Emtl Unit-Ia L-3 Vector Calculus

4/12/2022
eM WAVeS & tXN LINeS
Lecture-3 uNIt-IA
Vector cALcuLuS
K.VeNKAt reddy
Professor in ECE,
Sreenidhi Institute of Science and Technology
12-Apr-22 Prof K.Venkat Reddy 1
LIST OF TOPICS TO BE COVERED IN THIS UNIT

 Introduction to Vector Analysis
 Vector Algebra
 Coordinate systems and transformation
 Vector Calculus
 Line, Surface and Volume Integral
 Curl of fields
 Divergence of fields and
 Gradient of fields
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TOPICS TO BE DISCUSSED IN THIS LECTURE
 Vector Calculus
 Differential length, area and volume
 Line, Surface and Volume Integral
 Curl of fields
DIFFERENTIAL LENGTH, AREA AND VOLUME

• Differential elements in length, area and volume are
useful in vector calculus.
• They are defined in the
1. Cartesian coordinate systems,
2. Cylindrical coordinate systems and
3. Spherical coordinate systems.
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CARTESIAN COORDINATES
• From Figure 3.1, we notice that
(1) Differential displacement is given by
dl = dx ax + dy ay + dz az (1)
(2) From Figure 3.2, Differential normal area is given by
dS = dy dz ax dS = dz dx ay dS = dx dy az (2)
(3) Differential volume is given by dv = dx dy dz (3)
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• The differential surface (or area) element dS may
generally be defined as
dS = dS an (4)
• where dS is the area of the surface element and an is
a unit vector normal to the surface dS. (and directed
away from the volume.
• The idea developed here for Cartesian coordinates
will now be extended to other coordinate systems.
CYLINDRICAL COORDINATES
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CYLINDRICAL COORDINATES
• From Figure 3.3 that in cylindrical coordinates,
differential elements can be found as follows:
(1) Differential displacement is given by
dl = dρ aρ + ρdФ aФ + dz az (5)
(2) From Figure 3.4, Differential normal area is given by
dS = ρ dФ dz aρ dS= dρ dz aФ dS= ρdρ dФ az (6)
(3) Differential volume is given by dv = ρ dρ dФ dz(7)
SPHERICAL COORDINATES
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SPHERICAL COORDINATES
• From Fig 3.5, we notice that in spherical coordinates,
(1) The differential displacement is
dl = dr ar + rdθ aθ + rsinθ dФ aФ (8)
(2) From Figure 3.6, The differential normal area is
dS = r2sinθ dθ dФ ar dS = r sinθ dr dФ aθ dS = r dr dθ aФ(9)
(3) Differential volume is given by dv = r2sinθ dr dθ dФ
(10)
LINE, SURFACE AND VOLUME INTEGRALS

• The familiar concept of integration will now be
extended to cases when the integrand involves a
vector. By a line we mean the path along a curve in
space. We shall use terms such as line, curve, and
contour interchangeably.
• The line integral L A . dl is the integral of the
tangential component of A along curve L.
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LINE INTEGRALS
• Given a vector field A and
a curve L, we define the
integral
b
 A.dl  
L a
A cos θ dl  (11)
as the line integral of A

around L (see Figure 3.8).
LINE INTEGRALS
• If the path of integration is a closed curve such as
a-b-c-a in Figure 3.8 above equation becomes a
closed contour integral
 A.dl  (12)
L
which is called the circulation of A around L.
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SURFACE INTEGRALS
• Given a vector field A, continuous in a region
containing the smooth surface S, we define the
surface integral or the flux of A through S (see Figure
3.9) as
   A cos θ dS   A.a n dS
S S
or simply    A . dS  (13)
S
where, at any point on S, an is the unit normal to S.
SURFACE INTEGRALS
• For a closed surface an open surface whereas a
(defining a volume), above closed surface defines a
equation becomes volume..
volume
   A . dS  (14)
S
• It is referred to as the net
outward flux of A from S.
Note: A closed path defines
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VOLUME INTEGRALS
• We define the integral

v
v dv  (15)
as the volume integral of the scalar ρv over the

volume v. The physical meaning of a line, surface, or
volume integral depends on the nature of the
physical quantity represented by A or ρv.
DEL OPERATOR
• The del operator, written ▼, is the vector differential
operator. In Cartesian coordinates,
  
  a x  a y  a z  (16)
x y z
• This vector differential operator, otherwise known as
the gradient operator, is not a vector in itself, but
when it operates on a scalar function, for example, a
vector ensues
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DEL OPERATOR
• The operator is useful in defining
1. The Gradient of a scalar V,
– written as ▼V or gradV
2. The Divergence of a vector A,
– written as ▼• A or divA
3. The Curl of a vector A,
– written as ▼x A or curlA
4. The Laplacian of a scalar V, written as ▼2V
DEL OPERATOR
• To obtain ▼ in terms of ρ,ɸ and z
y
  x 2  y 2 , tan  
x
• Hence   cos    sin  
x   
  cos  
 sin  
y   
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DEL OPERATOR
• we obtain ▼in cylindrical coordinates as
 1  
 a  a   a z  (17)
   z
• Similarly, to obtain ▼ in terms of r, θ and ɸ, we use
x2  y2 y
r  x  y  z , tan  
2 2 2
, tan  
z x
DEL OPERATOR
• to obtain
  cos  cos   sin  
 sin  cos   
x r r   
  cos  sin   cos  
 sin  sin   
y r r   
  sin  
 cos  
z r r 
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DEL OPERATOR
• we obtain ▼in spherical coordinates as
 1  1 
 ar  a  a   (18)
r r  r sin  
PHYSICAL INTERPREATION
OF
GRADIENT, DIVERGENCE AND CURL
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PHYSICAL INTERPRETATION OF GRADIENT

• The gradient of any scalar function is the maximum
space rate of change of that function.
• If the temperature, V is a scalar quantity-having
magnitude but no direction, then ▼V=gradV is a
temperature gradient, or rate of change of
temperature with distance.
PHYSICAL INTERPRETATION OF GRADIENT
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GRADIENT OF A SCALAR
• From calculus,
V V V
dV  dx  dy  dz  (19)
x y z
 V V V 

 ax  ay  a z .dx a x  dy a y  dz a z 
 x y z 
• The temperature gradient ▼V is a vector quantity,
its direction being that in which the temperature
changes most rapidly.
• This vector quantity may be expressed in terms
of its components in the x, y and z direction.
• These are respectively ∂V/∂x/∂x, ∂V/∂y and ∂V/∂z
/∂z.
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• The resultant temperature gradient is the vector
sum of these three components:
 V V V 
grad V  V   ax  ay  a z 
 x y z 
• If the scalar V represents electric potential in
volts, ▼V represents potential gradient or
electric field strength in Volts per meter(MKS).
• The gradient of V can be expressed in Cartesian,
cylindrical and spherical coordinates.
• For Cartesian coordinates

 V V V 
grad V  V   ax  ay  a z   ( 20)
 x y z 
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• For Cylindrical coordinates
 V 1 V V 
V   a  a  a z   ( 21)
      z 
• For Spherical coordinates
 V 1 V 1 V 
V   ar  a  a    ( 22)
 r r  r sin   
PHYSICAL INTERPRETATION OF DIVERGENCE

• The divergence is a mathematical tool, vector
analysis finds great usefulness in simplifying the
expressions of the relations that exist in three-
dimensional fields. A consideration of fluid motion
gives a direct interpretation of divergence.
• Consider the flow of an incompressible fluid .i.e.
water.
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• In Fig.1.6 the
rectangular
parallelepiped ΔxΔyΔz,
is an infinitesimal
volume element within
the fluid.

• If ρm is the mass density of the fluid, the flow
into the volume through the left left--hand face is
ρmvyΔxΔz where vy is the average of the y
component of fluid velocity through the left-
hand face.
• The corresponding velocity through the right right--
hand face will be [vvy+(
+(∂∂vy/∂y)
∂y)ΔΔy]
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• So that the flow through this face is
 (  mv y ) 
 mv y   y   xz
  y 
• The net outward flow in the y-direction is
therefore
(  mv y )
xyz  ( 23)
y

• Similarly the net outward flow in the z-direction
is
(  mvz )
xyz  ( 24)
z
and in the x-direction it is

(  mvx )
xyz  ( 25)
x
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• The total net outward flow, considering all three
directions, is then
 (  m vx ) (  mv y ) (  mvz ) 
    xyz  ( 26)
 x y z 
• The net outward flow per unit volume is
(  mvx ) (  mv y ) (  mvz )
   div (  m v )  .(  m v )  ( 27)
x y z

• This is the divergence of the fluid at the point
(x, y, z).
• Evidently, for an incompressible fluid ▼.(ρmv)
always equals zero. An incompressible fluid
cannot diverge, nor converge toward a point.
• The case of a compressible fluid or gas such
as steam is different.
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• When the valve on a steam boiler is opened,
there is a value for the divergence at each point
within the boiler. There is a net outward flow of
steam for each elemental volume. In this case
the divergence has a positive value. On the other
hand, when an evacuated light bulb is broke,
there is momentarily a negative value for
divergence in the space that was formerly the
interior of the bulb.
DIVERGENCE OF A VECTOR
• The net outflow of the flux of a vector field A from a
closed surface S is obtained from the integral §A•dS.
• We now define the divergence of A as the net
outward flow of flux per unit volume over a closed
incremental surface.
• The divergence of A at a given point P is the
outward flux per unit volume as the volume shrinks
about P.
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• Hence
div A   . A  lim
 A.dS  (28)
S
v  0 v
• where Δv is the volume enclosed by the closed
surface S in which P is located. Physically, we may
regard the divergence of the vector field A at a given
point as a measure of how much the field diverges or
emanates from that point.
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• Figure 3.14(a) shows that the divergence of a vector
field at point P is positive because the vector diverges
(or spreads out) at P.
• In Figure 3.14(b) a vector field has negative
divergence (or convergence) at P, and
• In Figure 3.14(c) a vector field has zero divergence at
P.
• The divergence of a vector field can also be viewed as
simply the limit of the field's source strength per unit
volume (or source density); it is positive at a source
point in the field and negative at a sink point or zero
where there is neither sink nor source.
• We can obtain an expression for ▼• A in Cartesian
coordinates from the definition.
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• Using Δv = dx dy dz, we get
 A.dS   A Ay Az 


lim
v  0
S
v
x
 x


y

z  at P
 ( 29)
• Thus, the divergence of A at point P in a Cartesian
system is given by
A x A y A z
.A     (30)
x y z
• The divergence of A in cylindrical coordinates as
1  1 A  A z
.A  ( A  )    (31)
    z
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• The divergence of A in spherical coordinates as
1  2 1  1 A
.A  ( r A )  ( A  sin  )   (32)
r sin   r sin  
r
r r
2
• Note: The following properties of the divergence of a
vector field:
1. It produces a scalar field (because scalar product is
involved).
2. The divergence of a scalar V, div V, makes no sense.
3. ▼ • (A + B) = ▼ • A + ▼ • B
4. ▼ • (VA) = V▼ • A + A • ▼V
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DIVERGENCE THEOREM
• From the definition of the divergence of A i.e.
equ(23)
 A.dS
div A   . A  lim S
v  0 v
We can write
 A.dS    . A dv  (33)
S v
• This is called the divergence theorem, otherwise

known as the Gauss-Ostrogradsky theorem.
DIVERGENCE THEOREM
• The divergence theorem states that the total
outward flux of a vector field A through the closed
surface S is the same as the volume integral of the
divergence of A.
 A.dS    . A dv
S v
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DIVERGENCE THEOREM
• The divergence theorem Proof: subdivide volume v
into a large number of small cells. If the kth cell has
volume Δvk and is bounded by surface Sk
 A.dS
SA.dS  k SAk .dS  k vk vk  (34)
Sk
• Since the outward flux to one cell is inward to some

neighboring cells, there is cancellation on every
interior surface,
DIVERGENCE THEOREM
• Proof: so the sum of the surface integrals over Sk's is
the same as the surface integral over the surface S.
Taking the limit of the right-hand side of eq.(34) and
incorporating eq.(23) gives  A.dS  (23)
div A   . A lim
v  0
S
v
 A.dS   .A dv  (35)

S v
Which is the divergence theorem

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PHYSICAL INTERPREATION OF CURL

• The concept of curl or rotation of a vector
quantity is clearly illustrated in the stream flow
problems. Fig 1.7 shows a stream on the surface
of which floats a leaf(in the x-y plane).
• If the velocity at the surface is entirely in the y-
direction and is uniform over the surface , there
will be no rotational motion of the leaf but only
a translational motion downstream.
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• However, if there are eddies or vortices in the stream
flow, there will in general be a rotational as well as
translational motion.
• The rate of rotational or angular velocity at any point is
a measure of the curl of the velocity of the water at
that point.
• In this case, where the rotation is about the z-axis, the
curl of v is in the z-direction and is designated by
(▼xv)z.

• A positive value of (▼xv)z denotes a rotation from
x to y, that is, a counterclockwise rotation. From
Fig 1.7b it is seen that a positive value for ∂vy/∂x
will tend to rotate the leaf in a counterclockwise
direction, whereas a positive value for ∂vx/∂y will
tend to produce a clockwise rotation
rotation. The rate of
rotation about the z-axis is therefore proportional
to the difference between these two quantities.
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• By definition of the curl in rectangular co-
ordinates,
v y
v x
xv z    (36)
x y
• More generally, considering any point within the
fluid, there may be rotations about the x and y
axes as well.

• The corresponding components of the curl are
given by
v z v y
xv x    (37 ) xv y  vx  vz  (38)
y z z x
• A rotation about any axis can always be

expressed as the sum of the component rotations
about the x, y and z-axis.
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• Since the rotations have direction as well as
magnitude this will be a vector sum and the
resultant rate of rotation or angular velocity will be
proportional to
 v v y   v v   v v 
xv   z  a x   x  z a y   y  x a z  (39)
 y z   z x   x y 
• The direction of the resultant curl is the axis of
rotation.
CURL OF A VECTOR AND STOKES'S THEOREM

• we defined the circulation of a vector field A around
a closed path L as the integral L A . dl
• The curl of A is an axial (or rotational) vector whose
magnitude is the maximum circulation of A per unit
area as the area tends to zero and whose direction
is the normal direction of the area when the area is
oriented so as to make the circulation maximum.
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• That is,
 A.dl 

curl A   x A  lim
L
a max  (40)
 s  0  s  n
 
• where the area ΔS is bounded by the curve L and an is

the unit vector normal to the surface ΔS and is
determined using the right-hand rule.

• From this,
A.dl Az Ay
lim
S  0
L S

y

z
 ( 41)
• or
Ay
curl A x  Az   (42.a )
y z
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• The y- and x-components of the curl of A can be
found in the same way. We obtain
curl A y  Ax  Az  ( 42.b)

z x
Ay Ax
curl A z    ( 42.c )
x y

• The definition of ▼ X A in eq. (36) is independent of
the coordinate system. In Cartesian coordinates the
curl of A is easily found using
ax ay az
  
xA   ( 43)
x y z
Ax Ay Az
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• or
 Az Ay   Ax Az 
xA    a
 x     ay
 y z   z x 
 Ay Ax 
   a z  ( 44)
 x y 

• The curl of A (▼x A ) in cylindrical coordinates is
a a az
1   
xA   (45)
   z
A A Az
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• The curl of A (▼x A ) in spherical coordinates is
ar ra r sin a

1   
xA  2  ( 46)
r sin  r  
Ar rA r sin A

• The following properties of the curl:
1. The curl of a vector field is another vector field.
2. The curl of a scalar field V, ▼XV, makes no sense.
3. ▼X(A + B) = ▼X A + ▼X B
4. ▼X(A X B) = A(▼• B) - B(▼• A) + (B•▼A - (A•▼)B
5. ▼ X (VA) = V▼X A + ▼V X A
6. The div of the curl of a vector vanishes, that is, ▼•(▼X A) = 0.
7. The curl of the gradient of a scalar vanishes, that is, ▼X▼V= 0.
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• From the physical significance of the curl of a vector
field it is evident that, the curl provides the
maximum value of the circulation of the field per
unit area (or circulation density) and indicates the
direction along which this maximum value occurs.
• The curl of a vector field A at a point P may be
regarded as a measure of the circulation or how
much the field curls around P.
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• For example, Figure 3.19(a) shows that the curl of a
vector field around P is directed out of the page.
Figure 3.19(b) shows a vector field with zero curl.
• Also, from the definition of the curl of A, we may
expect that
 A.dl   (xA ).dS  (47)
L S
• This is called Stokes's theorem


• Stokes's theorem states that the circulation of
a vector field A around a (closed) path L is
equal to the surface integral of the curl of A
over the open surface S bounded by L (see
Figure 3.20) provided that A and ▼XA are
continuous on S.
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• The proof of Stokes's theorem is similar to that of the
divergence theorem.
• The surface S is subdivided into a large number of
cells as in Figure 3.21. If the kth cell has surface area
ΔSk and is bounded by path Lk.
 A.dl s
 A.dl    A.dl  
Lk
k  ( 48)
L
k
Lk
k s k
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• As shown in Figure 3.21,
there is cancellation on
every interior path, so the
sum of the line integrals
around Lk's is the same as
the line integral around the
bounding curve L

• Therefore, taking the limit of the right-hand side of
eq.(48) as ΔSk—>0 and incorporating eq.(36) leads to
 A.dl   (xA ).dS

L S
• which is Stokes's theorem.

• The direction of dl and dS in eq.(47) must be chosen
using the right-hand rule or right-handed screw rule.
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• Using the right-hand rule, if we let the fingers point
in the direction of dl, the thumb will indicate the
direction of dS (see Fig. 3.20).
• Note: 1) The divergence theorem relates a closed
surface integral to a volume integral,
integral
2) The Stokes's theorem relates a closed line
integral (circulation) to a open surface integral.
LAPLACIAN OF A SCALAR
• For practical reasons, it is expedient to introduce a
single operator which is the composite of gradient
and divergence operators.
• This operator is known as the Laplacian.
• The Laplacian of a scalar field V, written as ▼2V is
the divergence of the gradient of V.
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• Thus, in Cartesian coordinates, Laplacian V=▼•▼V = ▼2V
     V V V 
  a x  a y  a z . ax  ay  az
 x y z   x y z 
That is
 2V  2V  2V
 V  2  2  2  ( 49)
2
x y z
Note: The Laplacian of a scalar field is another scalar field.
• In cylindrical coordinates,
1   V  1  2V  2V
V 2
    2  2  (50)
       2
z
and in spherical coordinates,
1   2 V  1   V  1  2V
V 2   sin    (51)
2
r
r r  r  r 2 sin      r 2 sin 2   2
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• A scalar field V is said to be harmonic in a given
region, if its Laplacian vanishes in that region. In
other words, if
 2V  0  (52)
• We have only considered the Laplacian of a scalar.
Since the Laplacian operator ▼2 is a scalar operator,
it is also possible to define the Laplacian of a vector
A.
▼2A is defined as the gradient of the divergence of A
minus the curl of the curl of A. That is,
 2 A   (.A )  xxA  (53)
• This equation can be applied in finding ▼2A in any
coordinate system. In the Cartesian system (and only
in that system), eq.(53) becomes
 2A   2A x a x   2A ya y   2A za z
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CLASSIFICATION OF VECTOR FIELDS

• A vector field is uniquely characterized by its
divergence and curl.
• Neither the divergence nor curl of a vector field is
sufficient to completely describe the field.
• All vector fields can be classified in terms of their
vanishing or nonvanishing divergence or curl as
follows:
CLASSIFICATION OF VECTOR FIELDS

• A vector field A is said to be solenoidal (or
divergenceless) if ▼• A = 0.
• A vector field A is said to be irrotational (or potential) if
▼X A = 0.
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SUMMARY OF THE IMPORTANT POINTS
 Vector Calculus
 Differential length, area and volume
 Line, Surface and Volume Integral,
 Curl of fields
85
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Emtl Unit-Ia L-3 Vector Calculus

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4/12/2022

eM WAVeS & tXN LINeS

12-Apr-22 Prof K.Venkat Reddy 1

LIST OF TOPICS TO BE COVERED IN THIS UNIT

TOPICS TO BE DISCUSSED IN THIS LECTURE

DIFFERENTIAL LENGTH, AREA AND VOLUME

12-Apr-22 Prof K.Venkat Reddy 4

12-Apr-22 Prof K.Venkat Reddy 5

12-Apr-22 Prof K.Venkat Reddy 6

12-Apr-22 Prof K.Venkat Reddy 8

12-Apr-22 Prof K.Venkat Reddy 10

LINE, SURFACE AND VOLUME INTEGRALS

as the line integral of A

which is called the circulation of A around L.

12-Apr-22 Prof K.Venkat Reddy 14

12-Apr-22 Prof K.Venkat Reddy 16

as the volume integral of the scalar ρv over the

12-Apr-22 Prof K.Venkat Reddy 23

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PHYSICAL INTERPRETATION OF GRADIENT

12-Apr-22 Prof K.Venkat Reddy 25

PHYSICAL INTERPRETATION OF GRADIENT

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• For Cartesian coordinates

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PHYSICAL INTERPRETATION OF DIVERGENCE

PHYSICAL INTERPRETATION OF DIVERGENCE

12-Apr-22 Prof K.Venkat Reddy 33

PHYSICAL INTERPRETATION OF DIVERGENCE

PHYSICAL INTERPRETATION OF DIVERGENCE

PHYSICAL INTERPRETATION OF DIVERGENCE

and in the x-direction it is

PHYSICAL INTERPRETATION OF DIVERGENCE

PHYSICAL INTERPRETATION OF DIVERGENCE

PHYSICAL INTERPRETATION OF DIVERGENCE

12-Apr-22 Prof K.Venkat Reddy 42

 A.dS   A Ay Az 

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• This is called the divergence theorem, otherwise

12-Apr-22 Prof K.Venkat Reddy 50

• Since the outward flux to one cell is inward to some

 A.dS   .A dv  (35)

Which is the divergence theorem

PHYSICAL INTERPREATION OF CURL

PHYSICAL INTERPREATION OF CURL

12-Apr-22 Prof K.Venkat Reddy 54

PHYSICAL INTERPREATION OF CURL

PHYSICAL INTERPREATION OF CURL

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PHYSICAL INTERPREATION OF CURL

12-Apr-22 Prof K.Venkat Reddy 57

PHYSICAL INTERPREATION OF CURL

• A rotation about any axis can always be

PHYSICAL INTERPREATION OF CURL

CURL OF A VECTOR AND STOKES'S THEOREM

CURL OF A VECTOR AND STOKES'S THEOREM

• where the area ΔS is bounded by the curve L and an is

CURL OF A VECTOR AND STOKES'S THEOREM

CURL OF A VECTOR AND STOKES'S THEOREM