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Department of Civil Engineering

IV B.Tech I Semester
WRE-II
Unit - 3
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Unit – 3 [CANAL STRUCTURES]
Falls: types and location; design principles of sarda type fall and straight glacis
fall.
Regulators: Head and cross regulators; design principles
Cross-drainage works: types, selectors, design principles of aqueduct, syphon
aqueduct and super passage.
Outlets: types, proportionality, sensitivity and flexibility.
River training: objectives are approaches.
Day 17
Topics to be covered: Falls types and locations
Q1. What are canal regulation works? Name them.
Any structure constructed to regulate the discharge, full supply level or velocity
in a canal is known as regulation works. Works constructed with this aim are
categorised as follows.
i) Canal falls ii) Head regulation or head sluice
iii) Cross regulation iv) Canal escape v) Canal outlets
Q2. What is a canal fall?
A canal fall is an irrigation structure constructed across a canal when the ground
slope is high compared to the bed slope of the canal. Thus, at a fall, the bed is
lowered by a certain height known as fall and canal contained with the same
slope further downstream due to this fall, the water level in canal is also lower
after the fall. Arrangements for the dissipation of energy due to the fall in water
levels are required to prevent scouring of material from bed and sides due to
water level difference.
Q3. How is the location of fall decided?
The location of the fall is decided based on the following considerations.
i) For the canal which does not irrigate the area directly, the fall is located from cost
considerations, based on balancing depth and the cost of fall itself.
Note: Balancing depth is that depth which corresponding to the equality of the
amount of excavated material to that required for forming a canal in filling
ii) For a canal irrigating the area directly, the fall is located at a place where the FSL of
canal outstrips (ie becomes more than) the ground level, but before the bed of the
canal comes into filling stage. After the drop, the FSL of the canal may be below
the ground level for a distance
iii) If a regulation bridge is to be provided on the canal, then the fall may be combined
with the location of regulator/ bridge,

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iv) Possibility of providing a series of small falls, rather than a single fall of the same
total value, may be considered from economic view point.
Q4. What are the various types of falls?
In earlier times, the following types of falls are provided
i) Ogee falls ii) Rapid fall iii) Stepped fall
In recent times, the following types of falls are provided
i) Trapezoidal notch fall ii) Vertical drop fall iii) Glacis type fall
Q5. Briefly describe the type of falls.
i) Ogee falls: The concrete /masonry bed
provided a smooth transition from U/S bed
level to D/S bed level.
Disadvantage: The kinetic energy due to the
fall is preserved by water and strong energy
dissipation must be ensured on the rigid bed
tp present erosion of canal bed material
ii) Rapid fall: A smooth is provided on a slope
of I vertical (10-20) horizontal formation of
hydraulic jump occurs on glacis
Disadvantage: cost of construction is high
iii) Stepped fall:
Series of small falls are provided.
Disadvantages: Highcost

iv) Notch fall: It consists of one or more trapezoidal notches, fixed in the crest
wall across the canal. The crest ie bottom of the notch corresponds to the
U/S canal bed level.

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The notches are designed to maintain normal depth of flow at two discharge
values in the U/S channel. There was neither drawdown nor heading up of
water before the notch. Their disadvantage is that they cannot be used as
regulators. The purpose of the lip is to disperse water passing through the
notch. If projects a little on the D/S side of foundation wall.

v) Vertical drop fall: In this type, the high

velocity jet falls into a cistern, which is a
deep pool of water. Thus, the energy is
destroyed by turbulent diffusion. Sarda
type vertical fall is the most common in
this category, details of this fall will be
discussed in the design.
vi) Glacis type fall: If utilises the standing wave (hydraulic jump) phenomena
for dissipation of energy. The glacis may be straight or parabolic in shape;
Straight glacis – Inglis type
Parabolic Glacis – Montague type

Baffles and friction blocks may be provided in the cistern/glacis to increase

energy dissipation.

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Q6. Classify the fall.

Falls are classified as follows with reference to approach condition
a) Class I: falls designed to maintain depth discharge relation
Eg: Trapezoidal notch fall, Rectangular notch fall
b) Class II: falls designed to maintain a fixed supply level in the U/S channel.
These are adopted when U/S water level must be maintaining at a given level
to provide supply to a power station on a subsidiary canal taking off U/S of
fall.
c) Class III: falls designed to admit the variations of U/S water surface level at
the will of the operator thus this serve as regulations. This action is achieved
with the help of i) sluice gates ii) sluice gates iii) horizontal stop logs iv)
vertical needles.
In general, in these cases the notch is of rectangular type.
d) Class IV: based on special consideration
i) Cylinder fall or well fall
Energy is dissipated as the
water falls into the well
ii) chute or rapid
They conduct the stream on
open inclined trogh
iii) Pipe falls: Pipe replaces
troughs
Homework: 1) How is the location of fall decided
2) Classify the fall
Previous JNTUK Questions:
1) What are canal falls and why are they constructed?(R13 MARCH 2017)
Day 18
Topics to be covered: Design principles of Sarada type fall
Q1. Explain the design principles of Sarada type fall.
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This type of fall was designed and developed for sarda canal system of Uttar
Pradesh for drops falls in the range of 0.9-1.8m. after conduct of model studies,
its design was developed. The essential components of this fall are
i) Crest ii) Cistern iii) Impervious floor iv) D/S protection v) U/S approach
Q2. How is the crest designed?
i) Length of crest: It is the same as the bed width of the canal, as no fluming
is done. Sometimes the length of crest is taken as bed width of canal plus
water depth to consider anticipated increase in discharge of canal in future
Fluming: means crest length < bed width
ii) Shape of crest and discharge formula: two types of crest walls are used
a) Rectangular crest

Top width, B=0.55 √ d

H +d
Base width, B1= ρ
Where 𝜌 = S.G of material (masonry) for masonry, 𝜌=2
3
Discharge Q=1.835 L H 2 ¿
Where Q= Discharge (m3/s)
L=Length of crest (m)
b) Trapezoidal crest
Top width B=0.55 √ H +d
U/S batter=1:3
D/S batter=1:8
Using the above B, is found
3
Q=1.99 L H 2 ¿

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iii) Crest level
From discharge equation, H is found
RL of crest = U/S FSL-H
Height of crest above bed= h= D-H
Where D= depth of flow in canal U/S
Brick Pitching: done on a slope of 10 horizontal: 1 vertical for 2-4 length
U/S of crest and drain holes are provided in the crest will to drain out the
canal water at closure time and settled solids.
Stability of crest wall: it is tested as per the principles of stress analysis (i.e
safety against sliding & overturning)
Q3. What are the principles of design of cistern?
Length of cistern and depression are found by the following formulae
l c =5 ¿
1
x= ¿
4
Where E & HL are depths as shown in figure.
Q4. How is the impervious floor designed?
The total length of impervious floor is
determined by Bligh’s theory (for small
works) or by khosla’s theory for the
condition of seepage head, corresponding
to “d” as show in figure i.e U/S side water
level at crest and no flow on the D/S side.
Out of the total length, thus calculated,
Downstream length (ld) = 2(D+1.2) + HL
Remaining is provided on the U/S side.
Thickness of the floor: Design to resist uplift force
Cut-offs: Depth 1-1.5m
Minimum floor thickness: 0.3-0.4m
Q5. How are the U/S approach & D/S protection designed?
Since the crest wall is rectangular in plan, the canal U/S & D/S are to be provided
with suitable transition wirings and pitching as per the standard practices of
irrigation department.

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Homework:
1) How is the impervious floor designed?
2) How is the crest designed?
Previous JNTUK Questions:
1) Write in detail about sarada type fall and straight glacis fall.(R13 MARCH
2017)
Day 19
Topics to be covered: Design of Sarada type fall
Q1. Designed a Sarada type fall for the given data
Full supply discharge: 40 m3/s (U/S & D/S)
Full supply level: U/S 218.30m; D/S 216.80m
Full supply depth: 1.8m (U/S & D/S)
Bed width: 2.6m
Bed level: U/S 216.50; D/S 215.00
Drop: 1.5m
Design the crest & cistern; check the floor thickness by khosla’s theory. The crest
wall is trapezoidal in shape. Take Bligh’s creep coefficient as 8 & exist gradient as
1/5.
Solution:
Step 1: calculation of H & d

B=0.55 √ H +d
3
Q=1.99 L H 2 ¿
Here L= bed width of canal =26m
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But H+d = D+ drop in bed level
Where D = U/S depth = 1.8m
Drop in bed level = 1.5m
Therefore H+d = 1.8 + 1.5 = 3.3m
B=0.55 √ 3.3=1.0 m
Substituting in equation for discharge
( 32 + 16 )
1.99∗26∗H
Q=40= 1
( 1.0 ) 6
H=0.86 m
Since H + d = 3.3
Therefore d = 3.3 – 0.86 = 2.44m
Height of crest above U/S bed = D-H = 1.8-0.86=0.94m
Step 2: Design of crest
Adopt U/S slope as 1:3
D/S slope as 1:8
Assuming 1:1 side slope of canal
40
Velocity of approach, Va= Q/A ¿ ( 26+1∗1.8 ) 1.8 =0.8 m/ s
v a2
=0.032m
2g
2
va
U/S TEL = U/S FSL + 2g
= 218.30 +0.032 = 218.332 m
RL of crest = U/S FSL – H = 218.30-0.86 = 217.44 m
Value of E = U/S TEL –RL of crest
= 218.332-217.44 = 0.892 m
1 2/ 3
Therefore, depth of cistern, x= 4 ( EH L)
Where HL= difference in FSL = 1.5 m
1
¿ ¿=0.304 m
4
Length of cistern, LC = 5 ¿
Take Lc = 6m
Therefore, RL of bed of cistern = RL of D/S bed – x
= 215-0.604 =214.696 m
Take it as 214.69m
Revised value of x = 215 – 214.69 = 0.31m
Step 3: Design of impervious floor
Seepage head = water level at crest & no water D/S
= RL of crest – RL of D/S bed
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=217.44 – 215 = 2.44m
Length of impervious floor as per blighs theory
= C*2.44
= 8*2.44 = 1.95m
Length of D/S impervious floor (ld) = 2 (D+1.2) + HL
= 2(1.8+1.2) + 1.5=7.5m
Taking cutoffs depth take Ld = 8m
U/S = 1.0m; D/S = 1.6m
Length of horizontal impervious floor = 19.5 – 2(1+1.6) = 14.3m
Therefore U/S impervious floor length = 15-8 = 7m

Step 4: calculation of uplift pressure & thickness (by Bligh’s theory)

Total creep length provided = (7+8) + 2(1+1.6) = 20.2m
U/S floor thickness
Since water stands upto the crest, the uplift pressure on U/S floor is less than
the head of water. Hence nominal thickness of 0.4m is sufficient (t 1)
D/S floor thickness (t2)
Seepage head for which floor is to be design
= (crest level – D/S floor thickness)
=217.44 – 215 = 2.44m
Seepage head at the end of horizontal floor of 7m
[
¿ 2.44−
7+2∗1
20.2 ]
∗2.44 =1.35 m
4
∗0.9
Thickness required ¿
3
=1m
1.24
Additional protection: Above the concrete floor on the D/S side, brick pitching
may be provided with thickness of 0.2m.
Note: Design of wings, U/S & D/S protection (of pitching),
i) Side pitching are done as per irrigation department standards
ii) Energy dissipation arrangements in the form of friction blocks, cube
blocks are also made as per the standards.
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Ref: Punmis for details (P.816-818)
Fig: 18.10 (P.817) gives drawing
Step 5: Check by khosla’s theory
1 H
Exit gradient, G E= π √ λ d
H = 2.44m
d = depth of D/S pile taken as 1.6m above
Given safe gradient (GE) = 1/5
1 1 2.44
Therefore =
5 π √ λ 1.6 𝜆 = 5.89
1+ √ 1+ α
2
But λ=
2
α = b/d = 1.07
by bligh’s theory b=15m length of horizontal floor keeping b = 15m, increase d to
1.8m then α = b/d = 8.33
1+ √1+ α
2
λ= =4.695
2
1 H 1
G E= ≈
π √λ d 5
Calculation of pressure
i) U/S cut off: d=1m; b=15m
Therefore 1/α = 1/15 = 0.0666
Øc1 = 76%; ØD1 = 83%
Assume floor thickness of 0.4m
83−76
Corrected Øc1 = 76+ 1 ∗0.4=78.8 %
Thickness required = 0.4mm for U/S floor
ii) D/S cut off
d = 1.8, b = 15
1/α=d/b=1.8/1.5
ØE2 = 31%; ØD2 = 21.5%
Assuming floor thickness of 0.6m
31−21.5
Corrected ØE2 = 31+ 1.8 ∗0.6=27.8 %
Thickness at D/S toe of crest
78.8−27.8
%pressure head = 27.8+ 15 ∗8=55 %
Therefore, pressure head = 0.55Hs + x = 0.55*2.44+0.31 = 1.67m
4
∗1.67
Therefore, thickness required = 3
=1.87 m
2.24−1

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Thickness provided by Bligh’s theory is not adequate increase it to 1.9m
Similarly check at other points.
Homewotrk: How is sarda type fall designed?
Day 20
Topics to be covered: Straight glacis fall-design features.
Q1. What does a straight glacis fall?
A straight glacis is a sloping floor (2Horizontal: 1 vertical) provided after a raised
crest, as shown in figure. It is a type of fall structure.

Hydraulic jump forms on the sloping floor, causing energy dissipation sufficient
length of cistern is provided to achieved this function
Q2. Explain the design features of glacis type fall.
The design features of various element of straight glacis type are discussed
below:
i) Crest length
Same as the bed width of canal (unflumed)
In case fluming is done length of crest is less than bed width. The fluming
ratio is as follows
Drop is level of water clear length of crest
1.25m 65%
1.25-3m 75%
>3m 85%
When fluming is done, the fall serves as meter fall.
ii) Crest width
If the fall is used as a meter, the crest is made broad. However, a narrow
crest has the disadvantage that its coefficient of discharge is not constant.
For narrow crest, width =2/3*H (adopted)
Broad crest, width = 2.5H (minimum)
Where H = Head over crest
iii) Discharge formula
3
Q=c ( L−0.1 nH )H 2

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Where n= no of end contraction
c = coefficient of friction (1.7 for broad crest, 1.84 for narrow crest)
iv) Crest level = U/S TEL-H
Note: if the height of crest is more than 0.4 times the U/S water depth, the
fall may be flumed; if already
flumed, the fluminng ratio
may be increased
v) Hump

vi) U/S bed protection

For unflumed fall – not required
For flumed fall – U/S protection for a length=U/S water depth provided
with brick on edge; laid on a mild slope of 10Horizonatal : 1vertical in
direction of flow.
vii) D/s Glacis: Straight glacis on slope of 2(H) : I(V) with smooth curves at both
ends as shown
viii) Length and thickness of floor: Design as per Khurla’s theory; length based
on safe exit gradient.
ix) D/s protection: Bed and sides of canal provides with pitching for length
equal to 3 x D/s water depth.
Defender wall is provided at the end of crest
Toe wall is provided at the end of D/s protection

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x) D/s using wall:

- For unflumed fall, the walls are taken straight to the D/s end of floor
and then joined with return walls
- For flumed falls, hyperbolc expansion is provided for larger falls with
B1 B2 L
Bx = where B x =width at any section x
L B 2−( B2−B1 ) x
Wings will be embedded into the berms by at least 1m.
B1 = Restricted bed width
B2 = Normal bed width on D/s side
xi) Cistern:
Length = 5 E¿ where E f = specific energy (D/s)
2

R.L. Cistern = D/s TEL – 1.25 E f 2

Q3. What are the various roughening devices used in falls for energy
dissipation?
For Sarada type fall energy is dissipated by impact and for straight glacis fall
energy is dissipated by hydraulic jump.
In addition to the above, the following roughening devices are used to
ensure dissipation, involved in the fall.
i) Friction blocks: Simple concrete blocks, securely enclosed to the floor with
water depth
height = 4
1
spacing=2 ×ht of blocks= ( water depth )
2

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staggered arrangement of blocks adopted for sarada type fall. Spacing
between blocks = 2 y c
Dimension of blocks ¿ 2 y c × y c × y c of water depth are provided at the end of
DP’s impervious floor.
1
For glacis type fall: h= 8 water depth−section

ii) Glacis blocks: Glacis blocks are function blocks, provided on the glacis at
the D/s toe as shown for falls of more than 2m.
They help in reducing turbulence of flow and ensure flow without any wary
water surface.

iii) Biff wall or Deflector wall: To deflect the flow & protect the floor from
undermining beyond the cistern and a upward sloping wall as shown.

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Homework:
1. What are the various roughening devices used in falls for energy
dissipation?
2. How is straight glacis fall designed
Day 21
Topics to be covered: Design of straight Glacis fall (example)
Data: Sk. Garg
Design limited to:
1. Calculation of crest length
2. RL of crest
3. RL of cistern
4. Length of cistern
5. Floor length required
6. Floor thickness with max. static head. i.e., water level at crest on u/s and
no water on D/s.
Data: Fall supply discharge of Canal: 120 cumecs
u/s Bed Level: 107.5m D/s Bed level = 106.0 m
u/s FSL = 109.7m D/s FSL = 108.2 m
Drop ( H 2) = 1.5m
Bed width of canal = 60m; side slopes of canals 1 : 1
The canal is flumed.
Solution: For flumed canal of drop 1.5m, fluming ratio = 75%
∴ Crest = 0.75 x 60 = 45m
(i) CREST LEVEL

Q=1.70*L* H 3 /2(For a broad crested weir)

Therefore H=(120/1.745)2/ 3= 1.35m therefore V a= Q/A = 120/(60+2.2)2.2
=0.876 m/s
U/S TEL =U/S FSL + 0.04
=109.7+0.04=109.74m
RL of crest= U/S TEL-U =109.74-1.35=108.39m
Height of crest above U/S = 108.39-107.5=0.89m
Approximately=0.4*2.2=0.88m
Hence fluming is ok
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(ii) CREST WIDTH: 2.5*H=2.5 *1.35=3.38m
(iii) HUMP: Crest will be joined with U/S bed with a curve of radius
2 2
La +h
R=
2h
2 +0.892
2
R= =2.69 m
2× 0.89
(iv) CISTERN

For Q =120 m3/s

H L=1.5m
From hydraulic jump equation we can find out Ef2
( y 2− y 1)3
H L=loss of energy ∈ jump=
4 y1 y 2
Where, y1=depth before jump
Y2=depth after jump
H L=loss of energy ∈ jump
Let, Y C = critical depth
Let, Y 1/Y C =x, , Y 2/Y C = y, H l/Y C =Z
Y=1+0.936(Z)0.368 FOR Z<1
Y=1+0.936(Z)0.240 FOR Z>1
Ef 1
Also, Yc = X + 1/2( X )2
FOR THIS PROBLEM, q= 120/45 m3/s
Y C =0.807
Z= H l/Y C = 1.5/0.807=1.86
Y= 1+0.9355 (1.86)0.240 = 2.2
Ef 2
Therefore, Yc = Y + I/2(Y )2 =2.2+0.1=2.3
Ef2= 2.3*0.807=1.856m
LEVEL AT WHICH JUMP WILL FORM= d/s tel-1.856 =108.24-1.85 = 106.39
RL of cistern = D/S TEL -1.25 Ef2 = 108.24-1.25*1.85=105.93m
(v) LENGTH OF CISTERN
Minimum= 5 Ef 2 = 5* 1.85 =9.25m
Adopt 10m
(vi) TOTAL FLOOR LENGTH

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Max head = 108.39-106 = 2.39m
Depth of D/S cut off = d =1.4m
[ ]
2
1 H 1 2.39 5.5
From ¿= =
5.5 d π √ λ
∴ λ=
1.4
×
π

Since λ= 1+ √21+ α
2

We get 1+α 2=( 2 λ−1 )2 =284.9

b
∴ α 2 =283.9∴ α =16.8=
d
∴ b=16.85 ×1.4=23.6 m
Make it 24m
(vii) DISTRIBUTION OF LENGTH

(viii) CALCULATION OF THICKNESS

Assume 0.3m/s thickness of upstream floor
0.8m thickness of d/s floor
U/S floorb/d = 24/1.1
From equation,Qc 1=80 %
Qc 1=87 %

Correction for thickness = (87-80)0.3/1.1=1.91%

Uplift pressure on bottom of floor = 81.91%
D/S floor b= 24m ; d=1.4m

Q E2 =23% ; Q D 2 = 15%
( 23−15 ) 0.8
correction for thickness= =4.6 %
1.4
Uplift pressure at E = 23+ 4.6 =27.6%
Length upto toe of glacis=3.35+2+3.38+4.92 = 13.65m
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% pressure head at the toe of glacis= 81.91-30.89=51.02%
Pr.head = (51.02*2.39)/100 = 1.22m
Floor thickness = 1.22/1.41 = 1 (approximately)
Similarly at other points
(ix) Other details: Refer book
Day 22
Topics to be covered: REGULATORS-HEAD AND CROSS REGULATORS- DESIGN
PRINCIPLES.
Q1. What are regulators. Name them?
regulators are structures constructed across the canals to control the flow in the
canal. There are two types of regulators known as:
i. head regulator or distributing head regulator ii. cross regulator
Q2. What are the functions of head and cross regulator?
When a branch canal takers off from the main canal(also called parent canal),
the head regulator is placed across the branch to control the supply of water
into the branch canal. The branch canal is also called as off taking canal.
The cross regulator is also placed across the main canal,D/S of the branch canal,
to control the flow in the main canal.
Positions of head and cross regulator are shown in the figure

Q3. What are the main functions of the head regulator?

A. the main functions of the head regulator are:
i) to regulate or control the supply of water entering into the off take canal
ii) to control the silt entry into the branch canal
iii) to serve as meter for measuring discharge entering into branch canal.
Q4. What are the functions of cross regulator?
The main functions of cross regulator are:
i) to effectively control the entire canal system.
ii) in case of low flows in main canal, the cross regulator helps in heading up the
water U/S of it, thereby ensuring full supply of water into the branch canal.

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Thus land to be irrigated under the branch canal receives its full supply even
after when flow in main canal is less.
iii) it helps in absorbing various fluctuations in various sections of the
canalsystem and to prevent possibility of breaches in tails race.
iv) cross regulator is often combined with a road bridge, when a road crosses the
canal.it is also constructed when a fall occurs(in bed level). In such a case it is
called a fall regulator.
Q5. What does a regulator consists of?
A regulator mainly consists of piers placed across the canal at regular intervals
with grooves,in which gates are placed to control the flow. The gates are
operated manually for small spans and mechanically using power drives for large
spans.

Q6. What are the design principles of head regulator and cross regulator
The design principles of head regulator and cross regulator are given below:
i) crest level
For cross regulator- crest level is same as upstream bed level of anal
For head regulator- crest level is kept 0.3-1m higher than the crest level of
the cross regulator
ii) Waterway: the discharge equation for drowned weir is used to find
waterway
Q = Q1+Q2= 2/3 Cd 1 √ 2 g . B (h+h v )3 /2−(h)3/ 2+ Cd2 . B . h1 √2 g .(h+h v )3 /2
Where, Cd 1=0.577 ; Cd 2 = 0.80
B= clear water way required
h = difference of water levels U/S & D/S of crest
h1 =depthof D/S water level in the channel above the crest
h v= head due to velocity of approach, which is small and often ignored

iii) conditions of flow for design

The design is made for the worst of the following two conditions
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a) Full supply discharge is passing down both the channels with all gates of
cross and head regulator open
b) The discharge in the parent channel is low but the offtake channel is
running at full with fully supply level main maintained in branch channel
Quite often the 1st condition governs the design
iv) D/S floor level or cistern level
level of D/S floor = D/s FSL- Ef 2 , taking h v=0
where, Ef 2= specific energy in the D/S of the section
Ef 2is formed from the hydraulic jump equation
v) length of D/s floor: generally it is = 5(y2-y1) where y1 and y2 are depths
before and after jump also it is governed by the safe exit gradient
allowable for the site conditions
vi) cut-offs
YU
depth of U/S cutoff = 3
+0.6 , where Y U = upstream water depth in canal
YD
depth of D/S cutoff = 3
+0.6 , where Y D = downstream water depth in canal
vii) total floor length: based on exit gradient consideration
viii) uplift pressures and floor thickness
based on khoslas theory
on U/S side: minimum thickness of 0.3-0.5 m is provided
ix) protection works
based on scour depth, D which is
YU
+0.6 on upstream side
3
YD
+0.6 on downstream side
3
Cement concrete blocks are provided for length of 1.5 D on U/S & D/S side
Quantity of slope =2.25D m3/m length
Homework:
1) What are the functions of head regulator?
2) What are the functions of cross regulator?
3) What are the design principles of head and cross regulator?
Pervious JNTUK Questions:
1) What is a regulator in canal? Differentiate between head regulator and cross
regulator. (r13 Nov 2016)
Day 23 & 24
Topic to be covered: Example of Design of cross Regulator & Head Regulator

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 21
Data: Discharge of parent channel = 140 cumecs
Discharge of Distributory, u/s = 15 cumecs
FSL of parent channel, u/s = 210.0 m
FSL of parent channel, D/s = 209.8 m
Bed width of parent channel = 52m(u/s), 46m(D/s)
Depth of water in parent channel = 2.5m (u/s & D/s)
FSL of distributor = 209.1 m
Silt factor = 0.8m
Safe exit gradient = 1/50
Ref: S.K. Garge, P-438 – 448
(A) Design of cross Regulator
i) Crest level: Same as bed level of parent channel = 210.0 – 2.5 = 207.5
ii) Waterway:
Using equation Q=B √ h [ 1.69 h+ 3.54 h ]
Here h = u/s FSL – D/s FSL = 210.0 – 209.8 = 0.2h
h1 =¿ D/s FSL – crest level = 209.8 – 207.5 = 2.3m
∴ 140=B √ 0.2 [ 1.69 ×0.2+3.54 × 2.3 ]
∴ B=36.9 m ( clear water way )
Provide 5 days of 8m each with apiers of width 1.5m
∴ clear waterway = 8 x 5m = 40m
iii) D/s floor (Cistern) level
140 3
q= =3.5 m /s /m
40
Find EfL:
yc=
Y
q2
g √
3
=1.08 m
Y H 0.2
X = 1 ;Y = 2 ; Z= L = =0.186
Yc Yc Y C 1.08
From Y =1+ 0.93556 Z 0.368 (for Z <1)
0.368
¿ 1+0.93556 ( 0.186 ) =1.504
Ef 1 1
=Y + 2 =1.504+
2
=1.725
YC 2Y 2 ( 1.504 )
2

∴ Ef =1.725× 1.08=1.86 m
2

Note: In the book, the value of E f is found from charts to be 1.85m.

2

Difference is due to error in reading graphs.

( )
2
q
Also E v 22 y2
f =Y 2 + = y 2+
2
2g 2g

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 22
2
( 3.5 ) 1 0.624
E f = y2 + × 2 = y 2+ 2
2
2× 9.81 y 2 y2
0.624
∴ 1.85= y 2 + 2
y2
Solve by trial & error
y2 R.H.S
1.8 1.8+0.19=1.99 high
1.7 1.7+0.216=1.916
1.6 1.6+0.244=1.844 almost same as 1.85
∴ y 2=1.6 m(¿ the book ,is givenas 1.8 m)
E f = Energy before jump = E f + H 2=1.85+0.2=2.052
1 1

2 2
v1 q 1 0.624
But Ef = y 1+ = y 1 + 2
= y 1+ 2
1
2g 2 g y1 y1
Solve for y 1, which has to be less than y c =1.08 m
y1 RHS
0.624
0.8 0.8+ =0.8+0.975=1.775loss
( 0.8 )2
0.624
0.7 0.7+
0.49
=0.7+1.27=1. 97 mlow
0.624
0.6 0.6+
0.36
=0.6+1.733=2.333 high

0.65 0.65+1.48=2.13 mhigh

0.67 0.67+1.39=2.05 mhigh
∴ y 1=0.67 m-In
the book, but this is subjected to value of ‘b’ obtained from exit
gradient consideration.
2
( y 2− y 1 )
Check: 4 y1 y 2
=h L =0.2

( 1.6−0.67 )2
LHS= =0.1875 m< RHS value
4 ×1.6 ×0.67
Some more refinement is value of y 1 & y 2 is required
D/s Floor (Cistern) level:
= D/s FSL – E f 2

= 209.8 – 1.85 = 207.95m

D/s bed level of canal = 209.8 – 2.5 = 207.3m
Since the bed is at lower level, put the cistern at 207.3m
iv) vertical cut offs
yu 2.5
- u/s cut off depth ¿ 3
+0.6=
3
+6=1.43 m

RL of bottom = u/s bed level – 1.43

of cut off = (210 – 2.5) – 1.43 = 206.09 m
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 23
rd 2.5
- D/s cut off depth ¿ 2 +0.6= 2 +0.6=1.85 m
RL of bottom of cut off = RL of D/s bed – 1.85 = 207.3 – 1.85 = 205.45m
v) Total flow length required:
1 1
G E= =Hd .
s π √λ
Where H = seepage head = u/s FSL – D/s bed level = 201.0 – 2073 = 2.7m
d = depth of d/s cut off = 185m
[ ]
× ×5 =5.4= √
2
2.7 1 1+ 1+α
∴ λ=
1.85 π 2
∴ ( 1+ α ) =( 10.8−1 )
2 2

2
∴ α =95.04=α =9.75 ( ¿ thebook ,is 9 )
∴ b=αd=9.75× 1.85=18.04 m
2
Uniform D/s floor lenth require ¿ 3 ×b ⋍ 12m
[Note: This is greater than 5 ( y 2− y 1 )]
Hence provide 12m as the D/s length of floor.
Glacis length = 2 x 0.2 = 0.4m
Balance = 18 – 12 – 0.4 = 5.6m is provided as u/s floor.

vi) Floor Thickness: Calculated on the basis of uplift pressures from Kharla’s
theory (Refer book p.440 - 442)
vii) u/s floor thickness: provide nominal thickness of 0.5m. Increase it to 1m
under the crest and extend it to 2m beyond.
viii) u/s protection
yu
Scout depth ¿ 3
+0.6=1.43

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 24
Launching Apron: Provide 1.2m thickness from length, calculated on the basis of
volume
2.25× D 2.25 ×1.43
¿ = =2.68 m
t 1.2
Make it 2.8m
Cement concrete blocks:
Size 0.8m x 0.8m x 0.6m for
Length = 1.50 = 1.5 x 1.43 = 2.2m
Blocks provide with 10cm joints filled with sand. Laid over apron of 0.6m
thickness.
y 2.5
ix) D/s protection: D= 2d +0.6= 2
+ 0.6=1.85 m

Launching apron:
Thickness = 1.2m
2.25× D 2.25 ×1.85
Length ¿ t = 1.2 =3.48 m
Make it 3.6m
Inverted filter:
Length of filter = 1.5D = 1.5 x 1.85 = 2.77m
Cement concrete blocks:
Size: 0.8m x 0.8m x 0.6m
Provide 4 rows of blocks with 10cm gaps in between laid over inverted filter. Of
0.6m thickness over a length of 3.6m
xi) Detculs of cross Regulators:
Fig. shows details of design

B) Design of Head regulator:

Similar calculations are done for Head Regulators for details, Refer S.K. Garg –
Pages 444-448
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 25
Fig. of Head Regulators designs

Day 25
Topics to be covered: Cross-Drainage works: Types, selection, Design Principles
of aqueduct, siphon aquadent and super passage.
Q1. What is a cross drainage work?
A cross drainage work is a structure constructed at the crossing of a canal and a
natural drain such that there is no interruption to the flow in the canal when the
drain receives water, due to rain fall or otherwise in the catchment.
Q2. What are the types of cross drainage works?
The drainage water (of the drain) can be disposed of in one of the following
ways
i) By passing the canal over the drainage through an aqueduct or siphon
aqueduct.
ii) By passing the canal below the drainage through a super passage or a
canal siphon
iii) By letting the drain water into the canal and then disposing it off
through a level crossing or inlets & outlets.
Q3. Explain aqueduct and siphon aqueducts.
Aqueduct: In this structure, the canal bed is above the highest flood level (HFL)
of the drain. Flow in the drain is at atm. Pressure.
Siphon aqueduct: The drain bed is depressed and provided with a pucca floor.
The HFL of drain is above the bottom level of canal bed and as such flow in the
drain is under pressure and not at atmospheric pressure.
Road: A road is provided by the die of canal for inspection purposes. Further the
canal bed width may be reduced at the structure and the canal is construction in
the form of a RCC trough.
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 26

Q4. Explain super passage and canal siphon.

In these works, the drain is above the canal.
Super passage: the canal full supply level (FSL) is much below the bottom level
of the drain. Flow in canal is by gravity and water surface everywhere is exposed
to atmosphere.
Canal siphon: The bed of the canal, is lowest and flow in canal is under pressure.
The FSL of the canal (on the u/s side) is above the bed level of drain. Thus flow in
canal is syphoric in action.

Q5. What is a level crossing?

A level crossing is a cross drainage structure constructed when the canal and
drain flows meet at the same level. (see fig.) Cross regulators across drain and
canal (outgoing) are required to control the
flows in drain and canal respectively.
Sometimes a regulator across incoming canal is
also provided.
These structures become necessary where high
discharge is carried by canal and intermittent
floods of high magnitude occur in the drain and
when they meet at the same level.
Q6. What are inlets and outlets?
An inlet is a structure constructed across the
drain and the drain water is admitted into the
canal to augment canal discharge. It is done
when drain discharge is small and canal water
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 27
level is maintained close to FSL or slightly higher. It is also necessary that too
much silt does not enter the canal through the drain discharge.
If the drain discharge is high, then an outlet may also be constr5ucted d/s of
function to dispose of the drain flood.
Q7. What factors govern the selection of type of cross drainage works?
The selection of the type of cross drainage works is based on several factors.
i) Relative bed level of canal & drain
ii) Water level of drain (HFL) and canal water level (FSL)
iii) Discharge of canal & drain
iv) Suitable canal alignment
v) Nature of foundations available at site
Q8. What are the various types of aqueducts?
There are three types:
i) Type I aqueduct: In this the sides of the canal are earthen banks with
earther slopes. Drain water passes below it with HFL well below the
canal bed in barrel, with adequate width. Flow in drain is at atm.
Pressure. It is economical when drain is very wide.
ii) Type II adequate: The Canal, in this case, continuous in its earthen
section over the drainage, but the outer slopes of canal banks are
replaced by returning walls, thereby reducing the length of cullert.
iii) Type III aqueduct: In the type, canal water is carried in a rectangular
masoniry or RCC trough. The canal is flumed to affect economy. Suitable
transitions from earthen section to rectangular trough section on u/s
side, and from trough section to earthen section on d/s side are
required. It is most economical across small drains.
Q9. What are the design considerations for cross drainage works?
The following considerations are ____ for all types of cross drainage works
i) Max-Flood discharge of drain: Arrived at by eropirical/rational formulaw
for small drains; and by hydrograph analysis for large grains.
ii) Waterway required for aqueducts and siphon aqueducts: Waterway of
drain (P) = 4.75 √ Q (Laceys’s equations). Effective clear waterway will be
less then P due to the thickness of pipes. It should not be less then 0.8P.
iii) Size of barrel: highest level of drain barrel: In case of aqueduct, the HFL
of drain is much below the bottom level of canal tough. In Siphon
aqueduct it depends on the velocity allowable in barrel, which is of the
order of 2-3 m/s.
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 28
iv) Afflux and Head loss through siphon barrels: Due to the reduction in the
width of the drain, afflux occurs or the u/s side of drain barrel.
The head loss through siphon barrel is found from Unwin’s formula. It is
also known as afflux.
[ ]
2
L v2 va
R= 1+f 1 + f 2 −
R 2 g 2g
Where
L = length of barrel
R = Hyd. Mean Radius of barrel
V = Velocity of flow through barrel
V a =¿ Velocity of approach (negligible)
f 1 = Coefficient of head loss at entry = 0.505 for unshaped entry
= 0.08 for belt mouth entry
f 2 = Coefficient of function such that head loss through barrel due to
LV 2
surface functions is given by formula f2
2 gR

( Rb )
¿ a 1+

Value of a & b are based on material of barrel

Material a b
Smooth iron pipe 0.00497 0.025
Smooth pipe 0.00996 0.025
Ashlar or brick work 0.00316 0.030
Rubble Masonry/Store Pitching 0.00507 0.250
Taking D/s HFL of drain same
u/s HFL = D/s DFL + h
v) Flumming of canal: Fluming i.e., contraction of canal waterway will
reduce the width of the aqueduct and the cost of construction. It is
adopted in Type III aqueducts. The amount of fluming is based on the
velocity adopted, which is limited to a maximum of 3m/s.
vi) Channel transitions: As the approach channel is trapezoidal in section
and constructed in earth and the ___ portion is of masonry/RCC and
rectangular in section, u/s and D/s transitions are required for the
change of cross section.
Two methods are used for this purpose.
(a) mitra’s hyperbolic transitor with constant water depth throughout.

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 29

According to the design,

Bn B f L f
Bx =
Lf Bn− ( B n−Bf ) x
Where Bx = bed width of channel at any section x, measured from the
flumed section
Bn = bed width of normal channel section
Bf = bed width of flumed channel section
Lf = Length of transition
For u/s transition Lf =2 ( B n−Bf )
For D/s transition Lf =3 ( Bn−Bf )
(Note: For derivation of formula, see. P.479 – 480 of sk Garg)
(b) Chaturvedi’s semi – cubical transition with constant water depth
throughout.
L B3n/ 2
[ ( )]
3 /2
B
x= 1− f
3/ 2
B n −Bf
3/ 2
Bx
vii)Design of Trough, Floor of Drain, wings & other structures
Their design is based on consideration of water pressure/seepage head
and masonry/RC structures over constructed on that basis. Refer book
for details
Homework:
1) Explain aqueduct and siphon aqueducts.
2) Explain superpassage
Previous JNTUK Questions:
1) List out different types of canal outlets and discuss them (R13 MARCH 2017)
2) Discuss the types of cross drainage works.(R13 NOV 2016)
Day 26
Topics to be covered: Design of aqueduct
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 30
Data: Canal – Full supply discharge: 32 cumecs
FSL: 213.5m; Bed level: 212.0m
1
Bed width = 20m; side slopes: 1 2 H ; 1 V
General G.L 212.5 (Canals in cutting)
Ref: S.K. Garg p.486 – 490.
Solution:
Since the HFL of drain is below the canal bed level, the cross drainage work is an
aqueduct. Type III aqueduct is chosen since the discharge are high. The canal will
be flumed, with transitions u/s & d/s, and will be a trough (rectangular) RCC
section.
i) Drain waterway: Lacey’s equation: P = 4.75√ Q=4.75 √300=82.3 m
Adopt 8 bays of 9m width with 15.m thick piers.
Clear waterway = 8 x 9 = 72m
72
Appxly 82.3 =0.875∨87.5 %
Total width ¿ 8 × 9+ 7 ×1.5=82.5 m
ii) Bed width of canal = 20m (Trap section)
Let the flume width = 10m (Rectangular section)

iii) Head loss and bed levels at different sections

Section 4-4:
Bed level = 212.0
Water depth = 1.5
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 31

A, Area of flow ¿ ( 20+1.5 ×1.5 ) =33.75 m2

Q 32
Velocity of flow ¿ V 4 = A = 33.75 =0.947 m/s
v2
=0.046 m
2g
R.L. of bed = 212.0
Water level = 213.5
TEL = 213.5 + 0.046 = 213.546m
Section 3-3:
Bed width 10m; water depth = 1.5m
Section-rectangular ∴ A=10 ×1.5=15 m2
[ ]
2 2
32 m v3 v4
∴ V 3= =2.13 ∴ − =0.056 m
15 s 2g 2g
∴ RL of TEL at 3−3=RL of TEL at 4−4 +loss head
= 213.546 + 0.056 = 213.602m
2
v3
RL of water surface at 3-3 = 213.602 - 2g
= 213 – 370
RL of bed = 213.370 – 1.5 = 211.87m
Section: 2-2
Section same between 2-2 & 3-3
v 23 v 24
∴ =
2 g 2g
Loss of head between 2-2 & 3-3; Found from Manning;s equation
1 2/ 3 1 /2
V= R S
n
h
where S= Ll →82.5 m
2 2 2 2
n v L ( 0.016 ) × ( 2.13 ) × 82.5
hL= 4
= 4
R3 ( 1.16 ) 3
∴ hL =0.079 m
Take n = 0.016
A 10× 1.5
R= = =1.16 m
P 10+2 ×1.5
RL of TEL at 2-2 = RL of TEL at 3 – 3 + 0.079m = 213.602 + 0.079 = 213.681m
2
v
RL of water level at 2-2 = 213.681 – 2g
= 213.681 – 0.232 = 213.449
RL of bed at 2-2 = 213.449 – 1.5 = 211.949m
Section 1-1: v 2=2.13 m/s ; v1 =v 4 =0.947 m/ s

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 32

[ ]
2 2
v −v
Loss of head in u/s transition ¿ 0.2 2
2g
1
=0.037 m

RL of TEL at 1-1 = RE of TEL at 2-2 + 0.037 = 213.718m

2
v1
RL water level at 1-1 = 213.718 - 2g
=213.718−0.046=213.672m

Bed level at 1-1 = 213.672 – 1.5 = 212.172m

These levels are shown in the above figure.
iv) Design of Transistor:
(a) Contraction Transition – Based on Mitra’s equation
Bn B f L f
Bx =
Lf Bn−x ( Bn−Bf )
Where Bf = 10m, Bn = 20m, Lf =0 m
2000
Substituting, Bx = 200−10 x (Note x is measured from section 2-2)
X 0 2 4 6 8 10
Bx 10 11.11 12.5 14.29 16.67 20
(b) Expansion transition:
x is measured by section 3-3
Here Lf =15 m; others same
3000
∴ B x=
300−10 x
x 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 15
Bx 10 10.71 10.54 12.5 13.64 15 16.67 18.75 20.0

v) Design of Trough: Design as a water retaining structure Road Bridge will be

provided once one HFL of bays of 5m.
Note: Design of trough, wings, transition walls are done as per structural
engg. Principles.

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Day 27
Topics to be covered: Design of cross-drainage work (syphone Aqueduct)
Data: Canal: Discharge: 25 m3 /s; Bed width = 20m; side slopes, Depth of water in
canal = 1.5m; Bed level: 160.0m
Drain: High flood discharge - 400 m3 /s ; HFL = 160.50m
Bed level of drain: 158.0m
General Ground Level: 760.0m
Ref: Punmia – 8.860-868
Solution:
Since discharge of drain is high, type III aqueduct is preferred canal section will
be flumed to rectangular section with 10m width; Depth of water remains
constant at 1.5m
i) Drain waterway: P = 475√ Q=4.75 √ 400=95 m
Provide 13 spans of 6m each with 12 piers of 1.25m thichneess
∴ Total waterway = 13 x 6 + 12 x 1.25 = 93m
400
Let vel, v=2 m/s; ∴ HT of barrel ¿ 78× 2 =2.56 m
400
Taking ht as 2.5m, v= 78 × 2.5 =2.05 m/s
20−10
ii) Canal workway: u/s transition length ¿ 2
× 2=10 m
20−10
D/s transition level ¿ 2
× 3=15 m

iii) W/L at different section:

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 34
Calculations similar to that of aqueduct
Section 4-4:
Area of flow = (20 + 1.5 x 1.5)1.5 = 33.4m2
RL of bed = 160 – 0 (given)
RL of water surface = 160 + 1.5 = 161.5m
RL of TEL = 161.5 + 0.029 = 161.529m
Section 3-3:
2
Q 25 v
v3 = = =1.665 m/ s
10 ×1.5 15
; 2g
=0.141m

[ ]
2 2
v 3−v 4
Loss of head ¿ 0.3 2g
= 0.034 m

RL of TEL 161.529 + 0.034 = 161.563m

w/s = 161.563 – 0.141 = 161.422m
bed = 161.422 – 1.5 = 159.922m
Section 2-2:
A 10× 1.5
Hyd mean depth in touble, R= P = 10+2 ×1.5 =1.155 L
1 2/ 3 1 /2 he
V 2=V 3 =1.665= R S where S =
n L−93
Solving, h L =0.054 m Taking n = 0.016
RL of TEL = RL of TEL at 3-3 + 0.054 = 161.617m
v 22
Water level ¿ 161.617−
2g
=161.617−0.141=161.476 m

Bed = 161.476 – 1.5 = 159.976m

Section 1-1:
v1 =v 4 =0.75 m/s
2 2
v −v
Head loss in contraction, 0.2 2 1 ,
2g
0.022m
RL of TEL = RL of TEL at 2 + 0.022 = 161.639m
Bed = 161.610 – 1.5 = 160.110m
iv) Contraction Transition:

[ ( )] [ ( )]
3 /2 3 /2 3 /2
LD n B 10 ( 20 ) 10
3 /2
x= 1− f = 1−
3/ 2
B n −Bf
3/ 2
BI 3/ 2
20 −10
3 /2
Bx
Bx 10 11 12 … 20
X 0 2.12 3.73 … 10

v) Expression transition:
In this case L = 15m; Bn = 20m, Bf = 10m

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 35

[ ( 10B ) ]
3/ 2
∴ x=23.15 1−
x

Bx 10 11 … 15 … 20
x 0 3.18 … 10.6 … 15

vi) Design of trough: Trough will be made of two components, each 5m wide
with 0.3m pior thickness
Height of trough = water depth + free board (0.5m) = 2m
To check by principles of structural analysis

vii) Head loss through siphon:

[ ]
2
L v
h= 1+ f 1+ f 2
R 2g
where v=2.05 m/s; L=11.1 m
f1 = 0.505
f 2 = a (1+ b/ R) where a = 0.00316, b = 0.030 for cement plaster surface
A 6 × 2.5
R= = =0.765 m
P 2 ( 6+2.5 )
∴ h=0.333 m
HFL (of grain) = 160.50 (given)
∴ u/s HFL = 160.50 + 0.333 = 160.833m

viii) Uplift per. On roof of barrel

ix) Uplift per. On floor of barrel
x) Cut off & protection works for drain age flow
Day 28
Topics to be covered: Canal outlet – Types, Proportionality, Sensitivity and
flexibility.
Q1. What is a canal outlet?
A canal outlet is a small structure, which admits water to a field channel (water
course) from a distributing (branch) canal. It is used to deliver the required
Raghu Institute of Technology Dept. of CIVIL WRE Unit - 3
 36
water into the field channel, which is turn, is used to irrigate the land under its
command. Field channel is maintained by the farmer.
Q2. What are the requirements to be fulfilled by an outlet?
The following requirements are to be fulfilled by an outlet:
i) It should be strong; should not have moving parts, which require periodic
replacement/maintaince.
ii) Its design should be such that the farmer cannot tamper with it.
iii) It should be cheap.
iv) Its design should be simple so that it can be constructed or fabricated by a
mason it technician.
v) It should work efficiently even at smaller working heads.
vi) It should be able to draw its share of silt carried by the distributary.
vii) From the farmer’s view point, it should supply constant discharge into the
field channel. However from the land regulators viewpoint, it should draw
proportionately more or less discharge, based on the discharge in the
distributory.
Q3. What are the types of outlets? Or what is the classification of outlets?
Outlets are classified under three hands:
i) Non-modular outlet: A non modular outlet is the one in which the
diacharge (let out into the field channel) is based on the difference in
water levels in the distributary and the field channel. Eg. Submerged pipe
outlet, masonry sluices and orifices, wooden shoots.
ii) Semi-module or flexible outlet:
In this type, the discharge is affected by the water level in the distributary
only. Fluctuations in the water level of the field channel do not affect the
discharge.
Eg: Kennedy’s gauge outlet crump’s open flume outlet, pipe – cum-open
flume outlet.
iii) Rigid module: In this type, constant discharge is admitted to field channel
even when there are fluctuations in water levels of both distributary and
field channel. Eg. Gibbs Module
Q4. Shape the parameters for judging the behavior and function of outlets.
Parameters for judging the function of outlet are:
i) Flexibility ii) Proportionability iii) setting iv) sensitivity v) Hyper proporsional
outlet vi) sub proportional outlet vii) Efficiency viii) Drawing ratio ix) Minimum
modular head x) Modular limits and modular range.
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Q5. Define flexibility of outlet.
Flexibility (F) is the ratio of rate of change of discharge of outlet to the rate of
change of discharge (Q) of distributary channel.
dq /q
∴ F=
dQ /θ
Generally, for field channel, q=kH m
Where k & m are constants
H = head on outlets
Similarly for distributary channel, Q=CD n
Where C & N are constants
P = water depth in channel
dq km H m−1 dH dH
∴ = =m
q kH m
H
dQ dD
=n
Q D
m D dH
∴ F= . . but dH =dD
n H dD
m D
∴ F= .
n H
Note: m is also known as outlet index
N is also known as canal index
Q6. Define Proportionality & setting outlets
dq dQ
A proportionality outlet is one in which q = Q
Thus F = 1
m D m H
∴ F=1= ∴ =
n H n D
This ratio H/D is known as setting of outlet
5 /3 5
For trapezoidal channels, Q ∝ D ∴n= 3
1/ 2 1
For orifi type outlets, q ∝ H ∴ m=
2
H m 0.5
∴ Setting ¿ D = n = 5/3 =0.3
∴ Outlet is set as OBD below the water surface in the distributory.
Q7. What is sensitivity of outlet?
Sensitivity (S) is defined as the rate of change of discharge of outlet to rate of
change in the level of the distributor surface, referred to the normal depth (D) of
channel.
dq /q
∴ S=
dG / D
where G = Gauge reading so set that G = 0 where q = 0
∴ qG=dD
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dq /q
S= −−−(1)
dQ /D
dq /q dQ dD
But F= dQ/Q where Q =n D
dq /q
∴ F= =S=Fn
dD /D
Q8. What is the sensitivity of a rigid module?
sq
Since for a rigid module, q =0 , we have S = 0
Q9. What are Hyper Proportional Module & Sub proportional module?
H m
In hyper proportional module, proportionality F> 1∴ D < n
H m
In subproportional module F< 1∴ D > n
Q10. Define efficiency of module.
Efficiency is a measure of the conservational of head by a outlet
Head recovered
η=
Head req . for flow
Q11. Define drawing ratio of outlet.
It is the ratio of depth of water level over crest on D/s and u/s of outlet.
Q12. Define (i) Minimum modular (ii) Modular limit (iii) Modular range, when
referred to outlet.
i) Minimum modular head or Minimum modular loss: Difference between
u/s and D/o water levels corresponding to the condition to pass the design
discharge through outlet.
ii) Modular limits are the upper and lower limits of any factor (s) beyond
which the module does not function.
iii) Modular range: is the range between modular limits, under which the
module functions.
Homework:
1) What are the requirements to be fulfilled by an outlet
2) Define flexibility of outlet.
Previous JNTUK Questions:
1) List out different types of canal outlets and discuss them. (R13 NOV 2016)
Day 29
Topics to be covered: River Training – Objectives & approaches
Q1. What do you understand by river training?
River training refers to the measure adopted on a river to direct and guide its
flow or to increase its depth of flow or to regular the river bed.
Q2. What are the objectives of river training?
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The objectives of river training are one it several of the following:
i) To pass high flood discharge safely i.e., without over tapping the banks.
ii) To enable the bed and suspend load of sediment to be transported
efficiently.
iii) To keep the river cause stable and reduce bank erosion.
iv) To provide sufficient depth of water in river for navigate.
v) To fix direction of flow in a certain reach.
Q3. How do you classify river training works?
River training works are classified as:
i) High water training or Training for discharge: The goal here is to enable the river
cross-section to pass the high flood discharge. Safely and ____. It concerns mainly
with alignment and height of bonus for the designed flood discharge.
ii) Loss water training or Training for depth: Purpose here is to maintain sufficient
depth of water in river for navigate.
iii) Mean water training or Training for sediment: Aim is to be correct the
configuration of river bed for efficient transportation of sediment load and to keep
the channel in good shape (with neither too much erosion or deposits)
Q4. What are the various types of river training measures adopted?
Various types of river training works are
i) Guide bonds ii) Groynes or spurs iii) Levees or Embankments iv) Bank
properties with pitching v) Pitched islands vi) River training without
embankments vii) Bandalling
Q5. What is a guide bank?
Guide banks are made for guiding the flow near a structure (eg. Bridge & Dam)
to guide the flow to occur within a reasonable width.

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As is evident from the figure, the river side portion in the shank portion is
protected with stones, similarly the curved portion is protected on both sides
with stories.
Here L = 4.75√ Q (width of the channel)
Q6. What are groynes or spurs?
They are structures (permeable or impermeable) constructed across the river
and extend from bank into the river upto same length. The objectives are
i) To contract the river channel to improve its depth.
ii) To protect the river bank
iii) To silt up the area by creating slack flow
iv) To move the river flow along a designed direction.
There are 3 types of groynes
a) Repelling Groyne: It repels the flow as shown & forms a silt pocket on u/s side
as shown.

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b) Deflecting Groyne: It is similar to repelling groyne, but constructed
perpendicular to bank. It does not form a silt pocket. It only deflects the flow.
Its length is shorter than the 1st type.

c) Attracting Groyne: It attracts the flow towards it. As such the embankments
on either side of groyne need to be protected.

Cross section of groyne:

Q7. What are marginal bunds?

Marginal bunds or levees are earthen dikes constructed roughly parallel to the
river to protect low lycing area against floods.
Q8. What are pitched islands?
Pitched islands in a river are used for making the river flow axial or improving
channel for irrigation.

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Q9. What is bank protection?

Bank protection is a measure to maintain the stability of bank against erosion by
river.
Protection is done by covering the earthen bank side slopes with vegetal cover,
stone revertment or concreting.
Q10. What is Bandalling?
Bandalling is an impervious method of river training to confirm the river to a
single channel and to ensure sufficient depth of flow.
It consists of bamboos framework, driven into the river bed ___ no. of
bamboos driven at certain spacing and the frame covered with bamboos mats,
properly fixed to the framework. They are placed at 30o −40 o inclined downstream
to direct the flow into the specified cause. Due to the obstruction created by it,
silt gets deposited in front of the bansals.
Homework:
1) What are the objectives of river training?
2) How do you classify river training works
Important and Previous JNTUK Questions:
1) What is a river training work? What are the objectives? (R13 NOV 2016)
2) Explain the features of river training. (R13 MARCH 2017)
Raghu Institute of Technology Dept. of CIVIL WRE Unit - 3