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SENSITIVITY AND COORDINATION

 Why do organisms need sensory and coordination abilities?

So that they can find resources, avoid danger and to time their reproduction with favorable season.

 An organism’s sensory and coordination system depends on the mobility of the organism.

Endocrine vs Nervous system

Endocrine system is a system of ductless glands which produces hormones

Nervous system is a body system that receives, transmits and responds to environmental stimuli.
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SENSITIVITY AND COORDINATION IN PLANTS

 Plants produce hormones and respond to external stimuli, growing towards sources of
water and light, which they need to survive.
 A tropism is a growth in response to a stimulus and an auxin is a plant hormone produced
in the stem tips and roots, which controls the direction of growth. Plant hormones are
used in weed killers, rooting powder and to control fruit ripening

 Plant hormones control tropisms as well as growth and reproduction.

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SENSITIVITY AND COORDINATION IN ANIMALS

 Animals are different from plants because of their ability of locomotion.

 This ability probably developed as they have to search for food, unlike the plants that are
autotrophic.
 Since they move from one place to another, the animals have to continuously encounter
changes in their environment.
 In order to maintain a steady state within the body (homeostasis), all animals should be
able to recognize these changes and adapt to them.
 With increasing complexity in their structure, the number and types of cells in the animal
body increased.
 Thus it became necessary to have some coordinating mechanism.
 Two systems have been developed for better control and coordination of the various
activities of the organisms.
 These systems are the nervous system and the endocrine system.

What role do the following play in sensing stimuli and coordinating response in animals?

1. Receptors: sense stimuli and perceive information from the environment useful to their
survival e.g. human fingertips, eyespot in Euglena, pythons and snakes perceiving
temperature of prey, sharks ampullae of Lorenzini.
2. Communication system: carries message between receptors and effectors. E.g. nerve net
in Hydra, and vertebrates have neural network with brain and spinal cord. Both neural
impulses and hormones are used for communication by most organisms.
3. Effectors: muscles and glands that bring about responses.

TYPES OF BODY SYMMETRY

Radial Symmetry

 Radial symmetry is the arrangement of body parts around a central axis, like rays of a sun
or pieces of a pie.
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 Radially symmetrical animals have top and bottom surfaces, but no left and right sides, or
front and back.
 Cnidarian (corals, sea anemones, and other jellies). Radial symmetry enables these sea
creatures, which may be sedentary or only capable of slow movement or floating, to
experience the environment equally from all directions.

Bilateral Symmetry

 Bilateral symmetry involves the division of the animal through a plane, resulting in two
mirror-image, right and left halves, such as those of a butterfly, crab, or human body.
 Animals with bilateral symmetry have a "head" and "tail" (anterior vs. posterior), front
and back (dorsal vs. ventral), and right and left sides.
 All true animals, except those with radial symmetry, are bilaterally symmetrical.
 The evolution of bilateral symmetry and, therefore, the formation of anterior and
posterior (head and tail) ends promoted a phenomenon called cephalization, which refers
to the collection of an organized nervous system at the animal's anterior end.
 In contrast to radial symmetry, which is best suited for stationary or limited-motion
lifestyles, bilateral symmetry allows for streamlined and directional motion.
 In evolutionary terms, this simple form of symmetry promoted active mobility and
increased sophistication of resource-seeking and predator-prey relationships.

Asymmetry

 Only members of the phylum Porifera (sponges) have no body plan symmetry. There are
some fish species, such as flounder, that lack symmetry as adults. However, the larval
fish are bilaterally symmetrical.

INVERTEBRATES

Name Type of symmetry Type of Nervous system

Cnidarians Radial Nerve net- touch receptors on skin stimulated and
this starts reflex action.
Molluscs Bilateral Simple nerve network controlled by braain like
neuron in “kai”, squids and octopuses have
deveoped eyesight and large complex brain
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Annelids Bilateral Ganglia connected by nerve cords

Arthropods Bilateral Dorsal brain and ventral nerve cord with ganglia.

VERTEBRATES

 Most complex nervous system

 Well- developed sense organs
 Complex motor structures
 Centralized processing and control center – brain and spinal cord

REPRODUCTION

- Organisms are designed to survive and reproduce. Of all the processes an organism is capable of
performing, reproduction is the one which determines the success of the organism.
- Plants and animals have developed many strategies for reproduction.

Common Terms

1. Asexual reproduction- production of offspring from one parent, without the union of two
gametes.
2. Sexual reproduction- production of genetically unique offspring by the joining of two haploid
gametes.
3. Haploid- cell with only one chromosome of each homologous pair.
4. Diploid- having two sets of chromosomes, in homologous pairs.

Trends in Reproductive Strategies

 Asexual and Sexual Reproduction: slow trend towards sexual reproduction.

 Haploid and Diploid stages: trend towards longer diploid stages.
 Reproduction on Land vs Water: life began in the sea but as life moved to land structures
developed to assist in reproduction on land. The need for water as medium of fertilization
decreased.
 Parental investment in Offspring: trend towards lesser offspring and more parental care.

REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

Evolutionary trend:

1. Sexual reproduction rather than asexual.

2. Diploid stages of life dominant rather than haploid.
3. Adaptations for terrestrial reproduction such as non-swimming sperm and protected embryos.
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REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS

- Complex animals capable of only sexual reproduction; simple animals capable of asexual
reproduction.
- Asexual reproduction involves production of offspring from one parent, without the union of
two gametes.
- Sexual reproduction involves production of genetically unique offspring by the joining of two
haploid gametes.
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REPRODUCTION

ASEXUAL SEXUAL

BUDDING FRAGMENTATION REGENERATION BINARY FISSION

STRATEGIES FOR SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

External fertilisation: male gametes fertilise(fuse) the female

gametes outside the body

Internal fertilisation: male gametes fertilise(fuse) the female

gametes inside the body.

External development: the embryo develops outside the

mother's body.

Internal development:the embryo develops inside the mother's

body.

REPRODUCTIVE SUCCESS

PLANTS ANIMALS
Double fertilisation Parental care
Seed dormancy Courtship behavior
Dispersal methods Pair bonding
Territorial behaviour
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STRAND 2 LIVING TOGETHER

ORGANISMS AND THE ENVIRONMENT

POPULATION

- A population can grow very fast. As different as populations may be—whether cacti, finches, dragon-
flies, or iguanas—all populations go through the same three stages of change: growth, stability, and
decline.

- All living things need resources such as water, energy, and living space.

- Populations get their resources from the environment. However, the area a population occupies can
support only so many individuals.

- Carrying capacity is the maximum number of individuals an ecosystem can support.

-During the growth stage, populations can increase according to two general patterns. One pattern is
rapid growth, which increases at a greater and greater rate. Another pattern is gradual growth, which
increases at a fairly steady rate. The two graphs below show the two different types of growth.
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Sigmoid curve

CHARACTERISTICS OF A POPULATION

1. Population Size is the number of individuals in a population at a given time. Even when the
population size appears to be stable over time, changes can occur from year to year or from
place to place. Population size varies from one habitat to another. It also varies within a single
habitat.
2. Population Density is a measure of the number of individuals in a certain space at a particular
time. Population density is related to population size. If a population’s size increases and all of
the individuals remain in the same area, then population density increases, too. There are more
individuals living in the same amount of space. If the size of a population in a particular area
decreases, density also decreases. Copy example on density calculation page 163.
3. Population range- refers to the area within which the population is found. Population density
varies within the range depending on the type of distribution pattern
4. Age Structure- within any population there are individuals of different ages. Scientists divide a
population into three groups based on age.
•post reproductive: organisms can no longer reproduce
•reproductive: organisms capable of reproduction
•pre reproductive: organisms not yet able to reproduce

-The age structure of a population affects how much it can grow.

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SURVIVORSHIP CURVES

- Survivorship curves show the distribution of individuals in a population according to age.

- Humans and most mammals have a Type I survivorship curve, because death primarily occurs in
the older years.
- Birds have a Type II survivorship curve, as death at any age is equally probable.
- Trees have a Type III survivorship curve because very few survive the younger years, but after a
certain age, individuals are much more likely to survive.

AGE PYRAMIDS

- shows information about the number of organisms of a particular age group that is alive in a
population.

- it helps to determine whether the population is increasing or decreasing.

Factors Affecting Population Growth

- The growth and shrinkage of a population is controlled by ABIOTIC and BIOTIC factors.
- The factors affecting population size and growth include biotic factors such as food, disease,
competitors, and predators and abiotic factors such as rainfall, floods, and temperature.
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- The effects of biotic factors, such as competition, parasitism/disease, predation and toxic waste,
are often influenced by population density, biotic factors are often referred to as density-
dependent factors.
- Abiotic factors such as floods and extreme temperature can exert their influences independently
of population density and so are often called density- independent factors.

COMMUNITY

- Group of plant and animal populations that live in a particular area at a particular time and
interact with each other.
- Populations within a community play specific roles and interact with each other in one way or
another.
- COMMUNITY INTERACTIONS

INTERACTION

COMPETITION PREDATION

HERBIVORY SYMBIOSIS

AMMENSALISM COMMENSALISM

MUTUALISM PARASITISM
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COMMUNITY PATTERNS

1. ZONATION
- Is the division of organisms into areas or zones of varying environmental factors.
- Since different species live in different zones, there is reduced competition amongst them.
- Species live in different zones according to their adaptations.
- Zonation is horizontal division of resources.
- Examples: beach, stream ecosystem, sides of high mountains.

2. STRATIFICATION
- Is the vertical layers of organisms in communities.
- Each layer (stratum) has organisms living in it depending on the requirements.
- Competition is reduced by dividing organisms into separate layers and the various strata create
large number of habitats hence increasing the diversity and number of organisms the ecosystem
can support.
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- Examples: forest communities.

Layer Sunlight Humidity Wind

Canopy High Low High
Sub canopy Medium Medium Medium
Forest floor Low High low
- Stratification also occurs in oceans.

3. SUCCESSION
- Orderly progression of species composition in an empty area of land beginning from pioneer
species to a stable community.

- Primary succession occurs on land that has not previously supported life
- Secondary succession occurs on land that has previously supported life eg. After fire, drought
etc.
- Succession divides resources between different species with respect to time.
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COMMUNITY PERIODICITY

- Periodicity is an organism’s cycle of activity according to time periods.

- It divides resources between species since they are using resources at different times.
- Examples :
A. DAILY CYCLES- based on 24 hours.
- Diurnal – active during the day eg birds
- Nocturnal – active at night eg bats
- Crepuscular – active near sunset eg mosquitoes, frogs, crabs, rabbits.
- Tides – daily there are high tides and low tides.
B. SEASONAL CYCLES – plants have different life cycle
- Annual plants – germinate, grow, reproduce and die within a year. They are adapted to survive
harsh infertile environments and are dispersed widely by wind to new unexploited habitats.
Perennial plants live for more than a year and invest in support and energy storage.
- Hibernation – during winter trees drop their leaves and animal hide and sleep through the
season.
- Aestivation – seasonal behavior in response to high temperature and dry conditions. Animals
such as crabs are inactive and found at the bottom of their burrows during dry season.
C. PHOTOPERIODISM
- Response to the length of the day. Plants flower in response to day length eg long day plants-
oats, peas, wheat. Short day plants – cotton and rice.

BIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES

1. GAUSE’S LAW OF COMPETITIVE EXCLUSION

- States that two species with the same niche cannot co-exist in the same area for very long. Eg
flour beetle.
2. LIEBIG’S LAW OF THE MINIMUM
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- States that out of all resource requirements of an organism, one resource will be scarce than
others. Hence this resource will be the limiting factor. Eg desert plants have enough carbon
dioxide and sunlight but water is scarce.
3. TOLERANCE
- The area between the minimum and maximum conditions in which an organism can survive is
the range of tolerance. Eg humans tolerance range for temperature is between 12 oC - 44OC.
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STRAND 3 BIODIVERSITY, CHANGE AND SUSTAINABILITY

SUB STRAND : DIVERSITY OF LIVING ORGANISMS

CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

• ACITVITY – Read pages 181-183 and answer the following questions

1. Which scientist was the first to discover taxonomic system and in which year?

2. What did Thomas Whittaker discover in 1969?

3. Who proposed reorganization of the five kingdom system in three domains and in which year?

4. State the three domains and six kingdoms.

5. State the hierarchy grouping for each kingdom.

6. Explain why classification system is used.

7. Discuss the three features used to identify organisms.

SUB STRAND: ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES AND ECOSYSTEMS

Read pages 185-193 and answer the following questions

1. Name at least three natural greenhouse gases and justify their presence in the atmosphere.

2. Differentiate between the terms ‘greenhouse effect’ and ‘enhanced greenhouse effect’.

3. What is an ozone hole?

4. Name three sources of human induced greenhouse gases.

5. Give examples of two products that contain chlorofluorocarbon (CFC).

6. List four factors that cause coral bleaching.

7. Explain the phenomenon of ‘ocean acidification’ and ‘salt intrusion’.

8. How does climate change affect the tourism industry?

9. State practices that you can observe at home to reduce the impact of EGHE.

10. How can you as a youth spread awareness in your community on climate change?