In the first group he included
those activities which protect the individual and social life; such as hygiene, social
organization and polite, moral and religious conduct. For it he provided physical
science, sociology, ethics and theology in the curriculum. In the second group he
included the creative activities for the development of civilization and culture, and
for the training of these activities he provided a place for literature, art, music,
history, geography, mathematics, science and handicraft in the curriculum.
Methods of Teaching

ldealists are aware of this fact that the children leam by imitation in the beginning,
so they expect from the parents and teachers to present higher conduct before
the children. They also expect from the teachers to present good models of
handwriting, art and music, by the imitation of which the children may leam. They
also anticipate of the teachers to create in the students the inspiration for competition
to do better. In such a situation, teaching by imitation method is very beneficial.
For the development of values and character they lay emphasis on the presentation
of character of heroes in the seriptures and literature. Idealists believe that man
has the basic instinct of distinguishing between good and bad, by the imitation of
these heroes, he would be able to become a good person.

Idealists are also aware of the fact that man has the inner desire to learn, whatever
he sees or experiences, starts to think over it himself and it does not require any
pressure of an external stimulus. They call it self- activity, and they lay emphasis
on this that the children should be given maximum opportunities for leaming by
self-activity.
Idealists have great respect for the ancient literature. They opine that our ancient
literature is replete with the knowledge as discovered by our ancestors, and we
should take benefit by it. They support self-study method for the study of the
ancient literature. But this method can be used only at the higher level of education
property.
Westerm idealists have developed several teaching methods. Socrates, the teacher
of Plato, educated the youth of his time by the use of debate, lecture and question-
answer methods. He used to gather the youths at any place, presented questions
to them, the youths used to think over these questions and answered, and in the 25
Understanding
Education answers,they were free to ex press their views. On the basis of
method, Plato developed dialectic method. Plato has written question-ansuwer
most of his
in the formm of dialogues. Plato's worle
dialogues are of world fame. His pupil, Aristotle
laid emphasis on inductive and deductive methods. In the
inductive
proceeds from particular to general, and in the deductive method the method, studv
from general to particular. study proceecie
Among the modern idealist philosophers, Hegcl
developed logical method, Pestalozzi developed practice and repetition
Herbart developed instruction method and Frocbel method,
developed play-way method
Discipline
Idealists clarify that the sense
organs of man attract him towards physical pleasure
while his soul towards
spiritual bliss. In their view, true discipline is being guided
by the soul. According to Plato moral conduct is essential for taking the children
towards spirituality. So it is our foremost duty to restrain the children
from immoral
conduct. For it he accepted the provision of strict control and
punishment. On the
other hand, he also opined that true discipline springs from inside by which man
gets inspiration from the inner self and behaves accordingly. So the children
should be given such an environment in which they proceed towards moral conduct.
In the modern times, the German idealist Frocbel clarified that true discipline
cannot be realized on the fear of punishment. Love and sympathetic behaviour are
required for the realization of true discipline. According to him, control over the
child is to be exercised through knowledge of his interest and by expression of
love and sympathy. Horn also laid emphasis on internal discipline. According to
him authority begins by being external, it is sufficient of it ends through habit
fomation and self-control in becoming internal. Thus, all idealists consider discipline
as an inner feeling, and lay emphasis on the development of higher environment
in the schools
Teacher
Idealists give central place to teachers in the educational process. Accordingto
them, teachers are greatly needed for transforming man from animal level to
manhood, and then take him towards divinity. They have clarified that the knowledge
of physical subjects can be imparted to the children by any person, but people
of high moral conduct are needed for their moral and spiritual development.
According to Plato, the persons who have sound knowledge, philosophic attitude
and inner vision can become teacher. According to Froebel, the teacher is just like
a gardener who works in a garden in the form of a school in order to bring about
the growth of plants in the form of students. The teachers can perform this work
only when they have clear knowledge of the nature of children and the process
of their development. So the teachers must have the ability to understand the
students and effect their development in a proper manner

Student
Idealists consider man as having the soul. According to them, the focal centreo
experience is not the mind, but the soul. From this viewpoint, all children are cq
and are able to experience completeness. Most of the idealists lay emphasis
the experience of this completeness. But the modem idealists accept the pu
and mental differences among the children. According to them different o
so
organs function in order to take the knowledge to the soul, such as org
dren

action, sense organs and mind, and all of these are different in different cht
So while effecting development in the children, their mental and pye
26
 development, interests, aptitudes and needs should be kept in view. The German Philosophical and Sociologieal
educationist Pestalozzi was the first person who laid emphasis: on Perspectives of Education
education on the basis of psychological differences. His pupils, providing
Herbart and
Frocbel, gave concrete form to it.
School

ldealists arguc that man can succced in sclf-realization

only when his physical,
mental, intcllectual, social, cultural, moral, character and spiritual developrnent has
taken place. For the development of these,
they consider the social environment
replete with social ideals, values and principles as essential. All these are possible
in the schools only. The students come into contact with ideal tcachers in schools
and get the education of high ideals. According to idealists, schools should be
situated at such places where children can procced forward to the realization of
high social ideals and spiritual values.
Check Your Progress 2

i)What are the aims of education according to idealists?

i) What is the role of teacher according to idealistic philosophy?

2.6 NATURALISM

Naturalism is that school ofwestern philosophy which considers this universe as the
creation ofnature and accepts the material world as real world. It considers the soul
as the consciousness produced in matter and propounds that the ultimate'aim of
human life is to live happily, which can be achieved by following natural laws.
Naturalism commonly refers to the philosophical viewpoint that the natural universe
and its natural laws and forces (as opposed to supernatural ones) operate in the
universe, and that nothing exists beyond the natural universe or, ifit does, it does not
affect the natural universe that we know. Followers ofnaturalism (naturalists) assert
that natural laws are the rules that govern the structure and behavior ofthe natural
universe, that the universe is a product of these laws and that the goal of science is to
discover and publish them systematically

Note that the tem "naturalist" is also used to describe a person involved with natural
history, the scientific study of (or education about) nature and the natural world
(particularly fields of botany and zoology), as distinct from someone holding any
specific philosophicai position. 27
 accounted for by reference t o
nature is best to his/her envi
Kurtz argues that and other physical and onm
Understanding Philosopher Paul include mass, energy,
Education material principles.
These principles Further, this sense of
According to him, th
the scientific community. which s/he is able to
chemical properties accepted by are not real
and that there is no
he has laid
naturalism holds that spirits, deities, and ghosts to as metaphysical emphasi
is usually referred health.
in nature. This sense ofnaturalism
purpose"
naturalism.
naturalism or philosophical iv) Enable man to liv
believe in a god (or gods)
nature is áll there is. They education should be
Theists challenge the idea that they describe the
have a place in their theology; the Almighty makes
that created nature. Natural laws laws do not define nor limit the
causes. But,
natural them. In his words:
effects of so-called secondary they become evil."
deityies), who is the primary cause. children away from
2.6.1 Naturalism and education development in the=
are several
sub-schools of education.
Naturalism took birth as reaction to idealist id. There
a
are basically
have certain distinctions though they
thought in naturalism, and theysciences left no impact on the field of education; but v) Preparation for
similar. Naturalism ofphysical about revolutionary changes somewhat wider.
naturalisSm brought
mechanical naturalism and biological besides his will to
in the field of education.
self-defense, liveli
Concept of education
and political activ-
as education. According to them. complete life.
bookish knowledge
Naturalists do not consider to his nature andto
man to adapt according
education is the one which helps vi) Development of-
true birth to behaviourism in
Mechanical naturalism has given in the experience
make his life happy. behaviour ofman
have analyzed the whole
experiences and
psychology. Behaviourist psychologists naturalists seem to be in the favour of
on the basis of his instincts.
Biological experience Acco
of innate powers of man. They want to enable man to
spontaneous development preservation of
to them, education is the
to his environment. According generation
protect his life and to adapt In the words of Herbert Spencer
external environment.
adjustment ofman with his between the inherent powers and
Education means establishment of coordination
vi) Individual deve=
the outer life. attitudes, intere=
individuals pers-
Aims of education as per naturalism individual devel
the eims of education, and they education.
The naturalists have contributed in determining
several aims of education. We shall discuss these aims here.
have determined Curriculum of Edu
Mechanical naturalism gave
Transformation and sublimation of instincts: Naturalists have cons
birth to behaviourist psychology according to which man is bom with certain
material life as true,
reflex actions come in the contact outer environment so they give most in
reflex actions. When these
the conditioned reflex actions are formed. These conditioned reflex actions science; and the lea
mechanical naturalists consider producing ethics.
help man in doing different tasks. So,
proper and useful conditioned reflex actions in man as the
aim of education.
Rousseau in his bo-
i) Development of power and ability for struggle for Life: According to different levels. He
biologists, cach creature has a desire to live and he has to struggle with his at every level and h
to sports and game
environment at all times for the protection of his life. Darwin has given wO
laws in this regard struggle for existence and survival of the fittest. Accordng companion and se
life in housekeeping.
to him, the aim of education should be to prepare man for struggle for i

According to Her
) Enable man to adjust in his/her environment: The French philosopnc
a complete life. Ac-
can do five tasks
Lamark believed in the above laws of Darwin, but he analyzed them
another form. Lamark believed that each living being has ability to adap
herself
and child-protectie
his/her environment and the more a being is able to adapt himself or n
28
 to his/her environment, the more successful s/he is to protect his/her life. Philosophieal and Sociologlcal
According to him, the aim of education is to develop that power in man by Perspectives of Edueation

which s/he is able to adapt himself/herself to his/her environment. For it, s/

he has laid emphasis on the development of his/her physical and mental
health.

iv) Enable man to live a natural life: According to Rousseau, the aim of
education should be to enable the child to lead a natural life. He believed that
the Almighty makes all things good, but man interferes with them and
pollutes
them. In his words: "God makes all things good, man meddles with them and
they become evil." This is the reason that he was in favour of keeping
children away from the polluted society in order to aid their
independent
development in the natural environment, and considered it to be the aim of
education.
vPreparation for complete living: The viewpoint of Herbert Spencer is
somewhat wider. He also gave significance to his social and political activities
besides his will to live. According to him, education enables man for his/her
self-defense, livelihood, protection of his/her off springs, participation
in socal
and political activities and utilization of leisure. He called it preparation for
complete life.

vi) Development of the qualities of the race: George Bernard Shaw believed
in the experiences of the race and wanted to acquaint man with these
experiences and make him/her able to proceed further with the help of these
experience According to him, one of the aims of education should be the
preservation of the experiences of the race and their transfer to the next
generation.
vii) Individual development of man: Naturalists believe in the innate powers
attitudes, interests, aptitudes and abilities of man, and because no two
individuals persons are equal from this viewpoint, so they emphasizes on
individual development of each man and determine it the important aim of
education.

Curriculum of Education

Naturalists have constructed the cuiculum according to aims. Naturalists consider

material life as true, and lay the most emphasis on its protection and development,
so they give most importance to physical science, health science and biological
science; and the least to literature and music. They give no place to religion and
ethics.

Rousseau in his book Emile' has presented different curricula for the children of
different levels. He has given more importance to physical activities and experiences
at every level and has opposed theoretical knowledge. He gave special significance
to sports and games, swimming, tiling and handicrafts. He accepted women as the
companion and servant of men, so he suggested that they should only be trained
in housekeeping.

According to Herbert Spencer, the aim of education is to prepare learner to lead

a complete life. According to him, only that person can lead a complete life who
can do five tasks successfully-i) self-defence, (ii) livelihood, (ii) procreation
and child-protection, (iv) social and political tasks, and (v) utilization of leisure 29
 has given place to different
Understanding activities, Spencer
time. In order to do these five
Education has included health science for self-defence, language.
He
subjects in the curiculum. science for livelihood, physical science.
mathematics, geography and physical of
science for procreation and rearing offspring
child psychology and home tasks and history, music.
for social and political
history, sociology and economics In his view, literature, art and music
of leisure time.
poetry and art for utilization so the question of
us momentary pleasure,
do not protect our life, they only give our physical
we have succeeded do protecting
acquiring them arises only when to health science
and physical
life. From this view, he has given important place
literature art and music.
sciences; and secondary place to
to both literary and scientific
Huxley was in the favour of giving equal place cultural subject for physical
subjects. He said that it is equally bad to forget
for cultural subjects.
science, as to forget the study of science

Methods of Teaching
children should learn by their own experience.
According to Rousseau, the should be taught by
should not be taught orally, he
According to him, the child
was
Rousseau learning by doing and learning by own
call of
experience. Thus, the
experience.
of knowledge. According to
Rousseau considered sense organs as the gateway

him the sense organs should be developed at first.

of control; he was in favour
Rousseau did not like to keep children under any type
fireedom to the children for spontaneous development. Before
of complete
Rousseau
allowingcame to the fore, the child was considered to be a young-adult. Rousseau
and needs ofa child are
opposed it and said that the interest, aptitude, ability
different from the interest, aptitude, ability needs of an adult. So education should
and needs.
be imparted to him according his interest, aptitude, ability
Rousseau termed the education as positive education that was imparted in the
form of instructions to the children or that was imparted directly with the help of
books and by which the children were compelled to adult's tasks. According to
him, this type of knowledge is not permanent. On the other hand, the knowledge
or activity that the child learns by doing himself is permanent. Rousseau has
temed it as negative education. According to Rousseau, negative education is the
true education.

Herbert Spencer has discussed this subject in detail. According to him, the teacher
should proceed from simple to complex, from known to unknown, from concrete
to abstract, from indefinite to definite. According to him, a teaching method should
be interesting and entertaining.

The discovery method and Dalton method were developed on these principles
The direct method of language teaching and observation method of geograph
teaching are also the gift of naturalists. Naturalists also encouraged education by
play. All these methods give special attention to the children's individual nterest,
aptitude and ability.

Discipline
Naturalists do not accept the spiritual form of the soul, they consider soul
active element produced from matter.
According to them, true education Is to
30 guided by natural self. For the development of this discipline, they opposc a
different Phllosophleal and Soeiologlen
type of outer interference. They believe neither in the punishment nor in teacher's Perspeetives of Edueaiion
language, influence. the of the
I science, They argue that punishment suppresses the inherent powers
children and it hinders the proper personality development. They arguethat the
ffspring; children adopt all good and bad qualities of the tcacher. Naturalists believe that
y, music, a man
nature by itself is a teacher that gives the lesson of discipline to man. When
d music
docs evil, nature itsclf punishes him. According to Rousseau, discipline should be
estion of
maintained by the natural outcomes ofchildren's errors. Thus, Rousseau believed
hysical in natural consequences.
bysical
Herbert Spencer also believed in natural punishment. He opined that the task that
entific begets happiness to man, she accepts it; and the task which gives him/hersuffering.
ysical s/he relinquishes it. This principle of Spencer is known as hedonistic theory. He
argued that nature gives man happiness and sorrow for his/her tasks.
Huxley opposed the views of Rousseau and Spencer both and said that we ought
not imagine proper discipline by nature. According to him, punishment by nature
ence. is a is
very
harsh and illogical. Nature equal punishment whether
gives the error
t by committed knowingly or unknowingly. It provides the same punishment for inability
own and incapability. Ifyou go out during a hail storm, the nature would injure your
head, irrespective of the fact whether you are going out for a noble cause or for
an evil cause. So this approach of discipline should not be accepted by anybody
to According to Huxley, we should give freedom to the children for their spontaneous
development but should also impose certain responsibility upon them, only then
ur their behaviour can become balanced.
re
Rousseau did not give any significance to teacher in the field of education. He said
u
that the teacher is a part of the polluted society, s/he cannot be expected to
e
reform the child. He was in the favour of keeping the child in the lap of nature
in order to bring about his/her independent development. Thus, he considered
nature as the teacher. Biological naturalists attach importance to child's nature.
According to them, each child has certain instincts and his/her development depends
upon these instincts. From this viewpoint, the children are so different that the
teacher cannot call them all cqual or similar. So it is essential for the teacher to
prepare a suitable environment keeping in view the interests, aptitudes, abilities
and needs of the children; in which they learn by doing and experience. Thus,
naturalists consider a teacher not as a tool of imparting knowledge but as a tool
ofpreparing suitable environment for the children. Naturalists only expect of the
teacher this much that s/he is helpful in the spontaneous development of the
children.

Student

Naturalists consider child as the focal pointof education. A child is not bomto
be educated, rather education is organized for effecting his development. Still, all
children are not equal. They are not mini-aduBts to give them adult-like knowledge
from the very beginning. Naturalists keep in view the nature ofthe child -his
her instincts, interests, aptitude, abilities and needs; and they teach the child what
s/he is able to learn and in which s/he displays interest.

School

Rousseau did not think of school as necessary. According to him, the lap of nature
is school, and nature by itself is the teacher. But the naturalists who give significance
31
 to them, whato
s c h o o l s . According the
need of such er
nature accept the e n v i r o n m e n t should be
Understanding to human
but the
school
amay
Education e n v i r o n m e n t may be, all that which is good
SOcial
for human as life is to live happily, which can be ac
children for learning
in the where such envird ironment is given a
arouse the desire place philosophical tradition centered on
school should
be the the
development. Ofcourse a
a whole. The spontaneous naturalists process where theory is extracted
in their its form what is called
children that may help believe that nature by itself determin
e intelligent pra
for school. They
time table meant two things. First. the pragmatism include instrumentalism
oppose any nature is

time for working.

Here once again by at day; and se relativity, a denial of the fact-value dis
at night and working
environment which inspires of sleeping the c h i l d r e n often pay less attenti
that to
We are aware
nature.
The word pragmatism derives fra
the child's at all times; while the or
want to play own ups
etc. and from prasso, "to pass over, to
prac
sunshine, shade, rain, time. So, the time me for an
only at a specific activity a
display interest in playing e n v i r o n m e n t and child's nature 2.7.1 Pragmatism and
natural
naturalist school is better left to slogan of self-discinlin
control; they give the
to any outer
place should rest in children's handa Pragmatism does not believe in
not give any nds.
whole system of school
want that the not determine any
They of educational:
worth mentioning as far as naturalistss are only the principles of their constr
to school are
Two more things related natural gift and support c0-educationin here.
consider sex as a
concerned. First, they
e x a m i n a t i o n s and want to eliminate therm:
oppose in
schools; and second, they Concept of Education
harshness at schools.
order to end with
According to pragmatists, edus
Check Your Progress 3 takes place in the social envir
communicated and develop
naturalists views on curriculum?
What are
1)) capacities in the individual w
**********°*************************°**
************ fulfil his possibilities
***********
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
Aims of Education
***
* * * *
* * * * * * * * * * * * ° * * * *

Pragmatists do not believe

***************.*.
that natural and social envi-
*************************************

new things in this

changing
recommend? therefore the aims of educat
2) What type of discipline does Rousseau
statement is worth mentio
************************
**'****** are of the persons and th
*********
the development of perses

*****
According to pragmatist
this that it should devel
understand their envirom
experiences. Dewey ha
Kilpatric has stressed
determine aims on theb
2.7 PRAGMATISM
abilities in the children
abilities should be de
Meaning and definition of pragmatism
) Development
Pragmatism is that ideologyof western philosophy which considers only practical
to acquireexp
aspect of man. The world "pragmaticos' means practicability or activity. Beca birth in the s
philosophy considers only the practical aspect of man, and considers the unve throughout. H
the outcome of activities, so it is called should use e
pragmatism.
are able to u
expect of mar
Pragmatism is that school of westem philosophy which considers this unve seas
the outcome of different elements and
activities, and accepts the natural values, rather
the only real world. It does not consider l asan
about God and accepts the su of his/her ow
active element produced from matter, and human
32 propounds that the ultimate aim o understandin
life is tolive hapily, which can be achieved by following social laws. Pragmatism is Philosophical and Sociological
Perspectives of Education
a philosophical tradition centered on the linking of practice and theory. It describes
a process where theory is extracted from practice, and applied back to practice to
form what is called intelligent practice. Important positions characteristic of
pragmatism include instrumentalism, radical empiricism, verificationism, conceptual
relativity, a denial of the fact-value distinction, a high regard for science, and fallibilism.

The word pragmatism derives from Greck pragma, "deed or act", which comes
from prasso, "to pass over, to practise, to achieve".

2.7.1 Pragmatism and Education

Pragmatism does not believe in any definite truth. This is the reason that it does
not determine any of educational aims, curriculum, teaching methods, etc. It presents
only the principles of their construction. A bricf discussion of them is being presented
here.

Concept of Education

According to pragmatists, education is the process of development of man which

takes place in the social environment. By it the culture of a society is preserved,
communicated and developed. So education is the development of all those
capacities in the individual which will enable him to control his environment and
fulfil his possibilities.

Aims of Education

Pragmatists do not believe in any predetermined ideals and values. They clarify
that natural and social environment of man keeps changing and man experiences
new things in this changing environment, and constructs new ideals and values;
therefore the aims of education cannot be determined In this context, John Dewey's
siatement is worth mentioning. He said that education has no aims of its own, aims
are of the persons and there is a great difference in the aims of persons, and as
the development of persons takes place, their aims also keep changing.

According to pragmatists, if any aim of education can be determined, then it is

this that it should develop such powers in the children that they become able to
understand their environment and construct their ideals on the basis of acquired
experiences. Dewey has stressed the development of social skills and his student
Kilpatric has stressed education of democracy. Thus, the pragmatists do not
determine aims on the basis of ideals, rather they present the creation of different
abilities in the children as different educational aims. In their view, the following
abilities should be developed in children with the help of education

Development of the power to understand the social environment,

to acquire experiences in the children: Man is a social being, he takes
birth in the society and lives in the society and ends in the society
throughout. His social environment continues to change at all times. We
should use education to develop such abilities in children by which they
are able to understand their environment and adapt to it. Pragmatists
expect of man that s/he would not accept any predetermined ideals and
values, rather s/he would determine his/her ideals and values on the basis
of his/her own experiences. For it, the children will have to be trained in
understanding the problems, finding their solutions, act, use, draw inferences