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Department of Civil Engineering

IV B.Tech I Semester
WRE-II
Unit - 1
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Unit – 1
Topics to be covered: Irrigation and importance, Principal crops and crop
seasons; Types; Methods of application; Soil-water plant relationship, Soil-
moisture constants, Consumptive use; Estimation of consumptive use; Crop
water requirement; Duty and Delta; Factors affecting duty; depth and frequency
of irrigation; irrigation efficiencies; water logging and drainage; Standards of
quality of water for irrigation; crop rotation.
Day 1 & 2
Topics to be covered: Necessity of irrigation
Q1. Define irrigation.
Irrigation is defined as the process of artificially supplying water to soil to raise
crops.
Q2. What is irrigation engineering?
Irrigation engineering deals with the various engineering works (design and
execution)that are to be executed on the river for construction of canals,
discharge outlets on canals, drainage of irrigated areas, and generation of hydro
electric power.
Q3. What is the necessity of irrigation?
In India, rainfall is seasonal and limited. To raise agricultural output, supply of
water is required as per the crop requirements. As such, irrigation works are
executed to store the water when it is available in abundance and supply it to
the fields whenever required. Further electrical power can also be produced
from hydraulic energy through appropriateconveyancemethods from storage
reservoirs to power house.
The necessity of irrigation can be realized from the following reasons.
1) Less rainfall: Normal rainfall is less in quantity to raise crops. Further
rainfall does not occur during the crop period at the required rate.
2) Crop pattern: Rainfall may be in sufficient quantity to raise one crop. But if
more crops are raised during the year, rainfall alone is not sufficient to
meet the requirement.
3) Controlled water supply: by the construction of reservoir and proper
distribution system, the yield of the crop may be raised by controlled
supply of water to crops.
Q4. What are the benefits of irrigation?
The main benefits of irrigations are:
i) Increased food production, protection from famine and possibility of
raising cash crops.
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ii) Addition to wealth of people and country
iii) Development of hydro power
iv) Domestic and Industrial water supply.
v) Inland navigation & transport through canals roads.
vi) Improvement in ground water storage, which helps growth of crops &
trees.
Q5. What are the ill-effects of excess irrigation?
Excess irrigation leads to
i) Water logging i.e., Rise of water table which causes damages to the root
zone.
ii) Breeding of mosquitoes
iii) Damp Climate
Q6. What methods of irrigation are used?
Basically three methods of irrigations are used:
i) Surface irrigation: Water is applied to the field directly at the ground
surface.
ii) Subsurface irrigation: Water is supplied at the root zone of plants, either
by raising the ground water table or by distributing water through
buriedperforated pipes.
iii) Sprinkler irrigation/Drip irrigation: In sprinkler irrigation, water is
supplied in the form of spray to the crops; in drip irrigation (also called
trickle irrigation), water is supplied in the form of drops directly near the
base of the plant.
Q7. What are the functions of irrigation water?
Water supplied to the crops saves the following functions:
i) It acts as a solvent for the nutrients and the solution is absorbed by the
roots.
ii) Moisture in soil is essential for the life of bacteria, beneficial to the plant
growth; irrigation water makes the soil moist.
iii) Chemical action for the growth of plants is achieved.
iv) Salts present in the soil, along with water supplied, help the plant
growth.
v) Water cools the soil and the atmosphere, thereby helping plant growth.
vi) Irrigation water dilutes the undesirable & harmful salts, thus protecting
the plants.
vii) Helps agricultural operations.
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Q8. What are the qualities of irrigation water?
The quality of irrigation water depends on various impurities present in water.
The most important of them are
i) Concentration of soils in water.
ii) Total concentration of soluble salts. (TDS)
iii) Proportion of sodium ions to other cations.
iv) Concentration of toxic elements such as boron concentration.
v) Concentration of bicarbonate in relation to concentration of calcium
and magnesium.
vi) Bacterial concentration.
Based on the above factors, suitability or unsuitability of water to raise crops is
decided.
Q9. How do you classify water available in the soil?
Water present in the soil is classified under three heads as:

i) Hygroscopic water: When an over-dried sample is kept open in the

atmosphere, the water absorbed by it is known under this name.
ii) Capillary water: It is that part in excess of hygroscopic water, which
exists in the pore space of the soil by molecular attraction.
iii) Gravitational water: It is that part in excess of hygroscopic and capillary
water which will move out of the soil if favorable drainage arrangement
is provided.
Note: Water is also classified as unavailable, available & superfluous as shown in
figure. For definition of wilting coefficient, see below under soil – moisture
constants.
Q10.What are soil – moisture constants?
The soil-moisture constants are defined below
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i) Saturation-capacity/Maximum moisture holding capacity/Total
capacity:It is the amount of water required to fill all the pore spaces in
the soil (by replacing air held in the pore spaces). It is expressed as
equivalent cm. of water per metre depth of soil. For example if porosity:
50% by volume, then saturation capacity: 50cm of water per meter
depth of saturated soil.
ii) Field capacity: It is the moisture content of soil after free drainage has
removed most of the gravity water.
iii) Wilting point/Coefficient Permanent wilting point/wilting coefficient is
that water content at which plants can no longer extract sufficient water
from the soil for its growth. It thus corresponds to the lower end of the
available moisture range. If the plant does not get sufficient water to
meet its needs, it will wilt permanentlyi.e., it will not regain its turgidity
even after being placed in a saturated atmosphere. It means that the
plant is not able to extract water for its growth if moisture falls below
this level.
Field Capacity
Its value= 2.4 ¿∨150 % of hygroscopic water
2¿
Temporary wilting: It corresponds to a state where soil moisture is at
higher level than that corresponding to permanent wilting. Such a
condition occurs temporarily due to extreme hot windy days; however
the plant recovers during the cooler hours of the day without any
additional input of water.
Ultimate wilting: It corresponds to the lowest level of capillary
water/top level of hygroscopic water; in this state, the plant will not
recover and dies even if water is added to it. Hence
Ultimate wilting point = Hygroscopic coefficient
2
Hygroscopic coefficient ¿ 3 of wilting point.
iv) Available Moisture/Water: It is the difference in moisture content of the
soil between field capacity an permanent wilting point.
v) Readily available moisture is the portion of moisture that is most easily
available and extracted by plants = 75% of available moisture
Note: The values depend on type of soil.
vi) Moisture equivalent: It is an artificial moisture property of the soil, used
as an index of the natural properties. It is determined in the laboratory
by subjecting a small sample of wet soil 1cm deep to a centrifugal forces

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of 1000 x g (where g is acceln. due to gravity) for a period of about 30
minutes.
Its value
Moisture equivalent = Field capacity
= 1.8 – 2 x (permanent wilting point)
= 2.7 x hygroscopic coefficient
Q11. How do you find depth of water stored in roof zone of soil containing
water up to field capacity?
Let d – depth of soil in root zone
F c - Field capacity (expressed as ratio)
γ w - Unit weight of water
γ d - Unit weight of dry soil
Taking 1 sq. m of soil area,
Wt of water retained∈unit area
F C=
Weight of soil∈unit area ( γ d × 1× d )
∴ Weight of water retained in unit area ¿ F c ( γ d ×1 × d )
F c . γ d × 1× d
∴ Depth of water stored in root zone (d w ) ¿ γ w ×1
(¿ m)

Since part of this water gets lost by evapo-transpiration we may modify it as

γd
dw = .d [ Field capacity ( F c ) −Wilting coefficient ( ω p ) ]
γw
Examples:
1. The root zone of an irrigation soil has dry weight of 15 KN /m3 and a field
capacity of 30%. The root zone depth of a crop, having permanent wilting
coefficient of 8%, is 80cm. Determine (a) Depth of moisture in the root zone
at field capacity (b) depth of moisture in the root zone at permanent wilting
point (c) depth of water available (Ref. Punmia, P.52)
γd
Sol: (a) Depth of water in root zone at field capacity ¿ γ × Field capcity
w
15
¿ ×0.3=0.459 m
9.81
γ
(b) Depth of water in root zone at wilting point ¿ γ ( w p )
d

w
15
¿ ×0.08=0. 122m
9.81
(c) Depth of water available in root zone
γd 15
¿ ( f c −w p ) d= ( 0.3−0.08 ) × 0.8=0.269 m
γw 9.81
2. Find the field capacity of soil for the following date: Root zone depth = 2m,,
Existing water content: 5%, Density of soil ¿ 15 KN /m3; water applied to soil =
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500m ; water loses due to evaporation and deep percolation: 10%, Area of
3

plot: 1000 sq.m. (Punmia, P.53)

Net water absorbed by soil = Applied vol – Evap& percolation loss
= 500 – 10% of 500 = 450 m3
Wt of water added 450 ×9.81
% of water added ¿ Wt of dry soil ×100 = ( 1000× 2 ) × 15 ×100=14.72
∴ Field capacity = Existing water content + water added
(%) = 5+14.72 = 19.72
Homework:
1) What is irrigation and its necessity?
2) What are the ill effects of irrigation?
Previous JNTUK Questions:
1) Find the frequency of irrigation for the following data (R13 NOVEMBER 16)
Field capacity: 27%
Wilting point: 14%
Density of soil: 1.5 g/cm3
Root zone depth: 75 cm
Daily consumptive use: 11 mm
Day 3 & 4
Topics to be covered: Limiting soil – Moisture conditions; Depth and frequencies
of irrigation consumptive use of water and its determination.
Q1. Explain the meaning of Limiting soil moisture conditions.

It is essential to maintain a reasonable amount of moisture in the soil for the

proper growth of crops. It should neither be too less nor too excessive. This
amount of moisture is known as the readily available moisture as shown in
figure.
As shown in figure,
w p - wilting coefficient

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fc – field capacity
mo - lower limit of moisture for plant growth
If moisture content ¿ mo, plant cannot extract water from soil
If moisture content ¿ f c, all pores are saturated with water and air gets expelled.
Absence of air is not helpful for growth of plant.
Readily available Moisture = Moisture within mo∧f c
It is generally, 75 – 80% of ( f c −w p)
Q2. What is the significance of readily available moisture in the frequency of
irrigation?

This effect can be shown by the graph in figure.

At t = 0, irrigation water is given to the crop. Then this water is used by the crop
for its growth and in some days, the soil moisture falls down as shown by the
curve AB. When the soil moisture falls down to mo-level, water has to be supplied
to the crop, as shown by BC.
The frequency of irrigation can be found as follows:
rdd
Let dw =
rw
( F C −ω P ) - Depth of water to be given during each watering
cu = daily rate of consumption use (Takes care of evaporation & transpiration)
dw
Frequency of irrigation ¿ c ( days )
u

Q3. How do you find the time required to irrigate a growth area?
Let Q – Discharge in the field channel (m3 / s )
A – Area to be irrigated (m2)
d w - depth of water to be applied to bring the soil moisture content from wp
to f c
Ad w
Then time required ( t )= Q
( seconds )

If A is expressed in hectares and

If d w is expressed in m
Then
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4
A ×10 × d w
t= seconds
Q
A × 104 × d w 2.778 Ad w
¿ hours= hours
Q ×3600 Q
Examples:
1. Find the frequency of watering for the following crop condition.
f c =27 % ; w p=14 % , γ d =15 KN /m ; Effective depth of root zone = 75cm
3

Daily consumptive use of crop = 11mm (Punmia P.55)

Sol: Readily available moisture = [0.75 – 0.8][ f c −w p]
= 0.8[27-14] = 10.4%, taking 0.8
∴ mo=f c −10.4=27−10.4=16.6 %
Hence when water is applied, moisture is raised from 16.6% to 27%
γdd
Depth of water is root zone, during each watering (d w ) ¿ [ f −mo ]
γw c
15
¿ ×0.75 ( 0.27−0.166 )=0.119 m∨119 mm
9.81
d w 119
Frequency of watering ¿ c = 11 =10.8 days
u

2. What time is required if the above watering is made of Q = 20lps and

2
A=1000 m
Sol:
A d w 0.119 ×1000
t= = ( seconds )
Q 20 ×10−3
2
119× 10 1 59.5
¿ × hrs= =1.66 hrs∨1 h 40 min
2 3600 36
Q4. What is consumptive use of water?
The depth of water consumed by evaporation and transpiration during crop
growth is known as EVAPO-TRANSPIRATION or CONSUMPTIVE USE of water. It
includes water consumed by weed growth as well as water deposited by dew or
rainfall which evaporates without entering the plant system.
Q5. What is evaporation?
Evaporation is the process of transfer of water form liquid to vapor state and
occurs at the water surface. The rate of evaporation depends on the difference
between the vapor pressure at the surface and that of the overlying air.
Q6. What is transpiration?
It is the process by which plants dissipate water from the surface of the leaves,
stalks and trunks in the process of growth. Nearly 99% of the water received by
the plant at its roots is lost to atmosphere through transpiration. It is associated
with photo synthesis of plants during the day (i.e., light hours)
Q7. What factors affect consumptive use of water?
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Factors which influence consumptive use are:
(i) Humidity (ii) Mean temperature (iii) Growing period of crop and cropping
pattern (iv) Precipitation (v) Depth of water applied on the field (vi) wind velocity
(vii) soil type (viii) land topography (ix) Irrigation methods.
Q8. Define Potential Evapo Transpiration (PET) and Actual Evapo-Transpiration
(AET)
When soil moisture is corresponding to the field capacity, then both PET and
AET are same
If soil moisture fails below field capacity, then actual evapo-transpiration is less
(AET < PET)
At field capacity, sufficient moisture is always available for plant growth. At
lesser values of field capacity, soil moisture is not adequate for plant growth.
At low values of (AET/PET), the plant will wilt.
Q9. What methods are available for determining consumptive use?
Five methods are used for determining consumptive use
(i) Tank and lysimeter method (ii) Experiments on field (iii) Soil-Moisture studies
(iv) Integration method (v) Inflow-outflow studies for large areas.
Q10. Explain tank and lysimeter method of determination of consumptive use.
In this method, tank of 10 m2 area and 3m deep is filled with soil. It is constructed
flush with the ground level. Crop is grown on the soil.
Consumptive use is measured by measuring the quantity of water required
to maintain constant moisture condition within the soil layer, for satisfactory
crop growth.
In lysimeters, the bottom is pervious, Consumptive use corresponds to the
difference in water quantity applied and that collected at the bottom in a pan.
Q11. Can consumptive use be determined from equation?
Yes, three equations are available for finding consumptive use.
Q12. Give the equations for consumptive use (Cu)
i) Blaney-Criddle Method:
C u=kf
where Cu =Monthly consumptive use in C m
k = Monthly crop coefficient
f = Monthly consumptive use factor
p
and f =0.0457 t m +0.8128 por f = 40 [ 1.8 t +32 ]
where t m = Mean Monthly Temp(oC)
p = monthly % of hours of bright sunshine in the year
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Tables are given fort m∧ p
ii) Penman Method:
AH +α E a
Et =
A +α
where
Et = Evapo-transpiration, mm/day
α =Psychomatic constant = 0.49 Hg/oC
A = Slope of curve between saturated vapour pressure and temp. at mean
air temp
Ea = Drying power of air, which depends on wind velocity and depends on
difference of saturation vapour pressure of water at mean temp and actual
vapour pressure in the air, expressed in mm of Hg.
H = daily net radiation in mm of water
Tables are given for the above quantities.
iii) Hargreevas Class A Pan. Evaporation Method
Used in India
Consumptive use, C u∨Et =kE p where
E p = Class A pan evaporation
k= consumptive use coefficient depending on crop and environmental
conditions.
E p depends on extra-terrestrial radiation, temp, wind velocity, relation
humidity, sunshine hours, elevation of place etc.
Homework:
1) Explain the meaning of Limiting soil moisture conditions
2) Give the equations for consumptive use (Cu)
3) Define Potential Evapo Transpiration (PET) and Actual Evapo-Transpiration
(AET)
Day 5 & 6
Topics to be covered: Principal crops and crop seasons; Duty and Delta; GCA &
CCA; Intensity of irrigation; efficiencies.
Q1. How are crops classified?
Crops are classified as follows:
a) Agricultural classifications:
i) Field crops such as wheat, rice, maize, pulses, millets etc.
ii) Commercial crops such as sugarcane, cotton, tobacco etc.
iii) Horticultural crops such as fruit crops, vegetables, flowers etc.
iv) Plantation crops such as tea, coffee, coconut, rubber, cocao etc
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v) Forage crops such as folder grass etc.
vi) Misceleneous – medicinal crops, aromatic crops, spices, sericulture etc.
b) Classification based on crop seasons
i) Rabi crops or winter crops – Sown in autumn (october)
ii) Kharif crops or monsoon crops – Sown at the beginning of monsoon &
harvested in autumn.
iii) Perennial crops – Crops wheel need irrigation over the year
iv) Eight months crops – Requiring irrigation for 8 months (eg. cotton)
c) Classification based on irrigation requirements:
Classified as (i) Dry crops: Rainfall is adequateno need for irrigation
(ii) wet crops: Require Irrigation
(iii) Garden crops: Require water throughout the year.
Q2. What are the principal crops in India?
The table below gives the principal crops in India and the avg. depth of water
required (called delta)
i) Kharif crops:
Crop Sowing time Harvesting time Avg. Delta
Rice June-July Oct-Nov 120
Maize June-July Sept-Oct 45
Millet (Bajra) June-Aug Sept-Oct 30
Jowar (Bajra) June-July Oct-Nov 30
Pulses June-July Oct-Nov 30
Ground nut May Nov-Dec 45

ii) Rabi crops:

Crop Sowing time Harvesting time Avg. Delta
Gram Sept-Oct March-April 30
Wheat Oct-Nov March-April 40
Barley Oct-Nov March-April 45
Peas Oct-Nov March-April 50
Mustard Oct-Nov Feb-March 45
Tobacco Feb-March June 60
Potato Oct Feb 75

iii) 8-months crops:

Crop Sowing time Harvesting time Avg. Delta
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Cotton May-June Dec-April 45

iv) Perennial crops

Crop Sowing time Harvesting time Avg. Delta
Sugar Cane Feb-March Dec-March 90

Q3. What is crop ratio?

It is the ratio of the area irrigated in Rabi Season to that irrigated in kharif
seasons; sometimes there is overlap as same crops may extend to both seasons.
Q4. What is the significance of crop ratio?
It helps us in fixing the discharge of Canal, which feeds water to the fields.
Q5. Define Duty.
Duty represents the irrigation capacity of one unit of water i.e., 1 cumec. For
example if 500 acres are irrigated by 2 cumecs of water, the duty is 250
acres/cumec. It is understood that 2 cumecs of water is supplied throughout the
entire period of agricultural operations involved in raising the crop.
Q6. Define delta.
It is the total depth of water required by a crop during the entire perioid the
crop is in the field.
For example, if a crop requires 12 waterings, at intervals of 10 days, and at each
watering the depth of water maintained in the field is 10cm, then
Delta = 12 x 10 = 120cm = 1.2m
Volume of water supplied = 1.2 x A (m3) if A = Area of field in m2
= 1.2 x A (ha-m) if A = Area of field in hectares
Q7. Define (i) crop period (ii) base period
i) Crop period: It is the time, in days, from the day of sowing to that of
harvesting.
ii) Base period: It is the time when irrigation water is first supplied for
preparation of the ground for planting the crop to its last watering
before harvesting.
Q8. How is duty specified with relation to base period?
For precise statement of duty, it should be expressed with relation to the base
period and the place of measurement of duty. For example, it is expressed as
Duty: 1700 hectares/Cumec at the field for a base period of 120 days.
Q9. How does duty vary with the place of measurement?

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Duty varies with place of measurement because of loss of discharge as it flows
forward.
Let 1 cumec is available at C to irrigate 1700 acres
Let losses between A & B = 0.2 cumecs
Let losses between B & C = 0.1 cumecs
Then
1700
Duty at B = 1.1 =1545 hectares /cumec
1700
Duty at A = 1.3 =1307.7 hectares/cumec
Q10. Find the relationship between Duty and Delta.
Let D = Duty in ha/cumec
∆ = Delta, (Total depth of water supplied in m)
B = Base period in days
Volume of water supplied to the field @ one cumec
= Area x Delta ¿ D ×∆ × 104
Also volume supplied = Rate of supply x time
= 1 cumec x (B x 24 x 60 x 60)
B × 24 ×3600 B
Equating the two, we get ∆= D ×10 4
=8.64
D
Q11.Define (i) Gross Commanded Area (GCA) (ii) Culturable Commanded Area
(CCA)
Gross Commanded Area(GCA) is the total area lying between drainage
boundaries which can be irrigated by a canal system.
Culturable Commanded Area corresponds to that area (out of the GCA) on which
crops can be grown. Thus
GCA = CCA + Unculturable Area
Includes barren land local ponds villages etc.
Q12. What are the subdivisions of CCA?
i) Culturable Commanded Area – on which crop a grown
ii) Culturable uncultivated Area – It is the area on which crop is not grown
in a particular time to following reasons.
- To increase the fertility of the soil.
- To serve as pasture land for animals
- The crop sown has a different crop season
- To protect land from water logging
Q13. Define intensity of irrigation.

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It is the percentage culturable commanded area proposed to be irrigated during
a crop reason.
Ex: Total area: 120 acres
Area under kharif season = 90 acres
Area under rabi season = 60 acres
90
Seasonal intensity of irrigation: 120 ×100=75 % ( during kharif )∧60 % (during rabi)
respectively
Q14. Define irrigation efficiencies.
Irrigation efficiency indicates how efficiently the water is used. It is defined in
several ways depending on the point where water is applied to the outcome of
its application. Some of the efficiencies defined are as follows.
i) Water conveyance efficiency (ηc )
ii) Water application efficiency (η a)
iii) Water use efficiency (ηu)
iv) Water storage efficiency (η s)
v) Water distribution efficiency (ηd )
vi) Consumptive use efficiency (ηcu )
Q15. Define the irrigation efficiencies.
i) Water conveyance efficiency (ηc )
wf ¿
¿ ×100=water delivered ¿ the field river∨reservoir ¿ ×100
wr water supplied ¿
It represents loss of water in transist.
ii) Water application efficiency (η a)
ws water stored ∈the roof zone
¿ ×100= the field ¿ ×100
wf water delivered ¿
It may be noted that w f −w s=¿ Run-off from plot ( R f ) + Deep percolation
loss ( Df )
w f −Rf −Df
∴ ηa = ×100
wf
iii) Water user efficiency (η v)
wu water beneficially used ( incl . leaching water )
¿ ×100= ×100
wd water delivered
iv) Water storage efficiency (η s)
w s water stored ∈the root zone during irrigation
¿ = ×100
wn water needed ∈the root zone duringirrigation
w s−¿ corresponds to the amount of water = field capacity – Available
moisture
v) Water distribution efficiency (ηd )
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¿ 100 1−[ ]
y
d
where y = Avg. numerical deviation of depth of water stored from avg.
depth (d) during irrigation.
It indicates about the depth of water at various places in the field, the
depth of water at any point in the field influences crop grouth.
vi) Consumptive use efficiency (ηcu )
wcu −Normal consumptive use of water
¿ ×100= root zone ¿× 100
wd Net amount of water depleted ¿
It represents loss of water by deep percolation and excess surface
evaporation following irrigation.
Examples:
1. Water is to be supplied to a field having field capacity of 27% and
permanent wilting point of 13%. Find the storage capacity in 80cm depth
of soil, if dry density of soil has a sp. gravity of 1.5. If the irrigation water
is to be supplied when the avg. soil moisture is 18%, find the depth
required to be supplied to the field at an application efficiency of
80%.How much depth of water is to be maintained at the canal outlet if
the water lost in the water course is 15% of outlet discharge. (Punmia
P.89)
Sol:
a) Max. storage depth corresponds to available moisture
γd
¿ . d . ( f c −w p )=1.5 × 80 ( 0.27−0.13 )=16.8 cm
γw
b) When moisture level falls to 18%
γd
¿ ×d ( f c −Moisture level )=1.5 ×80 ( 0.27−0.18 ) =10.8 cm
γw
c) Taking application efficiency of 80% and field channel losses of 15%
10.8
Depth of water required for irrigation at field ¿ 0.8 =13.5
13.5
&Depth of water required at outlet ¿ 0.85 =15.9 cm
2. Given f c =30 % ; w p=11 % ; Relative density of soil = 1.3; Depth root zone
70cm. Daily consumptive use for crop = 12mm. Find the watering
interval, if for healthy growth of plant, the moisture content should not
fall below 25% of water holding capacity between the field capacity and
the wilting point. (Punmiam P.93)
Sol:
Water holding capacity above wilting point ¿ f c −w p=30−11=19 %
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75
Optimum moisture content ¿ 30−
100
× 19=15.75 %
γd
∴ Depth of water, d w = γ .d . ( f c −mo )=1.3 ×700 ( 0.3−0.1575 )
w
¿ 129.68 mm
Since daily consumptive use = 12mm,
129.68
Watering interval ¿ 12 ≃10.8 days ( ¿ be done every 10 days )
3. The consumptive use requirements of a crop are:
0.2 cm/day - for days 1-15
0.3 cm/ day - for days 16-40
0.5 cm/ day - for days 41-50
0.1 cm/day - for days 51-55
Expected rainfall over 10 days during the above crop period is 3.5 cm;
Presowing requirement: 5cm of water. Find the volume of water required
per hectare. (Punmia. P.92-93)
Sol:
0.2 0.2 ×15 4 3
Days 1-15, water required ¿ 100 ×15 ×1 ha= 100 ×10 =300 m
0.3 4 3
Days 16-40 (i.e. 25 days) ¿ 100 ×25 ×10 =750 m
0.5 4 3
Days 41-50 (i.e. 10 days) ¿ 100 ×10 ×10 =500 m
0.1 4 3
Days 51-55 (i.e. 15 days) ¿ 100 ×5 ×10 =50 m
5 4 3
Presowing requirement ¿ 100 ×10 =500 m
Total 2100 m3
3.5 4 3
Rainfall during the above period ¿ 100 ×10 =350 m
∴ Net requirement of water ¿ 1750 m3
Homework:
1) What are the principal crops in India?
2) Define duty and delta
3) Find out the ratio between duty and delta
Previous JNTUK Questions:
1) What are the factors affecting duty of water? (R13 MARCH 2017)
2) Define duty and delta and derive the relation between them(R13
NOVEMBER 2016)
3) A crop requires a total depth of water of 120 cm. Find the duty of water if
thebase period for the crop is 110 days. (R13 NOVEMBER 2016)

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4) Find the delta for a crop if the following details are given as Duty at the
water course : 1800 hectares per cumec
5) Base period for the crop : 130 days (R13 NOVEMBER 2016)
Day 7 & 8
Topics to be covered: Factors affecting duty, Method of improving duty, crop
rotation; water logging, Drainage
Q1. What factors affect duty of canal system?
Several factors affect duty of canal system
i) Method and system of irrigation (lie perennial or inundation type of
irrigation, flow through canals etc.)
ii) Mode of applying water – i.e., how it is applied to the field.
iii) Method of cultivation – influences no. of watering req.
iv) Time & frequency of tilling operations
v) Type of crop & its base period; Type of soil & sub soil
vi) Climate conditions of the area
vii) Quality of water & how it is priced
viii) Condition of canal
Q2. How can the duty be improved?
Duty can be improved in the following ways
i) Improving method of applying water so that less quantity is required for
crop growth.
ii) Ploughing operations made better.
iii) Canal losses must be reduced; Lining of canals may have to be done.
iv) Rotation of crops may result in less quantity of water requirement.
v) Water to be priced so that farmer does not waste the water.
Q3. What is Kor period?
Kor period is a part of base period, during which more water is required for
proper plant growth.
Q4. What is crop rotation?
Crop rotation means that the nature of the crop sown in a particular field is
changed year after year.
Q5. What is the necessity of crop rotation?
There is necessity of crop rotation for the following reasons.
i) If the same crop is grown every year on the same field, if loses its
fertility.

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ii) The soil has several nutrients, which are absorbed by the crops. If the
same crop is sown year after year,the nutrient requirement of that crop
decreases. For this reason, crop rotation has to be adopted.
iii) Crop diseases & pests will multiply at alarming rate if the same crop is
grown every year.
iv) Leguminous crop (such as gram) if sown in rotation will increase
nitrogen content of soil, thus raising soil fertility.
Q6. What crop rotation pattern is adopted in india?
Wheat – great millet-gram
Rice – gram
Cotton – wheat – gram
Cotton – great millet – gram
Q7. What is water logging?
An agricultural land is said to be water logged when its productivity or yield from
a crop is affected by high ground water table (level).When water table is high,
the root zone of plant is immersed in water, which affects its growth.
Q8. What depth of ground water table causes water logging?
The ground water table level at which the crop is affected depends on the type
of crop.
The capillary height of water in soil varies between 0.5 to 1.6m. The crop yield
gets affected if capillary effects rise upto 0.6m below the land level. Thus if the
ground water table is below the ground in the range of 0.5 + 0.6 = 1.1m to 1.6 +
0.6 = 2.2m, the land gets water logged.
Crop Depth of water table below ground
Wheat 0.9 – 1.2m
Cotton 1.5 – 1.8m
Rice 0.6m
Q9. What are the effects of water logging?
Loss of fertility of soil due to logging is due to the following reasons.
i) Due to inadequate availability of air, bacterial action, which helps plant
growth is reduced.
ii) Capillary water along with soil, drawn by roots is reduced.
iii) Water logged soil warms up slowly and due to lower temp, bacterial
action is sluggish (slow) and plant food is less.
iv) Carbon dioxide liberated by plant roots cannot get dissolved due to lack
of fresh air. It results in reduced plant growth.
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v) Salts in soil get dissolved by water and the solution rises and gets
evaporated on the plant surface (leaves, stems etc). Thus P H rises to ___
& beyond.
vi) Delay in cultivation operations.
vii) Wild flora grows due to water logging, thus effecting crop.
viii) Damp conditions give rise to health problems, due to mosquito growth.
Q10. What are the causes of water logging?
Main factors, which cause water logging are:
i) Insufficient water drainage, causing stagnant conditions on the land.
ii) Seepage from canal system & water reservoirs.
iii) Over-irrigation of fields
iv) Obstructions to flow in natural drains give rise to flooding of land.
v) Natural obstruction to the flow of ground water.
Q11. What are the remedial measurements to prevent water logging?
i) Efficient surface drainage so that flooding is prevented.
ii) Proper under – drainage by tile drains, to prevent rise of ground water
table.
iii) Reducing percolation from canals, Lining of canals & water courses can
be done.
iv) Economic use of water by cultivators.
v) Open wells and tube wells may be used in place of canals.
vi) Lowering of ground water level by pumping
vii) Change in crop pattern
viii) Use of sprinkler & drip irrigation methods, where possible.

Examples:
1. The base period, intensity of irrigation and duty of water for various crops
under the canal system are given below. Find the reservoir capacity if the
cultural commanded area is 40,000ha, canal losses are 25% and reservoir
losses are 15%.
Date:
Crop Base period(days) Duty at field Intensity of irrigation
ha/cumec (%)
Wheat 120 1800 20
Sugar cane 360 1700 20
Cotton 180 1400 10
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Rice 120 800 15
Vegetable 120 700 15

Solution: Calculations given in the tabular form

Crop Base Intensity Area Duty Discharge Quantity
(1) period of rise (ha) ha/cumec req. of water
(2) (3) (4) (5) (cumec) (m3)
(6) (7)
Wheat 120 20 8000 1800 4.444 46.08 × 106
6
Sugar 360 20 8000 1700 4706 146.38 ×10
cane
6
Cotton 180 10 4000 1400 2.887 44.43 × 10
Rice 120 15 6000 800 7.5 77.76 ×106
6
Vegetable 120 15 6000 700 8.571 88.87 ×10
Total: 403.52 ×10 6
6
403.52× 10
Vol. of water required at head of canal¿ 0.75
6 3
=538.03 ×10 m

Vol. of water required in reservoir (storage capacity)

538.03× 106 6 3 3
¿ =633 ×10 m ∨633 M m
0.85
Explanation:
Columns (1), (2), (3), (5) – Given data
Col(4) – Area = 40000 x Intensity of irrigation
Col (6) – Col (4) ÷ Col (5)
Col (7) – Volume = Discharge x Base period
Example for wheat, volume = 4.444 x 120 x 24 x 60 x 60
= 4.444 x 120 x (8.64 x 104)
∴Col (7) = Col (6) x Col (2) x 8.64 x 104
2. Workout the irrigation schedule, based on soil-moisture content, given the
following data. Also find the total depth of irrigation required and the
dates on which irrigation water is to be supplied.
Data:
a) Crop is grown within the top 1.5m depth of soil; Normal root zone depth
of crop is 1.2m
b) Relative density of soil is 1.3
c) Field capacity is 18% &wilting coefficient 7%
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d) Moisture level to be maintained at not less than 1/3 of available
moisture above wilting coefficient.
e) Irrigation, when required, is done for 2 days at uniform rate of supply to
compensate for depletion.
f) Sowing is done on Nov.1, when moisture level is at field capacity.
g) For the crop, the avg. evapo-transpiratia rate are:
Period Nov 1-30 Dec 1-31 Jan 1-31 Feb 1-28 Mar 1-25
Evapo-Tr. 1.1 1.7 2.4 1.5 3.5
mm/day
Harvesting is done on or after 25th March.
h) Expected rainfall: 24mm over 1 Jan 4-19
Ref: Punmia P.60 (i.e., 16 days)
Sol:
Available moisture = field cap – wilting coeff. = 18-7 = 11%
1
∴ Moisture level to be maintained ¿ m o=witting coeff + ×11
3
¿ 7+3.67=10.67 %

( )
γs 18−10.67
d w = . d [ f c −m o ] =1.3× 1.2×
γd 100
¿ 0.1187 m∨11.87 cm
Hence irrigation is needed whenever the depth of water consumed by
evapo-transpiration exceeds 11.87cm
a) Period 1 Nov-Jan3
Depth of water consumed by evapotranspiration
¿ 1.1× 30+1 .7 ×31+2.4 ×3=92.9 mm∨9.29 cm
Since 9.29 cm is < 11.87 cm, no irrigation water is required in this
period.
b) Period after Jan 3
24
Rainfall between Jan 4 & 19th¿ 16 =1.5 mm/day
∴ Amount of water consumed in 16 days = (2.4 - 1.5) x 16 = 14.4 mm or
1.44 cm
Total water withdrawn from soil from 1/11 – 3/1 = 9.29+1.44=10.73cm
Balance left in soil of soil moisture = moisture level req – 10.73
= 11.87 – 10.73 = 1.14 cm or 11.4 mm
11.4
Time required by evapotranspiration ¿ 2.4 →rate∈ Jan =4 days
∴ Irrigation water is req. 4 days after rainfall i.e., 24 th Jan
Irrigation water supply dates: 24th& 25th Jan (2 days)
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Depth of water from first irrigation
= Total water withdrawn for 1st Nov till 25thJan
= 10.73 cm−¿ 1 Nov−17 th Jan+6 × 0.24=1.44
from 20th Jan – 25th Jan
Total = 12.17 cm
c) Irrigation requirement for 26/1 to 25/3
Water consumed between Jan 26 to Mar 25
¿ 2.4 × 6 ( ¿ Jan ) +1.5 ×28 ( ¿ Feb ) +3.5 ×25 ( ¿ Mar )=143.9 mm
Since this is > 118.7mm, irrigation water is required
Taking period from 26/1 to 28/2,
Water consumed = 2.4 x 6 + 1.5 x 28 = 14.4 + 42 = 56.4mm
Difference above dw = 118.7 – 56.4 = 62.3 mm
No. of days in which 62.3 mm of water is consumed by evapo-
transpiration (in March)
62.3
¿ =17.8 days ≃17 days
3.5
∴ 2nd irrigation is required
on 18th March
Required water depth = 143.9 - 118.7 = 25.2mm

Previous JNTUK Questions:

1) The culturable commanded area for a distributor is 16,000 hectares. The
intensity of irrigation (I.I.) for Rabi (wheat) is 50% and for Kharif (rice) is
20%. If the total water requirement of the two crops are 37.5 cm and 120
cm and their periods of growth are 160 days and 140 days respectively: (a)
Determine the outlet discharge from average demand considerations; (b)
also determine the peak demanddischarge, assuming that; the kor water
depth for two crops are 14 cm. and 20 cm and their k or periods are 4
weeks and 2 weeks respectively. (R13 MARCH 2017)
2) What are the different types of irrigation? Discuss them in detail. (R13
NOVEMBER 2016)

Raghu Institute of Technology Dept. of CIVIL WRE-II Unit - 1