Emtl Unit-V Merged

EM WAVES & TXN LINES
UNIT-V
part-1
TRANSMISSION LINE THEORY
K.Venkat reddy
Professor of ECE,
Sreenidhi Institute of Science and Technology
Mobile No.9440228592,
E-mail id: kvreddy@sreenidhi.edu.in
24-Jun-23 Prof K.Venkat Reddy 1
LIST OF TOPICS TO BE COVERED IN THIS UNIT
Transmission line
 General solution
 The infinite line concept
 Wave length
 Velocity of propagation
 Waveform distortion
 The distortion-less line
 Loading and different methods of loading
 Line not terminated in Z0
 Reflection coefficient
 Calculation of
 current,
 voltage,
 power delivered and efficiency of transmission
 Input and transfer impedance
 Open and short circuited lines
 Reflection factor and
 Reflection loss
TOPICS TO BE DISCUSSED IN WEEK-1
Introduction
Types of transmission lines and
Applications of transmission lines
Electrical Equivalent Circuit of transmission line
Primary constants of transmission line

TOPICS TO BE DISCUSSED IN WEEK-1
Transmission line equations-Derivation
Infinite Line - Finite line terminated in Characteristic
Impedance
Secondary constants of Transmission line
 Wavelength, phase velocity and Group velocity
 Attenuation and Phase constants

INTRODUCTION
• Energy can be transmitted either by the radiation of free
EM waves or it can be constrained to move or carried in
various conductor arrangements known as transmission
lines.
• Transmission lines are employed not only to transmit
energy but also as circuit elements at very high
frequencies.
• Also used as measuring devices and to obtain impedance
matching.
INTRODUCTION
• Transmission lines are employed not only to transmit
energy but also as circuit elements at very high frequencies
like
– Inductors,
– Capacitors,
– Resonant circuits(Parallel and serial),
– Filters,
– Transformers (Impedance) and
– Insulators.
INTRODUCTION
• A transmission line basically consists of two or more
parallel conductors used to connect source to load.
• Transmission line transmits information or energy
from source to load. They are nothing but guided
conducting structures which are used in
–Power distribution at low frequencies and
–Communications and computer networks at high
frequencies.
TYPES OF TRANSMISSION LINES
1. The parallel wire(Open wire)
2. Twisted pair
3. Co-axial Cable
4. Optical fiber Cable
5. Planar line (Parallel planes)
6. Wave guides
7. Strip line
8. Micro strip line
1. The parallel wire(Open wire): The ordinary
telephone line, strung on across arms on poles.

1. The parallel wire(Open wire): The interference
from devices such as a motor car create unequal
noise over two parallel lines. The line that is closer
to the device receives more interference than the
one that is farther.

2. Twisted pair: If the
wires are twisted around
each other at regular
intervals; each wire is
closer to the noise source
for half of the time and
farther for the other half.

2. Twisted pair: Both
receives the same
amount of noise. The
noise from two wires
gets cancelled.

3. Co-axial Cable: In this one conductor is a hollow
tube, the second conductor being located inside
and coaxial with the tube.

4. Optical fiber Cable: The optical fiber is a device which
works on the principle of total internal reflection by
which light signals can be transmitted from one place to
another with a negligible loss of energy.

5. Planar line (Parallel planes): A type of transmission
line called a cage line, used for high power, low
frequency applications. It functions similarly to a large
coaxial cable.

6. Wave guides: Hollow conducting tubes of uniform cross
section. Waveguide functions as a unit for channeling and
controlling the flow of electromagnetic energy.

7. Strip line: A strip line is a type of transmission
line based on planar microwave circuitry. It typically
consists of a conducting strip surrounded by dielectric
material and sandwiched between two conducting
ground planes.

8. Microstrip line: Microstrip is a type of
electrical transmission line which can be fabricated using
printed circuit board technology, and is used to convey
microwave-frequency signals. It consists of a conducting strip
separated from a ground plane by a dielectric layer known as
the substrate.

COMPARISON BETWEEN TWISTED PAIR, CO-AXIAL
TRANSMISSION LINE AND OPTICAL FIBRE CABLE
S No Characteristic Twisted Pair Cable Co-axial Cable Optical Fiber
1 Transmission of Signal Electrical Form over the Electrical Form over the Optical Form over a
metallic conducting wires inner conductor the glass fiber
cable
2 Noise Immunity Low Higher Highest
3 External Magnetic field More effected Less Effected Not effected
effect
4 Cost Cheap Moderate Cost Costly
5 Bandwidth Low Moderately high Very high
6 Attenuation Very high Low Very low
7 Installation Easy Fairly easy Difficult

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TRANSMISSION
LINE AND WAVE GUIDE
• Transmission line: It is a two or more conductors
separated by some insulating medium. It is used to
carry electrical signal over a long range and
operating frequency is up to 18GHz.
• Waveguide: It is a hollow metallic tube or structure
through which EM energy is transmitted from one
point to another. The operating frequency is 3GHz to
100 GHz.
COMPARISON OF TRANSMISSION LINES
AND WAVE GUIDES
• Q: Why don’t we simply pick the best
transmission line, and use it for all applications?
• A: Every transmission line design has its pros
and cons - none is the best for all applications,
and each is best for some applications.

COMPARISON OF TRANSMISSION LINES
AND WAVE GUIDES
S No Characteristic Co-axial Cable Waveguide Strip line Microstrip
line
1 Preferred Mode TEM TE10 TEM Quasi - TEM
2 Other Modes TM, TE TM, TE TM, TE TM, TE
3 Dispersion None Medium None Low
4 Bandwidth High Low High High
5 Loss Medium Low High High
6 Power Capacity Medium High Low Low
7 Physical Size Large Large Medium Small
8 Fabrication Ease Medium Medium Easy More Easy
9 Component Hard Hard Fair Easy
Integration

APPLICATIONS OF TRANSMISSION LINES
1. Transmission lines are used to transfer energy from one
circuit to another.
2. They can be used as impedance matching devices.
3. They can be used as stubs (Stub is a small section of
Transmission line) used for impedance matching.
4. Optical fibers are used to transmit energy over long and
short distances with negligible attenuation.

TRANSMISSION LINE
ELECTRICAL EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
• If a long line consisting of two parallel uniform conductors
is carrying current, there is a magnetic field around
conductors and voltage drop along them.
• The magnetic field, which is proportional to current,
indicates that the line has series inductance L; The voltage
drop indicates the presence of series resistance R.
• Voltage applied across the conductor produces an electric
field between the conductor and charges on them.
TRANSMISSION LINE
• This indicates that the lines can be represented by
contains shunt capacitance below fig.1.
C and since the capacitance
is never lossless or perfect,
it will have some shunt
conductance G as well.
• Using these four values a
short(unit) section of line
TRANSMISSION LINE
• Actually there are no lumped constants, but instead The R,
L, C and G are distributed along the whole length of the
line. When R, L, C and G are uniformly distributed along
the entire length of a transmission line, it is termed as
UNIFORM TRANSMISSION LINE.
• Electrical equivalent circuits of One short section of
the transmission line and uniform transmission line
are shown in below figures.
TRANSMISSION LINE
Fig.1: One short section of the transmission line

TRANSMISSION LINE
Fig.2: Uniform transmission line.

PRIMARY CONSTANTS OF TRANSMISSION LINE
• The four line parameters R, L, C and G are termed as
primary constants of the transmission line. They are
defined as follows.
• Resistance, R is defined as series(loop) resistance per unit
length of the line. Thus it is sum of resistance of both the
wires for unit line length. Its unit is Ohms per unit length.
• It is formed due to conducting material all alone the length
of the line. It appears in series along the line. It causes
voltage drop or voltage decay in series.
• Inductance, L is defined as series(loop) inductance per unit
length of the line.
• Thus it is sum of inductance of both the wires for unit line
length. Its unit is Henrys per unit length.
• It is formed due to currents on the line there is surrounded
magnetic field. It causes flow of charge.

• Conductance, G is defined as shunt conductance between
the two wires per unit line length.
• Its unit is Mhos(Ʊ) per unit length.
• It is formed due to dielectric material between the length
of the lines.
• It appears in shunt between the lines.
• It causes current drop or current decay in shunt.

• Capacitance, C is defined as shunt capacitance between
the two wires per unit line length. Its unit is Farads per unit
length.
• It is formed due to voltages on the line, there is a
surrounded electric field. It causes accumulation of charge.
• Although they are referred to as constants but in general
all will vary with frequency. The concept of per unit length
of these four primary constants can be applied to other
types of lines.
• The series impedance, Z of the line per unit length is
Z  R  jL  (1a)
• The shunt admittance, Y of the line per unit length is

Y  G  jC  (1b)
• Z and Y have special significance in the study of

transmission line.
TRANSMISSION LINE EQUATIONS-DERIVATION
• Let the line be for length, “l” and primary constants of the
line be R, L, C and G per unit length. It will be assumed that
they do not vary with frequency.
• Consider a short section of line - PQ of length dx, at a
distance x from the sending end, A as shown in fig.3. By
making dx very small, the current may be considered
constant for voltage calculations and voltage constant for
current calculations. At P, let the voltage be V and current
I, At Q the voltage will be V+dV and current I+dI.
Fig.3

• The series impedance of small section dx will be (R+jωL)dx
and the shunt admittance of small section dx will be
(G+jωC)dx.
• Since dx is very small, the voltage drop from P to Q may
be considered to be due to the current I flowing through
the series impedance (R+jωL)dx.
• The decrease in current from P to Q may be considered to
be due to the voltage V applied to the shunt admittance
(G+jωC)dx.
• Potential difference between P and Q is due to current
flowing through series impedance (R+jωL)dx . Thus
V  (V  dV )  I ( R  jL)dx  dV  I ( R  jL)dx
dV
  ( R  jL) I  (2a)
dx
• Current difference between P and Q is due to voltage
applied to shunt admittance (G+jωC)dx . Thus
I  ( I  dI )  V (G  jC)dx  dI  V (G  jC)dx
dI
  (G  jC )V  (2b)
dx
• It is convenient, however to eliminate first I from eq.2a and
then V from eq.2b so that each equation involves only one
independent variable.
• This may be brought about by differentiating each
equation and substituting for dI/dx and dV/dx.
d 2V dI
 2  ( R  jL)  ( R  jL)(G  jC )V 
dx dx
d 2V
2
 ( R  jL)(G  jC )V  (3a)
dx
2
d I dV
and  2  (G  jC )  ( R  jL)(G  jC ) I 
dx dx
2
d I
2
 ( R  jL)(G  jC ) I  (3b)
dx
• It is convenient to denote (R+jωL)(G+jωC)=γ2 , where γ is a
complex constant for a given frequency. The eq.3 may
then be expressed in simple standard forms as
dV2
and 2
d I
2
2
 γ V  ( 4a ) 2
2
 γ I  (4b)
dx dx
• Eq.4 referred to as differential equations of the
transmission line, fundamental to circuit of distributed
constants. These equations are standard linear differential
equations with constant coefficients whose solutions are
 γx x x
V  ae  be
γx
 (5a) I  ce  de  (5b)
• Where a and b are constants with the dimensions of
voltage while c and d are constants with the dimensions of
current.
• An alternative solution to eq.5 is often used in
transmission line theory. In this solution the exponentials
are replaced by hyperbolic functions.
• Substituting the values of
ex  cosh γx  sinh x and ex  cosh x  sinh x
in eq.5, we get
V  a(cosh x  sinh x)  b(cosh x  sinh x)
 (a  b) cosh x  (a  b) sinh x
• we get V  A cosh x  B sinh x  (6a)
where A and B are new constants, respectively equal to
(a+b) and (a-b).
• Similarly I  c(cosh x  sinh x)  d(cosh x  sinh x)
 (c  d ) cosh x  (c  d ) sinh x
• We get I  C cosh x  D sinh x  (6b)
where C and D are new constants, respectively equal to
(c+d) and (c-d).
• Eq.6 constitute a second very useful form for the voltage
and current values at any point on a transmission line.
• Although these equations are extensively used, it is
believed that the exponential form of eq.5 lead to a clear
picture of the phenomenon occurring on a line.
• They also lead to easier calculations with complex values
of γ. Instead of four constants A, B, C and D, eq.6 can be
simplified to only two unknown constants.
• By substituting the values of V from eq.6a in eq.2a as
follows:
dV
V  A cosh x  B sinh x  (6a)   ( R  jL) I  (2a)
d dx
 ( A cosh x  B sinh x)  ( R  jL) I
dx
  ( A sinh x  B cosh x)  ( R  jL) I
• Putting the values of   ( R  jL)(G  jC ) , we get
( R  jL)(G  jC )
 ( A sinh x  B cosh x)  I
( R  jL)
(G  jC )
 ( A sinh x  B cosh x)  I
( R  jL)
• Therefore 1
I   ( A sinh x  B cosh x)
Z0
• Where Z 0  ( R  jL ) ,
(G  jC )
• which is also a complex constant for a given frequency.

• Eq.6 may be written in the form,
V  A cosh x  B sinh x  (7a)
1
I   ( A sinh x  B cosh x)  (7b)
Z0
• Again, these equations can also be expressed in
exponential form. Substituting the values of
ex  e x ex  e x
cosh x  and sinh x  in eq.7b
2 2
By substituting the values of V from eq.5a in eq.2a:
dV
V  ae  be x x
 (5a)   ( R  jL) I  (2a)
dx
dV d
  ( R  jL) I  (2a )   (aex  be x )  ( R  jL) I
dx dx
x x ( R  jL)(G  jC ) x x
  (ae  be )  ( R  jL) I  I   (ae  be )
( R  jL)
(G  jC ) x 1
I  (ae  be )  I   (aex  be x )
x
( R  jL) Z0
and writing eq.5a without any change we get
x x 1
V  ae  be  (8a) I (be x  aex )  (8b)
Z0
Where a and b are old constants described earlier.
The relation between the old and new constants are :
a  b  A and a b  B
or A B A B
a and b
2 2
• Now eqs.7 and 8 are general equations of a transmission
line. The constants A and B or a and b that remain may be
expressed in terms of voltage and current values at either
end of the line .i.e. sending end or receiving end.
• The constants A and B in terms of sending end voltage(Vs)
and current(Is) will be determined here, while in terms of
receiving end voltage and current will be determined later.

TRANSMISSION LINE EQUATIONS
– Determination of constants A and B
• Let us suppose conditions at the sending end are known,
.i.e. Is and Vs are the sending end current and voltage
respectively.
• At the sending end distance .i.e. x=0 and V=Vs
• Thus eq.7a will yield Vs  A cosh 0  B sinh 0  A or A  Vs
• Similarly, at sending ending putting x=0 and I=Is eq.7b will
yield
1 B
I s   ( A sinh 0  B cosh 0)   or B  I s Z0
Z0 Z0
• Thus A and B are expressible in terms of the current and
voltage of the sending end. Substituting these values of A
and B in eq.7, we get
V  A cosh x  B sinh x  Vs cosh x  I s Z 0 sinh x
1 1
I   ( A sinh x  B cosh x)   (Vs sinh x  I s Z 0 cosh x)
Z0 Z0
Vs
 I s cosh x  sinh x
Z0
V  Vs cosh x  I s Z 0 sinh x  (9a)
Vs
I  I s cosh x  sinh x  (9b)
Z0
• Equation.9 are general line equations expressing

respectively the voltage and current at a point, distance x
from the sending end in terms of the sending end current,
Is and sending end voltage, Vs.
TRANSMISSION LINE EQUATIONS – INFINITE LINE
• The propagation of electric waves along any uniform line
may be deduced in terms of the results for a hypothetical
line of infinite length having electrical (primary) constants
per unit length identical to those of the line.
• A signal fed into a line of infinite length could not reach
the far end in a finite time. Consequently, the condition of
the far end( .i.e. open or shorted termination ) can have no
effect at the input end.
• For this reason transmission line analysis begins with an
infinite line in order to separate input conditions from
output conditions.
• When an AC voltage is applied to the sending end of an
infinite line, a finite current will flow due to the
capacitance, C and the leakage conductance, G between
the two wires of the line.
• The ratio of the applied voltage, Vsi to the flowing input
current, Isi will give the input impedance of an infinite line.
• This input impedance is known as Characteristic
Impedance of the line and it is denoted by Z0.
Fig.4: Infinite Line

• Therefore
Vsi
Characteristic Impedance, Z 0 
I si
• Where Vsi and Isi are respectively the sending end voltage
and current of an infinite line as shown in Fig.4.
• Current at (any point) distance x from the sending end is
given by eq.5b, .i.e.
x x
I  ce  de  (5b)

• The values of c and d can now determined by considering
an infinite line, x=0 and I=Isi.
• Applying these conditions to eq.5b, we get
I si  ce (0)  de  (0)  c  d
• However, at the receiving end of the infinite line, x= ∞ and
I=0. Applying these conditions to eq.5b, we get
 ()  (  )
0  ce  de  cx d x0  cx  c  0
• When c=0, Isi=d. Putting these values in eq.5b, we get
x
I  I sie  (10a)
• This equation gives current at any point of an infinite line.
• Similarly voltage at (any point) distance x from the sending
end is given by eq.5a. .i.e.
V  aeγx  be γx  (5a)
• The values of a and b can now determined by considering
an infinite line, x=0 and V=Vsi. Applying these conditions to
eq.5a, we get Vsi  a b
• However, at the receiving end of the infinite line, x= ∞ and
V=0. Applying these conditions to eq.5a,
• we get 0  a x   b x 0  a x   a  0
• When a=0, Vsi=b. Putting these values in eq.5a, we get
x
V  Vsie  (10b)
• As mentioned earlier, x will be the distance of the point
from the sending end of the infinite line.
• Therefore
Vsi
Characteristic Impedance, Z 0 
I si
INFINITE LINE IS EQUIVALENT TO
A FINITE LINE TERMINATED IN ITS Z0
• If a finite length of line is joined with a similar kind of
infinite line, their total input impedance is the same as that
of infinite line itself; for together they make one infinite
line.
• However the infinite line alone presents an impedance Z0
at AB as shown in fig.5a, because the input impedance of
an infinite line is Z0.

24-Jun-23
Fig.5: Equivalent of an infinite line
Prof K.Venkat Reddy 62
• It must be concluded that a finite line has an input
impedance, Z0 when it is terminated in Z0. (as shown in
fig.5b) or a finite line terminated by its Z0 behaves as an
infinite line.
• This statement can also be proved mathematically.
Consider a line of length “l”, terminated in its characteristic
impedance, Z0.
• Let the voltage and current at the termination be VR and IR
respectively.
• Therefore VR
 Z0
IR
• Thus putting x=l, V=VR and I=IR in eq.9, we get

VR  Vs cosh l  I s Z 0 sinh l
Vs
I R  I s cosh l  sinh l
Z0
• Dividing VR by IR, we will get the value of Z0.
• Therefore
VR Vs cosh l  I s Z 0 sinh l Z 0 (Vs cosh l  I s Z 0 sinh l )
Z0    
IR Vs
I s cosh l  sinh l Z 0 I s cosh l  Vs sinh l
Z0
Z 0 I s cosh l  Vs sinh l  Vs cosh l  I s Z0 sinh l 
Z 0 I s (cosh l  sinh l )  Vs (cosh l  sinh l )  Z 0 I s  Vs
• Therefore Z0 
Vs
Is
• But VS/IS is the input impedance of the line, so Zin=Z0
• Thus the input impedance of a finite line terminated in its
characteristic impedance, Z0 is the Characteristic
Impedance, Z0 of the line. Since by definition, the input
impedance of an infinite line is the characteristic
impedance of the line.
• Therefore, a finite line terminated in its characteristic
impedance, Z0 is equivalent to an infinite line as both will
have an input impedance of Characteristic Impedance, Z0.
SECONDARY CONSTANTS OF TRANSMISSION LINE
• Two complex constants γ and Z0 which arose naturally in
the process of mathematical simplifications of
transmission line equations are termed as the Secondary
Constants of the transmission line.
• γ is called the Propagation Constant while Z0 is called the
Characteristic Impedance. In fact the electrical properties
of the transmission line enter the equation of the line
through Z0 and γ as given by
R  jL Z
Z0    (11a)
G  jC Y
and   ( R  jL)(G  jC )  ZY  (11b)
• Although they are referred to as constants but in general
all will vary if the frequency is changed.
• The relationship between primary line constants R, L, C
and G and secondary line constants γ and Z0 is given by
eq.11. It also helps in calculating secondary constants, if
the primary constants are known and vice versa.
– Characteristic Impedance, Z0
• The characteristic impedance is defined as the input
impedance of an infinite line.
dV
• From eq.2a   ( R  jL) I  (2a)
dx
• Substituting the values of V and I from eqs.10, we get
d x x x x
 (Vsie )  ( R  jL) I sie  Vsie  ( R  jL) I sie
dx
Vsi ( R  jL) ( R  jL) ( R  jL)
  
I si  ( R  jL)(G  jC ) (G  jC )
• By the definition, the input impedance Z 0  Vsi
I si
• Therefore ( R  jL)
Z0 
(G  jC )
• Characteristic impedance of a uniform transmission line
may be defined as the steady state vector ratio of the
voltage to the current at the input of an infinite line.
• Alternatively, it can simply be defined as the impedance
looking into an infinite length of the line. Its unit is Ohms.
• Characteristic Impedance, Z0 does not involve the length of
the line or the character of the terminating load, but is
determined only by the characteristic of the line per unit
length. It is not impedance that the line itself possesses.
• The values of Z0 for two types of basic transmission lines
are given below:
1. Open wire lines: Z0  276 log10 Sr Ohms  (12a)
Where S is the spacing between two wires- centre to
centre and r is the radius of either of the wire.
2. Coaxial Cable: Z0  138 log10 Dd Ohms  (12b)
Where D is the diameter of the outer conductor and d is
the diameter of the inner conductor. It has been assumed
that the conductor is of copper with air as dielectric.
• Eq.12 shows that the characteristic Impedance depends
only on the geometrical configuration of the conductor.
• Characteristic impedance is a fine and useful concept of a
transmission line. Since no part of the power sent down
on an infinite line returns, no reflection occurs.
• When there is no reflection, there is no loss of power and
all the power sent down the line is observed, except of
course I2R losses.
• Similarly, since a line terminated by its Z0 behaves as an
infinite line, will also have no reflection. When a line is
terminated in its characteristic impedance, it is said to be
correctly terminated or properly terminated or non-
resonant line.
– Propagation Constant, γ
• The quantity, γ in eq.8 is seen to govern the manner in which
voltage, V and current, I vary with x .i.e. ,
1
x
V  ae  be x
 (8a) I (be x  aex )  (8b)
Z0
• It governs the way in which the waves are propagated.

Therefore, it is given the name Propagation Constant.
• Actually γ is a function of frequency and might be called the
propagation function.
• The propagation constant per unit length of a uniform
line may be defined as the natural logarithm of the
steady state vector ratio of the current or voltage at any
point, to that at a point unit distance further from the
source, when the line is infinitely long.
Therefore,
  log I1
e I2
or   log V1
e V2

• Current Ix at any point, distance x from the sending end is
given by eq.10a as
x x
I x  I sie or e  I
Isi
x
• Taking logarithm of both the sides, x  log e I

Isi
x
• If Isi and Ix are unit distance apart, as shown in figure, x=1

and loge(Isi/Ix) will become propagation constant, by
definition
Propagation Constant,   log e I x
I si

Fig.6: Voltage and Current at unit distance apart

• But earlier γ was assumed to be equal to (R  jL)(G  jC) for
convenience. Therefore, propagation constant
  ( R  jL)(G  jC )
• Since propagation constant is the ratio, it has no unit.
However it is normally expressed in per km unit.
• In lossless lines, γ is purely imaginary and is directly
proportional to the frequency. It will be found that, in lines
with losses, γ is a complex quantity, and in general is a more
complicated function of the frequency.
• The current IR at the receiving end of a uniform transmission
line will have a definite proportion to that at the sending end
IS. If the transmission line is of length “l” meters, we have
IS
 el  (12c)
IR
where γ is propagation constant of the line.
• For a uniform transmission line terminated in Z0 sending end
voltage VS=ISZ0 while the receiving end voltage VR=IRZ0.
• Therefore, e  I S  VS Z 0  VS  (12d )
IR VR Z 0 VR
• Eq.12c and 12d provide an alternate definition of propagation
constant. That is
  log e I  log e V  (12e)
S
R
I S
R
V
• Propagation constant of a uniform transmission line is defined

as the natural logarithm of the ratio of the sending end
current to the receiving end current.
In decibels   20 log10 I  20 log10 V  (12 f )
S
R
I V S
R
• However eq.12e and eq.12f hold good for uniform properly

terminated transmission line.
WAVELENGTH, VELOCITY OF PROPAGATION AND
GROUP VELOCITY
• In addition to primary and secondary constants of a
transmission line, there are three more units of
transmission line. They are
1. Wavelength
2. Velocity of propagation (Phase velocity) and
3. Group velocity
• These three units of transmission line can be easily
calculated, if the values of β and frequency of operation
are known.
GROUP VELOCITY
a) Wave length: Wavelength
is defined as the distance
that a wave travels along
the line in order that the
total shift is 2π radians as
shown in Figure. It is
denoted by the letter λ and Fig.7: Wavelength of wave
its units is meter.

GROUP VELOCITY
a)Wave length: By definition, βλ=2π.
2
Thus   (13.a)

• In case of R.F lines with air electric, λ approximates the
free space wavelength of a radio wave of same frequency.
• In the case of cable with solid dielectric having dielectric
constant, εr the wavelength is very closely the free space
wavelength divided by  r .i.e.
f
  (13.b)
r
GROUP VELOCITY
b)Velocity of Propagation(Phase velocity): It is defined as
the velocity with which a signal of single frequency
propagates along the line at a particular frequency f. It is
denoted by the letter vp. Its unit is km/sec.
• This is the velocity of propagation along the line based on
the observations of change in phase along the line. That
is why it is often referred to as phase velocity or wave
velocity.
GROUP VELOCITY
b)Velocity of Propagation(Phase velocity): Since the change
in 2π in phase angle represents one cycle in time, T and
occurs in a distance of one wavelength λ, then λ=vpxT.
• But T is the time period that is the time taken by the one
complete cycle and it is the reciprocal of frequency.
Therefore   v p x 1
f or v p  f
• Substituting the value of λ from eq.13a, we get
2 
vp  f or v p   (14a)
 
GROUP VELOCITY
b)Velocity of Propagation(Phase velocity): In RF lines having
air electric, the vp approximates very closely the velocity
of light that is 3x108 m/sec. In lines with solid dielectric
insulation, the vp is velocity of light divided by the square
root of the dielectric constant of the insulation, that is
3x108
vp  m sec  (14b)
r
• Velocity of propagation cannot exceed velocity of light.
However, in open wire lines with low values of R and G
velocity of propagation approaches that of light.
GROUP VELOCITY
b)Velocity of Propagation(Phase velocity): Given the
frequency of transmission f and phase constant β, velocity
of propagation vp can be computed from eq.14a.
Ex: If f=1kHz, β=0.0215 rad/km, the velocity by which a
single wave will travel will be
 2 x 1000 6283
vp     2.922x105 km / sec
 0.0215 0.0215
• Therefore, it says that the time taken for a 1kHz wave to
travel a distance of 6283km is 0.0215 seconds.
GROUP VELOCITY
c)Group Velocity: In vp=ω/β, if β is not a constant multiple
of ω, the components in a complex waveform normally
shift in phase relation during propagation. This
phenomenon is known as dispersion which results in
distortion.
When dispersion exists, the significant value of vp is often
difficult to define in complex wave. Here group velocity
concept can be used.
GROUP VELOCITY
c)Group Velocity: The group velocity of a wave is
the velocity with which the overall shape of the complex
wave or envelope of the wave propagates through space.
It is denoted by vg. The group velocity is of special
importance in the transmission of modulated waves,
pulses and transmission through wave guides.
• Let ω1 and ω2 be the two close angular frequencies being
transmitted and β1 and β2 be the corresponding phase
constants,
GROUP VELOCITY
c)Group Velocity: Then group velocity vg (fig.8)will be given
as
2  1
vg   (15.a)
 2  1
dor
vg   (15.b)
d
dω/dβ is evaluated at the carrier of the centre frequency.

GROUP VELOCITY
d) Relationship between Group velocity and phase
velocity:
A relationship between the group velocity, vg and phase
velocity, vp can be easily obtained from eq.14 .i.e.
vp=ω/β by differentiating it with respect to ω.
• We get
 d
dv p 1.   d 1   d
d
dv p d vp
     1 vp  1
d  2
 d d vg
GROUP VELOCITY
d) Relationship between Group velocity and phase
velocity: :
vp dv p vp
 1  vg   (15.c)
vg d  dv p
1
vp v p d
vg 
dv p
1 
d
• From this relation it is obvious that vg=vp, when dvp/dω=0.
• This is consistant with the definition of group velocity.
ATTENUATION AND PHASE CONSTANTS
• Propagation constant, γ is usually a complex quantity and can
be expressed as γ=α+jβ. The real part, α is called attenuation
constant. It determines the reduction or attenuation in voltage
and current along the line and higher its value the quicker the
reduction. Its unit is Neper per km. The word Neper is a
variation of the spelling of the name Napier. Neper can be
converted to a more practical unit of decibel abbreviated as dB
by the following relationship.
1 Neper  8.686 dB
• In γ=α+jβ, the imaginary part, β is called the phase constant
or wave constant. It determines the variation in phase
position of voltage and current along the line. Its unit is
radians per km. Radian can be converted into degrees by the
following relationship.
1 Radian  57.3 0
• Actually α and β both are functions of frequency and

therefore, are also referred to as attenuation function and
phase function respectively.
• The values of α and β are expressed in Nepers and radians.
The results can be converted into the more convenient units
for practical work, the decibels(dB) and degrees.
• Propagation constant should have a positive angle when
expressed in its polar form, hence α and β both should be
positive.
• However, in some open and short circuit measurements γl is
found to have negative angle which has to be converted to
positive by adding the least multiples of 2π to β.
• Phase constant when multiplied by the length of the line(βl)
is termed as electrical length of the line.
• Similarly attenuation constant when multiplied by the length
of the line(αl) is termed as total attenuation or simply line
attenuation. From eq.11b
    j  ZY  ( R  jL)(G  jC )
 RG   2 LC  j ( LG  CR)
• Squaring both sides of above equation we get
 2   2  j 2  RG   2 LC  j( LG  CR)
• Equating real parts and solving for α2 gives
 2   2  RG   2 LC  (16)
• Equating imaginary parts and squaring yields
2   ( LG  CR)  4    ( LG  CR)
2 2 2 2
• After substituting the value of α2 in it, we have

4(  RG   LC)   ( LG  CR)
2 2 2 2 2
 2
  ( RG   LC)  
4 2 2
( LG  CR) 2  0
4
• Using it as quadratic equation, the solution for β2 is
  2

 ( RG   LC )  ( RG   LC )  4(1) 
2 2 2
( LG  CR) 2
 4 
 
2
2(1)
( 2
LC  RG )  ( RG   2
LC ) 2
  2
( LG  CR ) 2
2 
2
By taking square root of β2 after Neglecting the negative
value, we get
( 2 LC  RG )  ( RG   2 LC ) 2   2 ( LG  CR) 2
  (17a)
2
• The equ.16  2   2  RG   2 LC leads to a value for α as
( 2
LC  RG )  ( RG   2
LC ) 2
  2
( LG  CR ) 2
2   ( RG   2 LC )
2
( RG   LC )  ( RG   LC )   ( LG  CR)
2 2 2 2 2
 2
( RG   LC )  ( RG   LC )   ( LG  CR)
2 2 2 2 2
  (17b)
2
• So, eq.17 will give the values of α and β in terms of Primary
constants R, L, C and G and frequency f as
( RG   2 LC )  ( RG   2 LC ) 2   2 ( LG  CR) 2
  (17b)
2
( 2 LC  RG )  ( RG   2 LC ) 2   2 ( LG  CR) 2
  (17a)
2
• In a perfect line: R=0 and G=0, So
 1
  0,    LC and v p   m / sec  (17c)
 LC
Computation of Primary Constants
• Given secondary constants Z0, γ, frequency f. The primary
constants R, L, C and G can be readily computed by using
( R  jL)
Z0  and   ( R  jL)(G  jC ) 
(G  jC )

Z 0  R  jL  (18a)and  G  jC  (18b)
Z0
• Equating real and imaginary parts of above, the values of
R, ωL, ωC and G can be obtained. From known ω or f the
values of L and C can be calculated.
Computation of Secondary Constants
• Given primary constants R, L, C, G and frequency of
transmission f, it is possible to determine the secondary
constants Z0 , γ and components α and β as follows.
( R  jL)
Z0  and   ( R  jL)(G  jC )
(G  jC )
• After computing the propagation constant γ, components

α and β can be obtained by equating real part of γ to α and
imaginary part of γ to β.
Computation of Sending and receiving end parameters
• When a uniform line is correctly terminated and open-
circuit voltage of the generator and its internal impedance
is known, equivalent circuit shown in below figure is useful
in computing sending end and receiving end parameters.
• For equivalent circuit, the line is replaced by an equivalent
lumped impedance Z0 as shown in figure. After Vs has been
computed, eq.12 can be used to find voltage and current
at any point on the transmission line.
• Fig.9: Equivalent sending end circuit for a line terminated in Z0.

• Power transmission down the line at any point can be
computed from the relation.
Power  V I cos   (19a)
where θ is the phase angle of the characteristic impedance
or by Power  I R  (19b)
2
0
where R0 is the resistive component of Z0. For low loss

lines Z0 is approximately a pure resistance in which case
cosθ=1 and Z0=R0.
Example.1
• The line is with characteristic impedance of 710 -160 when
the frequency is 1kHz. At this frequency the attenuation is
0.01 Neper/km and phase function is 0.035 rad/km.
Calculate the resistance, leakage, inductance, capacitance
per km and velocity of propagation of the line.
• Solution: Given
Z0  710 -160 ,   0.01,   0.035 and   2 (1kHz)  6280
    j  0.01  j0.035  36.4x10 -3 7403'

Example.1
• Solution:
R  jL  Z 0  36.4x10 -3 7403' x710  -160  25.845803'  13.68  j 21.93
21.93
 R  13.68  / km, L  21.93  L   3.49 mH / km
6280
 36.4x10 -3 7403'
G  jC    5.13x10 5
90 0 '
3  j 5.13x10 5
Z0 710 - 16
0
5
5.13 x10
 G  0 , C  5.13x105  C   8.17nF / km
6280
 6280
vp    1.795x105 km / sec
 0.035
Example.2
• An open wire telephone line has R=10Ω/km,
L=0.0037H/km, C=0.0083x10-6 F/km and G=0.4x10-6Ʊ/km.
Determine its Z0, α and β at 1kHz.
• Solution: Given
R  10  , L  0.0037 H , C  0.0083x106 F and G  0.4x106 mho
km km km km
Series Impedance, Z  R  jL  10  j 2 (103 )0.0037
 10  j 23.2  25.366.80
Shunt Admittance, Y  G  jC  (0.4  j 2x1000x 0.0083)10 6
 (0.4  j52.1)106  52.1x106 89.60
Example.2
• Solution:
Z 25.366.80
Characteristic Impedance, Z 0  
Y 52.1x10 6 89.60
 696.85  11.40  (683  j138)
Propagation Constant,   ZY  25.366.80 x52.1x10 6 89.60

 0.036378.20  (0.0074  j 0.0356) per km
Therefore, attenuation constant,   0.0074 Nepers / km
and Phase constant,   0.0356 radians / km
Example.3
• A generator of 1 Volt, 1kHz, supplies power to 1000km
long open wire line terminated in Z0 and having following
parameters: R=10.4Ω, L=0.0037H, C=0.00835µF and
G=0.8µƱ. Determine the characteristic impedance,
Propagation constant and phase velocity.
• Solution: Given
R  10.4, L  0.0037 H , C  0.00835F , G  0.8mhos, f  1kHz & l  1000km
Series Impedance, Z  R  jL  10.4  j 2 (10 )0.0037
3
 10.4  j 23.2  25.2660

Example.3
• Solution: Shunt Admittance, Y  G  jC  (0.8  j 2x103 x 0.00835)106
 (0.8  j52.5)106  52.6x10 6 900
Z 25.2660
Characteristic Impedance, Z 0   6
 692  12 0

Y 52.6x10 90 0
Propagation Constant,   ZY  25.2660 x52.6x10 6 900

 0.0363780  0.0075  j 0.0355
 Attenuation constant,   0.00755 Nepers / km
Phase constant,   0.0355 radians / km
Phase velocity , v p   /   2 (103 ) / 0.0355  1.77x105 km / sec
SUMMARY OF THE IMPORTANT POINTS
1. The four line parameters R, L, C and G are termed as
primary constants of the transmission line.
i. Resistance, R is defined as series(loop) resistance per unit length of the line.
ii. Inductance, L is defined as series(loop) inductance per unit length of the line.
iii. Conductance, G is defined as shunt conductance between the two wires per
unit line length.
iv. Capacitance, C is defined as shunt capacitance between the two wires per
unit line length.
2. The series impedance, Z of the line per unit length is Z  R  jL  (1a)
3. The shunt admittance, Y of the line per unit length is Y  G  jC  (1b)

4. Transmission line equations - Derivation

dV
 ( R  jL) I  (2a) V  ae  be
γx  γx
 (5a) V  aex  bex  (8a)
dx
1

dI
 (G  jC )V  (2b)
x
I  ce  de x
 (5b) I (be x  aex )  (8b)
dx Z0
d 2V
 ( R  jL)(G  jC )V  (3a)
2
dx
d 2I
2
 ( R  jL)(G  jC ) I  (3b) I  C cosh x  D sinh x  (6b)
dx
d 2V
2
 γ 2
V  (4a) V  A cosh x  B sinh x  (7a) V  Vs cosh x  I s Z 0 sinh x  (9a)
dx
d 2I 1 Vs
2
 γ 2
I  (4b) I   ( A sinh x  B cosh x)  (7b) I  I s cosh x  sinh x  (9b)
dx Z0 Z0
5. Concept of Infinite line and finite line terminated in
characteristic Impedance.
Vsi
Characteristic Impedance, Z 0  I  I sie x
 (10a) V  Vsie x  (10b)
I si
• VS/IS is the input impedance of the line, so Zin=Z0. Thus the input
impedance of a finite line terminated in its characteristic impedance,
Z0 is the Characteristic Impedance, Z0 of the line. Since by definition,
the input impedance of an infinite line is the characteristic impedance
of the line. Therefore, a finite line terminated in its characteristic
impedance, Z0 is equivalent to an infinite line as both will have an
input impedance of Characteristic Impedance, Z0.
6. Secondary Constants, Phase and group velocities of the
transmission line
R  jL Z
S
Open wire : Z 0  276 log10 r Ohms  (12a)
Z0    (11a)
G  jC Y
Co - axial : Z 0  138 log10 Dd Ohms  (12b)
  ( R  jL)(G  jC )  ZY  (11b)
2
IS   (13.a) vg 
2  1
 (15.a)
 el  (12c)   2  1
IR
f
  (13.b) d
I V Z V r vg   (15.b)
e  S  S 0  S  (12d ) d
I R VR Z 0 VR
2 
vp  f or v p   (14a)
  log IS
e IR  log VS
e VR  (12e)   vp
vg   (15.c)
3x10 8  dv p
 (in decibels )  20 log10 II  20 log10 VV  (12 f )
S S
vp  m sec  (14b) 1
R R
r v p d
7. Attenuation and phase constants of the transmission line.
1 Neper  8.686 dB 1 Radian  57.30
 2   2  RG   2 LC  (16)
( 2 LC  RG )  ( RG   2 LC ) 2   2 ( LG  CR) 2
  (17a)
2
( RG   2 LC )  ( RG   2 LC ) 2   2 ( LG  CR) 2
  (17b)
2
 1
In a Perfect line : R  0, G  0    0,    LC and v p   m / sec  (17c)
 LC
8. Computation of Primary Constants.
Z 0  R  jL  (18a) 
 G  jC  (18b)
Z0
9. Computation of Secondary Constants
( R  jL)
Z0  and   ( R  jL)(G  jC )
(G  jC )
10.Computation of Sending and receiving end parameters

Power  V I cos   (19a) Power  I R0  (19b)
2

EM WAVES & TXN LINES
UNIT-V
part-2
TRANSMISSION LINE THEORY
K.Venkat reddy
Professor of ECE,
Sreenidhi Institute of Science and Technology
Mobile No.9440228592,
E-mail id: kvreddy@sreenidhi.edu.in
Transmission line
General solution
The infinite line
Wave length
Velocity of propagation
Waveform distortion
The distortion-less line
Loading and different methods of loading
Line not terminated in Z0
Reflection coefficient
Calculation of
current,
voltage,
power delivered and efficiency of transmission
Input and transfer impedance
Open and short circuited lines
Reflection factor and
Reflection loss

TOPICS TO BE DISCUSSED IN PART-2
Waveform distortion
The distortion-less line
Telephone cable, inductance loading,
Condition for minimum attenuation
Different methods of loading

TOPICS TO BE DISCUSSED IN PART-2
Open and short circuited lines
Incident and reflected waves, Standing waves
Input impedance, Primary & secondary constants
from ZSC and ZOC
Line with any termination
Reflection coefficient, reflection factor and
reflection loss

WAVEFORM DISTORTION

WAVEFORM DISTORTION
( RG   2 LC )  ( RG   2 LC ) 2   2 ( LG  CR) 2
  (17b)
2
• In propagation constant, γ attenuation constant, α is a function
of frequency. All the frequencies transmitted on a line will then
not be attenuated equally.
• A complex applied voltage, such as a voice containing many
frequencies, will not have all frequencies transmitted with equal
attenuation and the received waveform will not be identical with
the input waveform at the sending end. This variation is known as
frequency distortion.
WAVEFORM DISTORTION
( 2 LC  RG )  ( RG   2 LC ) 2   2 ( LG  CR) 2
  (17a)
2
• In phase constant, β can seen to be a complicated function of
frequency. We know that vp=ω/β. It is apparent that ω and β both
do not both involve frequency in the same manner and velocity
of propagation will in general be some function of frequency.
• All frequencies applied to a transmission line will not have the
same time of transmission, some frequencies being delayed
more than others. This phenomenon is known as delay or phase
distortion.
WAVEFORM DISTORTION
• Frequency distortion is reduced in the transmission of high quality
radio broadcast program over wire lines by use of equalizers.
• Equalizers are networks whose frequency and phase
characteristics are adjusted to be inverse to those of lines,
resulting in an over all uniform frequency response over the
desired frequency band.
• Delay distortion is of relatively minor importance to voice and
music transmission because of characteristics of the ear. It can be
very serious in circuits intended for picture transmission.
WAVEFORM DISTORTION
• Application of co-axial cable have been made to
overcome the difficulty. In such cables the internal
inductance is low at high frequency because of skin effect,
the resistance is small because of large conductors and
capacitance and leakage are small because of use of air
dielectric with a minimum of spaces.
• The velocity of propagation is raised and made more
nearly equal for all frequencies.
THE DISTORTIONLESS LINE

If a line is to have neither frequency nor delay distortion,
then α and velocity of propagation cannot be functions of
frequency.
In view of the fact that vp=ω/β, then β must be a direct
function of frequency.
( 2 LC  RG )  ( RG   2 LC ) 2   2 ( LG  CR) 2

2
If the term under the second radical be reduced to equal
to ( RG   2 LC)2
.i.e. ( RG   2 LC) 2   2 ( LG  CR) 2  ( RG   2 LC) 2  (20)
 2  2 2 RGLC   4 L2C 2   2 L2G 2  2  2 L G
 2G
R    2C 2 R 2  R
 C R  2  2  2 R
 2G G L C   4 L2C 2
This reduces to  2 2 RGLC   2 L2G 2   2C 2 R2  0

 L G  2LGCR  C R   0   ( LG  CR)  0
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
L R
   0  LG  CR  0 or LG  CR  
C G
Then ( 2 LC  RG )  ( RG   2 LC ) 2   2 ( LG  CR) 2

2
( 2 LC  RG )  ( RG   2 LC ) 2 2 LC
    LC
28-Jun-23
2 Prof K.Venkat Reddy
2 14
Then    LC  (21a)
 1
Then vp  

 (21b) which is independent of frequency
LC
( RG   2 LC )  ( RG   2 LC ) 2   2 ( LG  CR ) 2
Also 
2
( RG   2 LC )  ( RG   2 LC )
  RG
2
Then   RG  (21c) which is also independent of frequency

Thus by satisfying L R

C G
We can eliminate delay and frequency distortions on
the line.
Unfortunately such a hypothetical line is not
practical with distributed parameters.

L R
But analysis point of view to achieve condition 
C G
1. Requires a very large value of L since G is small.
2. If G is intentionally increased, attenuation, α
increases resulting in poor line efficiency.
3. To reduce R it needs raising the size and cost of
the conductors above economic limits.
So that hypothetical results cannot be achieved.
THE TELEPHONE CABLE

THE TELEPHONE CABLE
In the ordinary telephone cable the wires are insulated
with paper and twisted in pairs. This construction results
in negligible values of inductance and conductance.
So that reasonable assumptions in the audio range of
frequencies are that L=0 and G=0. Then Z=R and Y=jωC.
Then Propagation Constant is
CR
  ZY  R( jC )  jCR  CR 
4  (1  j )
2
THE TELEPHONE CABLE
CR CR CR
 (1  j )    j  j
2 2 2
CR CR
Therefore   and   (22a)
2 2
Hence the velocity of propagation is
  2
vp     (22b)
 CR CR
2
THE TELEPHONE CABLE
So, both α and β are functions of frequency such that
higher frequencies are attenuated more and travel faster
than the lower frequencies.
Very considerable frequency and delay distortion is the
result on telephone cable.
Only remedy to minimize these distortions is the
Inductance loading of telephone cables.

THE INDUCTANCE
LOADING OF
TELEPHONE CABLE
INDUCTANCE LOADING OF TELEPHONE CABLE
It was necessary to increase the L/C ratio to achieve
distortion-less conditions. Increase in inductance can be
done by lumped inductors spaced at regular intervals
along the line. This use of inductance is called the Line or
Inductance Loading.
In some submarine cables, distributed or uniform loading
is obtained by winding the cables with a high permeability
steel tape such as perm alloy.
For simplicity consider a uniformly loaded cable circuit
for which G=0 and L has been increased so that ωL>>R.
Then, Z  R  jL  R 2   2 L2  tan1 ( RL )  R 2   2 L2  2  tan1 ( RL )
Y  jC  C 2
Then   ZY  R 2   2 L2  2  tan 1 ( RL ) C 2
 L 1  R2
 2 L2
 2  tan 1 ( RL ) C 2
  LC 1 4 R2
 2 L2
 2  12 tan 1 ( RL )
  LC  2  12 tan 1 ( RL )  RL  1
If   
2  1
2 tan 1
( L ) then    LC (cos   j sin  )
R
Where cos   cos( 2  12 tan 1 ( RL ))  sin( 12 tan 1 ( RL ))  sin( 2RL )  2RL
sin   sin( 2  12 tan 1 ( RL ))  cos( 12 tan 1 ( RL ))  cos( R
2L ) 1
(Because for small values of Ø, cosØ=1 and sinØ=tanØ =Ø)
    LC ( 2RL  j )    j  R
2
C
L  j LC
So
 1
R C vp    (23c)
  (23a)    LC  (23b) and  LC
2 L

It is observed that under the assumptions of G=0 and
ωL>>R the attenuation and velocity of propagation are
both independent of frequency and the loaded cable will
be distortion-less.
The expression for α shows that the attenuation may be
reduced by increasing L, provided that R is not also
increased too greatly.
Continuous or uniform loading is expensive and achieves
only a small increase in L per unit length.
An analysis for the performance of a line loaded at
uniform intervals can be obtained by considering a
symmetrical section of line from centre of one
loading coil to the centre of next, with loading coil
impedance, Z0.
This section of line may be replaced with an
equivalent T-section having symmetrical arms.
Comparison of Z0 and γ of lines
S Characteristics Lossless line Distortion-less line RF line Telephone line Inductance
No Loading
1 γ = α+jβ R=0, G=0 L/C = R/G R<<ωL, G<<ωC L=0, G=0 G=0, R<<ωL
2   ( R  jL)(G  jC )   j LC 1 L RC RC

  RG  j LC    R G
C
  j LC  j  R C
 j LC
2 L C  2 2 2 L
3 α α=0 1 L RC 
  RG C R C
   R G  
C 
2 L
2 L 2
4 β RC
   LC    LC    LC 
2    LC
5  vp 
1 1 vp 
1 2 1
vp  vp  vp  vp 
 LC LC LC RC LC
R  jL L R  jL
6 Z0  Z0 
L
Z0 
L Z0  Z0 
R
Z0 
G  jC C C C jC jC

Example.4 : CONDITION FOR MINIMUM ATTENUATION
• Given a typical paper insulated cable pair whose line
parameters are R=42.1Ω/km, L=1mH/km, C=0.062µF/km
and G=1.5µƱ/km. Determine is it distortion-less line or not.
• Solution: From given parameters
R 42.1 L 1x103
  28.06 x10 6
,   16.13x10 3
G 1.5x10 -6
C 0.062x106
R L
• Thus 
hence distortion-less conditions are not satisfied.
G C
Increasing inductance by inserting lumped inductance in
series with the line is termed as LOADING and such lines
are called LOADED LINES.
INDUCTANCE LOADING
-
METHODS OF LOADING
METHODS OF LOADING
As shown in fig.10, the for frequencies below fc,
1
curve of loaded cable is where f   (28) .
 L Cd
c
c
similar to a low pass filter,
having cut-off frequency fc
and thus limits the range of
transmitted frequencies.
Therefore, the attenuation
is reduced by the loading
Fig.10
METHODS OF LOADING
Where Lc is the inductance of loading coil and cable per
km and C is the Capacitance of the cable per km and
attenuation rises rapidly above cutoff frequency.
The cutoff frequency may be raised by decreasing the
inductance per coil or by spacing the coils closer together
but it increases α in the transmission band.
The advantage of loading is not so great on open wire
lines which have an appreciable inductance of their own
and so have much less distortion than cable.
METHODS OF LOADING
As a result the practice of should be avoided. It should
loading open wire lines has have low resistance and
been abandoned. Therefore should be of small size,
loading is normally maintain circuit balance.
restricted to cable only.
Loading Coil: Loading coil
design (fig.11) is such that
saturation and stray fields
Fig.11
METHODS OF LOADING
 There are three types of conductor to be loaded thus
loading in practice. They are increasing the permeability of
1. Continuous loading the surrounding medium and
2. Patch loading there by increasing
3. Lumped loading inductance up to 65mH/km.
1. Continuous Loading: As
shown in fig.12, a type of iron
or some other magnetic
material is wound round the
Fig.12
METHODS OF LOADING
 Disadvantages of continuous loading:
i. Laborious construction
ii. Eddy currents and hysteresis losses increases R.
iii. Small difference in mechanical treatment or pressure between the
tape and conductor cause large variations in primary constants.
iv. Uses only on ocean cables, where the problem of making water-tight
joints at loading points renders lumped loading difficult.
 Advantages of continuous loading:
i. α increases uniformly with increase in frequency
ii. There is no cutoff frequency
METHODS OF LOADING
2. Patch Loading: Employs
sections of continuously
loaded cable separated by
sections of unloaded cable.
 Advantage of continuous is
obtained but the cost is
greatly reduced.
 Typical length for the section is Fig.13
normally quarter kilometer.
METHODS OF LOADING
3. Lumped Loading: The inductance of a line can also be increased
by the introduction of loading coil at uniform intervals. This is
called lumped loading. A lumped loaded line behaves as a low
pass filter. This type of loading is convenient than continuous
loading.
i. Frequency range is limited.
ii. The loading coils have a certain resistance and thus
increasing total effective inductance increases R.
iii. There is a practical limit on the value of the inductance of the
line can be increased to reduce attenuation.
METHODS OF LOADING
3. Lumped Loading:
iv. Hysteresis and eddy
current losses occur in
loading coils resulting in
further increase in R.
v. Loading coil must be
carefully designed.
Fig.14: α versus f characteristics

OPEN AND SHORT
CIRCUITED LINES

OPEN AND SHORT CIRCUITED LINES-INTRODUCTION
• The Voltage and Current at any point in a transmission line are
dependent on the load at the end of the line and on the distance
of the point from the load.
• Since the impedance at any point is the ratio of the voltage to the
current at that point, the impedance then must also be
dependent on the load and the distance from it.
• Thus in any transmission line the load .i.e. the termination
establishes the voltage and current relations; while the relation
at the generator terminal determines the input impedance.
• Therefore, various ways in which the voltage and current
may be distributed along a transmission line can be
understood by considering in detail the following
significant cases of the load.
1. When the load end .i.e. termination end is Open (ZR=∞)
2. When the load end is Shorted (ZR=0)
3. When the load end is equal to the Char Impedance (ZR=Z0).
• Open circuited line is defined as a transmission line
whose far (terminating) end is open.
• Short circuited line is defined as a transmission line
whose far (terminating) end is shorted.
• Both the open and short circuited line can be
arranged by proper choice of the line length to act
as
a) Series resonant or b)Parallel resonant or
c) Any desired values of reactance like Inductance and
Capacitance.
• The short lengths of the line are commonly termed as
stubs.
• The use of the short circuited stubs as variable reactance
is a common high frequency technique.
• Open circuited stubs are rarely used because it is difficult
to vary their lengths and because of radiation losses at
the open ends.

INCIDENT AND
REFLECTED WAVES

INCIDENT AND REFLECTED WAVES
• It is seen earlier that when the load (.i.e. the termination,
ZR) is equal to the characteristic impedance, Z0 of a
transmission line, it is equivalent to an infinite line.
Therefore, all the energy sent down by the line is
completely absorbed by the load and no reflection takes
place.
• However in dealing with open and short circuited lines, all
the energy sent down the line is reflected back because
there is no resistance at the terminating end to absorb it.
• Therefore it is necessary to examine the result of
reflected energy to analyze the voltage and current
distribution along the open and short circuited lines.
• Voltage and current at any point of a transmission line
has been given by eq.8. 1 x x
V  be x x
 ae  (29) I (be  ae )  (30)
Z0
• The above equation can be conveniently expressed as the
sum of the voltage and current of two waves .i.e. be-γx and
aeγx.
• The first term be-γx in each of the above equations
represents a voltage or current component of a travelling
wave decreasing exponentially due to factor e-γx in the
direction of x increasing, .i.e. towards the load.
• Thus the term be-γx represents the net sum of all
individual waves that travel to the load.
• This wave is called the INCIDENT WAVE and is generated
at the source.
• Similarly the second term aeγx in each of the above
equations represents a travelling wave decreasing
exponentially due to factor eγx in the direction of x
decreasing, .i.e. towards the generator.
• Thus the term aeγx represents the net sum of all individual
waves that travel to the generator.
• This wave is called the REFLECTED WAVE and is generated
at the load by the reflection of the incident wave.
• Thus the term aeγx represents the sum of all waves that
travel away from the load, because the distance x will be
negative as it is measured in the direction of x decreasing.
Fig.15
• These two waves incident and reflected as shown in fig.15
are incident in nature except for consequences arising
from their different direction of travel.
• Therefore it can be concluded that the voltage and
current at any point of a line may be interpreted as the
superposition of two waves travelling in opposite
direction.

• If the line of is infinite length then, reflected component
γx
ae = γ(-∞)
ae =0
(x will be negative for reflected wave as explained above).
• This shows that there is no reflected wave in an infinite

line which confirms to earlier statements of no reflection
in an infinite line or a finite line terminated in its
characteristic impedance, Z0.
STANDING WAVES IN
OPEN AND SHORT
CIRCUIT LINES

STANDING WAVES IN OPEN AND SHORT CIRCUIT LINES
• There will be two waves travelling in opposite directions
between the input end and the load end.
• At some points in the line the two waves will always be in
phase and will add, while at other points the two waves
will always be out of phase and will cancel.
• The places where the waves add will be points of
maximum voltage and is termed ANTI-NODES, while the
points of cancellation will have minimum voltage and is
termed NODES.
• In the case of open and short circuited line, since
complete reflection takes place, the cancellation is
complete and the voltage minimum is zero, since the
positions of maxima and minima or anti-nodes and nodes
voltage remain motionless, a standing wave is said to
exist on the line.
• Let us see in detail about
• Open circuited lines and Short circuited lines
1. Open circuited lines: A voltage difference can exist
between two wires but no current can flow in open
circuit. Thus at open end termination of this line there
exists a maximum voltage and minimum (nearly zero)
current. Therefore impedance at the open end will be
infinite.
• A quarter wavelength from the open end, the incident
wave will be 90o earlier and reflected wave will be 90o
later than they are at the end.
1. Open circuited lines:
• Thus incident and reflected waves will be 180o out of
phase. At this point the voltage will be zero.
• Similar reasoning shows that the standing wave pattern
is repeated every half wavelengths, that is maxima are
spaced half wave length apart on the transmission line
and minima are also spaced half wave length apart.
• The distance between a maximum and minimum is a
quarter wavelength.
1. Open circuited lines:
• The current maximum occurs at a point of voltage
minimum and vice versa. The current and voltage
distribution along the open line is shown in figure.
• In a high frequency lossless line the values of the
different maximum are equal as shown in fig.16a.
• However in a lossy line, these go on decreasing due to
attenuation of the line as shown in fig.16b.
• Fig.16: Voltage and current distribution along the open circuited line.
• Fig.16:
28-Jun-23
Voltage and current distribution along the open circuited line.
2. Short circuited lines: Across the short circuited end
between the two transmission line wires there can be
no voltage difference, but there will be a maximum
current flow. Therefore at the short circuited
termination, the current is maximum, the voltage is zero
and impedance will also be zero.
• The standing wave thus has a node or minimum at the
short circuited end and at every half wave length from
the end.
2. Short circuited lines:
• Here voltage and current distributions differ from open
circuited case. The roles of voltage and current are
interchanged.
• That is, with short circuited load the voltage on the line
goes through minima at load end and at distance from
the load that are even multiples of quarter wavelength
while goes through maxima at a distance that are odd
multiples of a quarter wave length.
2. Short circuited lines:
• The voltage and current distributions along short
circuited line are shown in fig.
• In a high frequency lossless line the values of the
different maximum are equal as shown in fig.17a.
• In a lossy line the voltage and current gets attenuated
as they travel towards load as shown in fig.17b.

• Fig.17: Voltage and current distribution along the short circuited line.
• Fig.17: Voltage and current distribution along the short circuited line.
INPUT IMPEDANCE OF
OPEN AND SHORT
CIRCUIT LINES

INPUT IMPEDANCE OF OPEN AND SHORT CIRCUIT LINES
• Input impedance of an Open Circuited(OC) line is the
impedance measured at the input of a finite length of line
when its far end is open as shown in fig.18a. It is normally
denoted by ZOC.
28-Jun-23
Fig.18: Impedance of open circuited lines
• Similarly input impedance of a Short Circuited(SC) line is
the impedance measured at the input of the finite length
of the line when the far end is shorted. It is usually
denoted by ZSC, as shown in fig.18b.
28-Jun-23
Fig.18: Impedance of short circuited lines
• Consider a length “l” of the line having far end voltage and
current as VR and IR respectively.
• Therefore, when x=l, V=VR and I=IR then putting these
values in eq.9, We get
V  VS cosh x  I S Z 0 sinh x  VR  VS cosh l  I S Z 0 sinh l  (31a)
VS VS
I  I S cosh x  sinh x  I R  I S cosh l  sinh l  (31b)
Z0 Z0

• In an Open Circuited line as shown in fig.18a, by
substituting IR=0, equ.31b becomes
VS VS cosh l
0  I S cosh l  sinh l   Z0  Z 0 coth l
Z0 IS sinh l
• Since VS/IS is the input impedance ZOC of the open

circuited line, we have
ZOC  Z 0 coth l  (32a)

• Similarly in a Short Circuited line as shown in fig.18b, by
substituting VR=0, equ.31a becomes
VS sinh l
0  VS cosh l  I S Z 0 sinh l   Z0  Z 0 tanh l
IS cosh l
• But here VS/IS is the input impedance ZSC of the short

circuited line, we have
Z SC  Z 0 tanh l  (32b)

• It is interesting to note here that for an infinite length of
the line, l=∞ as a result of which tanhγl and cothγl both
will become 1.
• Thus, ZOC and ZSC as expressed by eq.32 will each become
equal to Z0.
ZOC  Z 0 coth  ()  Z 0 Z SC  Z 0 tanh  ()  Z 0
• It is therefore proven again that input impedance, ZIN of

an infinite line is, its characteristic impedance, Z0.
SECONDARY LINE
CONSTANTS
in terms of ZSC and ZOC
SECONDARY LINE CONSTANTS in terms of ZSC and ZOC
• Multiplying eq.32a and eq.32b, we get
ZOC Z SC  (Z 0 coth l )(Z 0 tanh l )  Z 0  Z 0  Z OC Z SC  (33a)
2
• Thus for any uniform and symmetrical line the

characteristic impedance is the geometric mean of the
open and short circuited impedances.
Z SC Z 0 tanh l
• Dividing eq.32b with eq.32a gives   tanh l
2
Z OC Z 0 coth l
• Therefore, Z
tanh l  SC
 (33b)
Z OC
SECONDARY LINE CONSTANTS in terms of ZSC and ZOC
• Eq.33a and eq.33b are of much importance. They help the
secondary line constants of a transmission line to be
calculated from the measured values of ZSC and ZOC of a
known length of line.
• Having obtained the values of secondary line constants Z0
and γ, the values of primary line constants R, L, G and C
can also be computed with the help of
( R  jL)
Z0  and   ( R  jL)(G  jC )
(G  jC )
IMPEDANCE
AS A FUNCTION
OF
LINE LENGTH
IMPEDANCE AS A FUNCTION OF LINE LENGTH
• For lossless line: Because α=0 and γ=jβ only. Therefore,
putting γ=jβ in eq.32a, we get
ZOC  Z 0 coth jl   jZ 0 cot l  (34a)
• Similarly, putting γ=jβ in eq.32b, we get

Z SC  Z 0 tanh jl  jZ 0 tan l  (34b)
• Examination of eq.34 shows that input impedance of an

open and short circuited lossless line is a pure reactance.
• Desired value of reactance is obtained by varying the
electrical length, βl of the stub. The graph of ZSC and ZOC as
expressed by eq.34, as a function of βl is shown in fig.19.
• DOTTED Line shows the variations of ZOC with βl or l, while
SOLID Line shows the variation of ZSC with βl or l.
• Above the horizontal line shows, the length of line l in
terms of wavelength(λ), while below the horizontal line
shows the electrical length of the line(βl) in terms of π.
IMEDANCE AS A FUNCTION OF LINE LENGTH
ZOC   jZ 0 cot l
Z SC  jZ 0 tan l
Fig.19: Variation of ZOC and ZSC with βl or l.

• Again, above the horizontal line the value of ZOC and ZSC
will have positive reactance that is INDUCTIVE, while
below the horizontal line the value of ZOC and ZSC will have
negative reactance that is CAPACITIVE.
• Therefore, ZOC and ZSC assumes all possible reactance
values ranging from -∞ to +∞ as βl varies from 0 to π, or
the length of the line, “l” varies from 0 to λ/2 at a given
frequency
• Considering variation of ZSC only: Parallel resonance or
anti-resonance with theoretically infinite impedance
occurs when βl is an odd multiple of π/2 and series
resonance or resonance with theoretically zero
impedance occurs when βl is an even multiple of π/2.
• The graph from βl=0 to π (omitting the variation of ZOC
dotted line) has the same general form as the reactance
curve of a parallel lumped LC circuits when frequency is
varied.
• Fig.20: Parallel (lumped LC) resonant circuit

• Considering variation of ZOC only: Parallel resonance or
anti-resonance with theoretically infinite impedance
occurs when βl is an even multiple of π/2 and series
resonance or resonance with theoretically zero
impedance occurs when βl is an odd multiple of π/2.
• The graph from βl=0 to π (omitting the variation of ZSC
solid line) has the same general form as the reactance
curve of a series lumped LC circuits when frequency is
varied.
• Fig.21: Series (lumped LC) resonant circuit

• Further more, short and open between λ/4 to λ/2 the
circuited stubs having length reactance of ZSC will be
less than λ/4, the value ZSC will capacitive while reactance of
be positive, .i.e. inductive ZOC will be inductive.
reactance while value of ZOC will
be negative, .i.e. capacitive
reactance.
• Similarly, short and open
circuited stubs of length

• The results obtained in above figure holds for all
frequencies.
• The theory is perfectly general; but at low frequencies and
long wave lengths, it is not possible to obtain reasonable
lengths to simulate a complete reactance variation.
• At high frequencies or short wave lengths, it is rather
simple to obtain the complete reactance variations with
manageable length of line.
LINE WITH ANY
TERMINATION
LINE NOT
TERMINATED IN Z0
LINE WITH ANY TERMINATION
(LINE NOT TERMINATED IN Z0)
So far we discussed three modes of line termination .i.e.
1. Line terminated in Characteristic Impedance, ZR=Z0.
2. Line terminated in Short Circuit(SC), ZR=0.
3. Line terminated in Open Circuit(OC), ZR=∞.
• Now, we are going to study about line termination in ZR which is
not equal to any of above three values, .i.e.
4. Line with any termination, ZR.
– Open and short circuited line terminations are particular cases of the
line with any termination.

When a voltage is applied to a txn line, it originates an
incident wave and there is no reflected wave, if the line is
infinite or terminated in its characteristic impedance, Z0.
However, when a line is terminated with any impedance
ZR, part of energy will be absorbed and part of it will be
reflected back.
Therefore, line with any termination, ZR is a case of
PARTIAL REFLECTION while open and short circuit
terminations are the cases of TOTAL REFLECTION.
The input impedance of a long line with losses having any
termination can safely be considered to be the
characteristic impedance of the line and is independent
of the terminating impedance, ZR.
The reason for this is that when attenuation is of much
magnitude, the reflected wave becomes negligible
compared to the incident wave and the input impedance
is simply the ratio of the voltage to the current in a single
(incident) wave.
In contrast the input impedance of a short line with high
loss is determined by the terminating impedance, ZR and
is independent of its characteristic impedance, Z0.
In practical communication lines, the termination, ZR is of
very much importance, because unless ZR is the conjugate
complex of the source impedance maximum power is not
transferred to ZR and there is a power loss. The
magnitude of this power loss can be assessed by the
amount of reflection taking place.
LINE WITH ANY
TERMINATION
GENERAL EQUATION
GENERAL EQUATION
Considering a transmission line of length “l” terminating
in an impedance ZR as shown in fig.22. Let VR be the
voltage across ZR and IR be the current flowing through it.
Fig.22: line with any termination ZR

GENERAL EQUATION
Voltage and current at any point of a transmission line has
been given by eq.7 as
I   Z10 ( A sinh x  B cosh x)  (7b)

At the termination, ZR, x=l, V=VR and I=IR. Putting these
values in above equation, we get
VR  A cosh l  B sinh l  (35a)
I R   ZB0 cosh l  ZA0 sinh l  (35b)
GENERAL EQUATION
To determine the value of constant A, multiply eq.35a by
(coshγl)/Z0 and eq.35b by sinhγl and then add the two
equations as shown below.
VR
Z0 cosh l  I R sinh l
 A
Z0 cosh l 
2 B
Z0 sinh l cosh l  B
Z0 sinh l cosh l  A
Z0 sinh l
2
 A
Z0
cosh 2
l  sinh l  
2 A
Z0  cosh l  sinh l  1
2 2
Therefore
A  VR cosh l  I R Z 0 sinh l
GENERAL EQUATION
Similarly, to determine the value of constant B, multiply
eq.35a by (sinhγl)/Z0 and eq.35b by coshγl and then add
the two equations.
VR
Z0 sinh l  I R cosh l
 A
Z0 cosh l sinh l  B
Z0 sinh l 2 B
Z0 cosh l  ZA0 sinh l cosh l
2
 B
Z0
cosh 2
l  sinh l   
2 B
Z0  cosh l  sinh l  1
2 2
Therefore
B  (VR sinh l  I R Z 0 cosh l )
GENERAL EQUATION
Substituting these values of A and B in eq.35a, we get
V  A cosh x  B sinh x
 (VR cosh l  I R Z 0 sinh l ) cosh x
 (VR sinh l  I R Z 0 cosh l ) sinh x
 VR (cosh l cosh x  sinh l sinh x)
 I R Z 0 (sinh l cosh x  sinh x cosh l )
 VR cosh  (l  x)  I R Z 0 sinh  (l  x)
GENERAL EQUATION
Substituting these values of A and B in eq.35b, we get
I   Z1 ( A sinh x  B cosh x)
0
  Z10 (VR cosh l  I R Z 0 sinh l ) sinh x

 Z10 (VR sinh l  I R Z 0 cosh l ) cosh x
 VR
Z0 (sinh l cosh x  cosh l sinh x)
 I R (cosh l cosh x  sinh x sinh l )
 VR
Z0 sinh  (l  x)  I R cosh  (l  x)
GENERAL EQUATION
So, we got two equations. They are
V  VR cosh  (l  x)  I R Z 0 sinh  (l  x)  (36a)
and
I VR
Z0 sinh  (l  x)  I R cosh  (l  x)  (36b)
• Equ.36 are the general line equations expressing

respectively the current and voltage at a point, distance x
from the sending end, in terms of the received current and
voltage.
GENERAL EQUATION
V  VS cosh x  I S Z 0 sinh x  (9a)
I  I S cosh x  VZS0 sinh x  (9b)
V  VR cosh  (l  x)  I R Z 0 sinh  (l  x)  (36a)
I VR
Z0 sinh  (l  x)  I R cosh  (l  x)  (36b)
Comparing eq.36 with eq.9, it is oblivious that eq.36 can
be applied only to a line of finite length, while eq.9 can
also to an infinite length line.
GENERAL EQUATION
• If the distance of the point on the line is measured from
the receiving end instead of sending end, then any point
on the line will always be at a distance (l-x) from the
receiving end.
Let y be the distance measured from the receiving end,
then y=l-x and eq.36 will become as
V  VR cosh y  I R Z 0 sinh y  (37a)
and I  VZR0 sinh y  I R cosh y  (37b)
GENERAL EQUATION
At the sending end, x=0, V=VS and I=IS. Substituting these
values in eq.36, we get
VS  VR cosh l  I R Z 0 sinh l  (38a)
and I S 
VR
Z0 sinh l  I R cosh l  (38b)
• Thus, eq.38 gives sending end voltage and current in

terms of received voltage and current and secondary
constants of the line.
INPUT IMPEDANCE
Input impedance of transmission line is defined as the
impedance measured across the input terminals of the
transmission line. It is normally denoted by the letter, ZIN.
In other words input impedance of a transmission line is
the impedance seen looking into the sending end or
input terminals. It is the impedance into which the source
must work when the line is terminated.
VS
Thus, Z IN 
IS
INPUT IMPEDANCE
Referring to the fig.22 of line with any termination again,
at the sending end, x=0, V=VS, I=IS. Applying these
conditions to eq.36, we get
VS  VR cosh l  I R Z 0 sinh l
IS  VR
Z0 sinh l  I R cosh l
Therefore
VS VR cosh l  I R Z 0 sinh l  I R cosh l  Z 0 sinh l
VR

Z IN   VR  Z 0  VR 
IS Z 0 sinh l  I R cosh l  I R sinh l  Z 0 cosh l 
INPUT IMPEDANCE
VR
and using ZR  we can get
IR
 Z R cosh l  Z 0 sinh l 
Z IN  Z0    (39a)
 Z R sinh l  Z 0 cosh l 
This can be further simplified by dividing numerator and
denominator with coshγl as
Z coshl
R coshl Z sinhl
0 coshl
  Z R  Z 0 tanh l 
Z IN  Z0  sinhl coshl   Z0  
 Z R coshl lZ 0 coshl   Z R tanh l  Z 0 
INPUT IMPEDANCE
Therefore
 Z R  Z 0 tanh l 
Z IN  Z0    (39b)
 Z 0  Z R tanh l 
Eq.39 are important in the study of transmission line

theory and should be memorized by heart.
 Several results which have already been obtained otherwise
can also be derived easily from eq.39b.
 Several more results which will be derived later will use eq.39
as basis.
INPUT IMPEDANCE
 Example: In an Open Circuit line if ZR=∞ then ZIN=ZOC, eq.39b 
 Z R  Z 0 tanh l  1  ZZ tanh l 
0
 1 0 
Z IN  Z0    Z OC  Z 0  Z  tanh l   Z 0  0  tanh l   Z 0 coth l
R
 Z 0  Z R tanh l   Z   
0
R
 Which is same as eq.32a,.i.e. ZOC  Z 0 coth l  (32a)

 Similarly, in a Short Circuit line if ZR=0 then ZIN=ZSC, eq.39b 
 Z R  Z 0 tanh l   0  Z 0 tanh l 
Z IN  Z 0    Z SC  Z 0    Z 0 tanh l
 Z 0  Z R tanh l   Z0  0 
 Which is same as eq.32.b, .i.e. Z SC  Z 0 tanh l  (32b)

INPUT IMPEDANCE
• A transmission line is said to be perfectly matched
to the load or properly terminated when it is
terminated by its characteristic impedance.
• For such line the input impedance is simply the
characteristic impedance, Z0 of the line it self.
• However, if ZR≠Z0, the input impedance may have a
wide range of values.
TRANSFER IMPEDANCE
Using eq.38a .i.e. VS  VR cosh l  I R Z0 sinh l  (38a)
By dividing eq.38a with IR we get
VS VR cosh l  I R Z 0 sinh l VS VR
   cosh l  Z 0 sinh l
IR IR IR IR
The transfer impedance, ZT is defined as the ratio of
sending end voltage to the receiving end current. So
using VS/IR=ZT and VS/IR=ZR, we can get Transfer
Impedance as
ZT  Z R cosh l  Z 0 sinh l  (40)
INPUT IMPEDANCE
OF
A LOSSLESS LINE
INPUT IMPEDANCE OF A LOSSLESS LINE
• Input impedance of a lossless line (.i.e. high frequency
line) of any length can, of course be found from Smith
chart (will be discussed in Unit-VI) where it will be shown
that its locus for negligible losses simply follows a circle of
constant reflection coefficient.
• For some purposes it is, however, convenient to have a
formula for the input impedance, perhaps to obtain
better accuracy than the realized graphically by Smith
chart.
• From eq.39b, we get for lossless line, α=0, therefore,
γ=α+jβ will be jβ only
 Z R  Z 0 tanh l   Z R  Z 0 tanh jl   Z R  jZ 0 tan l 
Z IN  Z0    Z0    Z IN  Z 0    (41)
 Z 0  Z R tanh l   Z 0  Z R tanh jl   Z 0  jZ R tan l 
• Because tanh(jβl) = j tanβl and since β=2π/λ
 Z R  jZ 0 tan 2 l 
Z IN  Z 0    (42)
 Z 0  jZ R tan  l 
2
• Again for a lossless line, the resistive component of the

line .i.e. R and G will be equal to Zero.
• Thus     j  ( R  jL)(G  jC)  0  j  ( jL)( jC)  j LC
• or    LC  2f LC
• If f is the frequency of operation and the terminating
impedance is a pure resistance RR then eq.41 will become
 RR  jZ 0 tan 2f LCl 
Z IN  Z0  
 Z 0  jRR tan 2f LCl 
• Therefore, input impedance ZIN of a lossy and lossless line
can be calculated from either of the above eqs depending
upon the data given.
LINE WITH ANY
TERMINATION
REFLECTION
REFLECTION
• Reflection of energy occurs when there is an impedance
irregularity, i.e., when the primary constants of the
transmission line are not uniform along the line; or the
terminated impedance at the far end is different from Z0
of the line assumed to be uniform.
• The phenomenon of setting up of a reflected wave at the
load due to improper termination or due to impedance
irregularity in a line is called reflection.
REFLECTION
• The reflection takes place because the ratio of electric
field and magnetic field on both the sides of terminals
boundary must be the same under all conditions.
• The condition will be satisfied by the addition of reflected
wave to the incident wave.
• Reflection is normally undesirable on transmission line. If
the attenuation is not large the reflected wave appears
as echo at the sending end.
REFLECTION
• In addition there is a reduction in efficiency at the output
because a portion of the received energy is rejected back
by the load.
• The reflected wave is reflected again at the sending end
resulting in a new incident wave. The energy is thus
transmitted back and forth on the line until dissipated in
the line losses.
• The reflection will be maximum when the line is open or
short circuited and will be zero when ZR=Z0.
REFLECTION COEFFICIENT
• REFLECTION COEFFICIENT denoted by K is defined as the ratio of
the reflected voltage to the incident voltage. The reflection
coefficient can also be defined in terms of the ratio of reflected
current and incident current.
• However it is observed that K as defined from current ratio is
negative with respect to that defined from voltage ratio. The
reason being that the reflected current suffer a 180o phase shift
at the receiving end while the reflected voltage does not.
• Reflection coefficient, K is in general a vector quantity having
both magnitude and direction.
• In fact dealing with the voltage ratio is called Voltage Reflection
Coefficient abbreviated as VRC. Similarly in dealing with the
current ratio is called Current Reflection Coefficient, CRC.
• The only difference between the two is that current reflection
coefficient is the negative of voltage reflection coefficient.
• Let Vi and Vr be the incident and reflected voltages respectively,
then
Vr
VRC   K  (43a)
Vi

• Similarly, let Ii and Ir be the incident and reflected current
respectively. Then Ir
CRC   K  (43b)
Ii
• Reflection coefficient is a measure of the voltage and current
reflected from any point in a transmission line due to improper
termination.
• Fundamental equations for voltage and current at any point of a
transmission line as per eqs.8 are
V  be x x
 ae  (8a) I 1
Z0 (be x  aex )  (8b)
• The first term (e-γx) in each of the above equations represents an
incident voltage or current while the second term (eγx)
represents a reflected voltage or current.
• If y is the distance measured from the termination ZR, eq.8 can be
expressed in terms of y simply by putting x=-y.
• Thus,
y y
V  be  ae  (44a)
I  Zb0 ey  Za0 ae y  (44b)

• Here the first term(eγy) in eq.44 represents incident voltage, Vi
while the second term(e-γy) represents reflected voltage, Vr
because incident voltage must go on increasing and reflected
voltage decreasing as y increases(i.e. as we travel away from ZR).
• At the termination ZR, when y=0, V=VR and I=IR
• Substituting these values in eq.44,
• we get VR  b  a and I R  Zb  Za  I R Z 0  b  a
0 0
VR  I R Z 0 VR  I R Z 0
• Hence b   (45a) and a  (45b)
2 2
• From eq.43a, Voltage Reflection Coefficient
Vr ae y a 2y
VRC, K   y  e
Vi be b
• At the termination ZR, y=0, therefore
a 2y a
K e 
b b
• Putting the values of a and b from eq.45
a VR  I R Z 0
K 
b VR  I R Z 0

• Dividing numerator and denominator by IR and by substituting
VR/IR=ZR, we get
VR  I R Z 0
VR
 Z0 Z R  Z0  Z R  Z0 
K 
IR
 So, K   (46a)
VR  I R Z 0  Z0 Z R  Z0  Z R  Z0 
VR
IR
• Thus reflection coefficient, K can be computed, if the

termination impedance, ZR and characteristic impedance, Z0 of
the line are given.
• Given the values of ZR and Z0, K can be readily computed
graphically by smith chart also.
REFLECTION LOSS AND
REFLECTION FACTOR

REFLECTION LOSS AND REFLECTION FACTOR
Reflection in a transmission line is either due to
impedance irregularity or when the line is not correctly
terminated. Reflection results in a power loss which is
termed as reflection loss, which is defined as the ratio of
power to load to the incident power and is normally
denoted by the letter Fl. In decibels reflection loss is given
as
Power to load 4(ZR Z 0 )  2 ZR Z 0 
Fl  10 log10  10 log10 dB  20 log10  dB  (46b)
Incident power (ZR  Z 0 ) 2  ZR  Z 0 
 
This reflection loss can also be computed from reflection
factor by the relationship
Fl  20 log10 Fr  (46c)
Reflection factor, Fr is the geometric mean of the two

impedances divided by the arithmetic mean.
Therefore
ZR Z 0 2 ZR Z 0 2 ZR Z 0
Fr 
ZR  Z 0
  Fr   (46d )
ZR  Z 0 ZR  Z 0
2
 The reflection factor, Fr can also be calculated from the reflection
coefficient K by the relation
Fr  1  K 2  (46e)
 Z R  Z0 
2
(Z R  Z 0 )2  (Z R  Z 0 )2
2 Z R Z0

Fr  1   
  
4Z R Z 0 or Fr   (46 f )
 R
Z  Z 0  ( Z R  Z 0 ) 2
( Z R  Z 0 ) 2 Z R  Z0
 Which is same as eq.46d. It may be mentioned here that if the

impedances have different phase angles the reflection factor may
be either larger or smaller than unity. But if they have the same
phase angle but different magnitude, the reflection factor is
always less than unity.
 The Standing Wave Ratio: Reflection takes place when the line is
not terminated in its characteristic impedance. This cause
reflection of waves. The combination of incident and reflected
waves give rise to standing waves of current and voltage with
definite maxima and minima along the line. The magnitude of
standing waves provides an idea of the amount of reflection.
 The ratio of the maximum and minimum magnitude of current or
voltage on a line having standing waves is called the Standing
Wave Ratio and is normally abbreviated as SWR and generally
denoted by the letter S.
The Standing Wave Ratio: While dealing with ratio of
voltages it is abbreviated as VSWR and for current ratio it
is abbreviated as CSWR.
In terms of reflection coefficient, K
1 K 1 K
VSWR   (46 g ) or CSWR   (46h)
1 K 1 K
It is significant that VSWR is always greater than 1, and

when it is equal to 1, the line is correctly terminated and
there is no reflection.
Input Impedance in terms of Reflection coefficient: The
input ZIN of a line terminated in an impedance ZR as per
eq.39a is given by,
Z IN  Z0    (39a)
 Z R sinh l  Z 0 cosh l 
Changing hyperbolic functions to exponential form, we get
  el  e l   el  e l    l l

 Z R    Z 0   

e
(Z R  Z 0 ) 
e
(Z R  Z 0 ) 
 Z 0   l     Z 2
2 2 2
Z IN  
  e  e l  l
e e  l  0

l l
(Z R  Z 0 ) 
e e
 Z R    Z 0    (Z R  Z 0 ) 
 2   2   2 2 
 
Input Impedance in terms of Reflection coefficient:
l
Dividing numerator and denominator by e2 (Z  Z ) , we get R 0
  Z  Z  Z R  Z0
1  e 
 2l
  Putting K 
R 0 , from eq.46a, we have
 Z R  Z0   Z R  Z0
Z IN  Z0 
  2l  Z R  Z 0 

1  e    1  Ke 2l 
  Z R  Z 0    Z0   (47)
 2l 
Z IN
1  Ke 
Thus input impedance ZIN of a line of length “l” can be
calculated if the secondary constants of a line γ and Z0
and reflection coefficient K is given.
 It is seen that reflection occurs
due to improper termination at
the receiving end. This concept
can be extended to the
function of any two
impedances. Let a source of
voltage VS and impedance Z1 is
connected to load of Fig.23: Illustrating reflection loss
impedance Z2 as given in fig.23.

If Z2 differs from Z1, reflection of energy takes place
resulting in a change in the ratio of voltage to current and
alternation in the distribution of energy between the
electric and magnetic field. The energy transferred to Z2 is
less than that with impedance matching. A reflection loss
is said to have occurred.
The magnitude of reflection loss may be evaluated by the
ratio of the current actually flowing through the load to
that under matched condition.
 Image matching between the impedance Z1 and Z2 with an ideal
voltage source VS can be obtained by use of an ideal transformer
and a phase shifting network inserted between Z1 and Z2. The
turns ratio “n” of the transformer will then have to be such that
I1 Z2
  n  (48a)
I2 Z1
 Where
• I1 is the current in the primary
• I2 is the current in the secondary
• Z1 is the impedance offered by the primary
• Z2 is the impedance offered by the secondary
 The Z2 can be image matched to the source impedance Z1 by
selecting proper turns ratio n of the transformer, while the phase
angle can be adjusted by the phase shifting network.
 Hence, when Z2 is image matched to the source impedance Z1,
the current flowing through the generator and through the
primary of the transformer is given as:
VS
I1   (48b)
2Z1

 If the current in the secondary winding of the transformer and in
the load impedance Z2 under the image, matched condition is
designated as I2’ then from eq.48a, we get
Z1
I 2 '  I1
Z2
 Putting the value of I1 from eq.48b, we have
VS Z1 VS
I2 '    (48c)
2Z1 Z 2 2 Z1Z 2

 On the other hand, the current I3 in the load impedance Z1
without image matching is given by
VS
I3   (48d )
Z1  Z 2
 Thus the ratio of current flowing through the load impedance to
that which would flow under the image matched condition is
given by the ratio of eq.48d and eq.48c.
 Therefore V S
I3 Z  Z2 2 Z1Z 2
 1   (48e)
I2 ' VS Z1  Z 2
2 Z1 Z 2

 The expression given by eq.48e indicates the change in current in
the load due to reflection at the mismatched function and is
called the reflection factor and normally denoted by K.
 Therefore,
2 Z1Z 2
K  (48 f )
Z1  Z 2
 Where Z1 and Z2 are the impedances looking both ways at a

function.

 The reflection loss or mismatch loss is defined as the number of
nepers or decibels by which the current in the load under image
matched condition would exceed the current actually flowing in
the load.
I2 ' 1 Z1  Z 2
 Hence Reflection loss (in Nepers)  log e  log e  log e  (48 g )
I 3K 2 Z1Z 2
Z1  Z 2
Reflection loss (in dB)  20 log10  (48h)
2 Z1Z 2
 In some cases the quantity loge|1/K| may become negative which
signifies reflection gain instead of reflection loss.
POWER DELIVERED TO
LOAD

POWER DELIVERED TO LOAD
 In communication systems, txn
line should be chosen in such a
way that maximum power is
delivered to the load. It will be
proved by maximum power
transfer theorem that if ZR is
the complex conjugate of Z0 (as
per fig.24) only then the power
delivered to load is maximum.

 However, when a line is not terminated in the characteristic
impedance, all the power is not absorbed by the load, but part of
it is returned by the load. Therefore, it becomes necessary to
know how much power is delivered to the load.
 Power delivered to the load is PR  I R RR  (49)
2
where RR is the resistance component of the load ZR.

 The receiving end current IR can be computed from eq.9b by
putting x=l and I=IR
I R  I S cosh l  VS
Z0 sinh l
 If IS in the above equation is not given, it can be obtained with
the help of the relation IS=VS/ZIN, provided sending end voltage VS
is given. However if the sending end impedance ZS or ZIN is not
given, it can also be calculated from eq.39a.
Z IN  Z0  
 R
Z sinh l  Z 0 cosh l 
 Alternatively, IR can also be obtained from the definition of
propagation constant .i.e el  II S
R
 This relation often simplifies the computation of power delivered

to load.
EFFICIENCY OF TRANSMISSION
The ratio of the power delivered to a load by a
transmission line to the power input to the line is called
the efficiency of transmission. It is normally given in
percentage. Being efficiency, it is denoted by the letter, η.
If PS is the input power to the line and PR is the power
delivered to the load, the efficiency of transmission is
given by
PR
  x 100%  (50)
PS
EFFICIENCY OF TRANSMISSION
Power delivered to the load PR can be calculated from
eq.49 PR  I R RR  (49)
2
Power input PS can be can be readily computed by the

formula
PS  VS I S cos   (51)
Where θ is the angle by which sending end current IS leads
sending end voltage VS.
Efficiency of transmission indicates what percentage of the
input power is delivered to the load.
Example-5: EFFICIENCY OF TRANSMISSION
A transmission line of 50km has a characteristic
impedance of 692  12o, phase function 0.0355 radians/km,
attenuation function 0.00755 Nepers/km. sending end
voltage is 10V at 1kHz and the line is terminated by a
300Ω resistor. Calculate
a) Sending end current,
b) Receiving end current,
c) Receiving end voltage and
d) Efficiency of transmission.
Solution: Given l  50km, f  1kHz, VS  10V and Z R  300
Z 0  692  12o and   0.00755  j 0.0355
Therefore l  (0.00755  j 0.0355)50  0.3775  j1.775
It is convenient to evaluate sinhγl and coshγl separately
before start computing the desired values
sinh l  sinh(0.3775  j1.775)
 sinh 0.3775 cos 1.775  j cosh 0.3775 sin 1.775
 0.387 x (0.203)  j1.072x 0.979
 0.079  j1.05  1.0694.20
Solution: Similarly
cosh l  cosh(0.3775  j1.775)
 cosh 0.3775 cos 1.775  j sinh 0.3775 sin 1.775
 1.072x (0.203)  j 0.387 x 0.979
 0.218  j 0.379  0.437120.10
In order to determine the value of sending end current IS ,
we have to first compute sending end impedance ZS or ZIN.
Z IN  Z0  
 R
Z sinh l  Z 0 cosh l 
Solution:  692  12 
0  300 x 0. 437  120 . 10
 692  12 0
x 1.06 94 .2 0

0
Z IN
 300 x1 . 06 94 .2 0
 692   12 0
x 0 . 437 120 . 1 
0 131.1120.1  733.5282.2 
0 0
 692  12  0 
 318  94 . 2 0
 302 . 4 108 .1 
 90,721.2108.10  5,07,595.8470.20 
 
 318 94 .2 0
 302 .4  108 . 10

  28,184.9  j86,231.9  1,71,941.9  j 4,77,587.2 
 
  93 . 64  j 286 . 5  23 .3  j 317.1 
1,43,757  j 5,63,819 582 x103 75.7 0
   946.6  25.30
 117  j 603.6 614.81010

Solution: Now using ZIN=VS/IS
VS 10
IS    0.01056425.30
Amps
Z IN 946.6  25.30
Receiving end voltage VR will be calculated from eq.9a by

putting x=l and V=VR V  Vs cosh x  I s Z0 sinh x  (9a)
  
VR  VS cosh l  I S Z 0 sinh l  VS cosh l  Z 0 VISS sinh l  VS cosh l  ZZIN0 sinh l 
 10 0.218  j 0.379  x1.06994.2 
692 120
946.6   25.30
0
 10 0.218  j 0.379  0.781107.6   10 0.218  j 0.379  (0.236  j 0.744)

0
 100.018  j 0.365)  3.65  87.20 Volts

Solution: Receiving end current IR is given by the relation
VR 3.65  87.20
IR    0.0121  87.20 Amps
ZR 300
In order to evaluate efficiency of transmission η, we have
to compute PR and PS.
  x300  0.0439Watts
2
Power delivered to load R R R
P I R (0.0121) 2
Power input PS  VS I S cos   10 x 0.010564 cos 25.30  0.0955Watts

Efficiency of transmission
 PR
PS x100  00..0439
0955 x100  45.97%
Z0 and ZIN VARIATION with FREQUENCY
Fig.25a: Variation of Z0 with frequency
Fig.25b: Variation of ZIN with frequency

• The condition for distortion less line is CL  GR . Such a hypothetical line
L R

is not practical with distributed parameters. Because C G it was
necessary to increase the L/C ratio to achieve distortion-less
conditions.
• Increase in inductance can be done by lumped inductors spaced at
regular intervals along the line. This use of inductance is called the
line or Inductance Loading. There are three types of loading in
practice. They are Continuous, Patch and Lumped loading.
 Various ways of the voltage and current distributed along a
transmission line can be understood by considering the load end is
Open Circuited (ZR=∞), Short Circuited (ZR=0), equal to the
Characteristic Impedance (ZRProf
28-Jun-23 =ZK.Venkat
0) and Reddyany termination. 153
• Both the open and short circuited line can be arranged by proper
choice of the line length to act as Series resonant or Parallel resonant
or any desired values of reactance like Inductance and Capacitance.
• The incident wave is generated at the source and the reflected wave
is generated at the load by the reflection of the incident wave.
• Standing wave pattern is repeated every half wavelengths, that is
maxima are spaced half wave length apart on the transmission line
and minima are also spaced half wave length apart. The distance
between a maximum and minimum is a quarter wavelength.
• Consider a length “l” of the line having far end voltage and current as VR and IR
respectively VR  VS cosh l  I S Z 0 sinh l  (31a) VS
I R  I S cosh l  sinh l  (31b)
Z0
ZOC  Z 0 coth l  (32a) Z SC  Z 0 tanh l  (32b) Z 0  Z OC Z SC  (33a) Z SC
tanh l   (33b)
Z OC
• For lossless line ZOC   jZ 0 cot l  (34a) Z SC  jZ 0 tan l  (34b)

• Considering variation of ZSC: Parallel resonance or anti-resonance
with theoretically infinite impedance occurs when βl is an odd
multiple of π/2 and series resonance or resonance with theoretically
zero impedance occurs when βl is an even multiple of π/2.
• Considering variation of ZOC: Parallel resonance or anti-resonance
with theoretically infinite impedance occurs when βl is an even
multiple of π/2 and series resonance or resonance with theoretically
zero impedance occurs when βl is an odd multiple of π/2.
• Further more, short and open circuited stubs having length less than
λ/4, the value ZSC will be positive , .i.e. inductive reactance while value
of ZOC will be negative, .i.e. capacitive reactance. Similarly, short and
open circuited stubs of length between λ/4 to λ/2 the reactance of ZSC
will be capacitive while reactance of ZOC will be inductive.
• Line with any termination, ZR is a case of partial reflection while open
and short circuit terminations are the cases of total reflection.
• At the termination, ZR, x=l, V=VR and I=IR. Putting these values in
above equation, we get
VR  A cosh l  B sinh l  (35a) I R   ZB0 cosh l  ZA0 sinh l  (35b)

• Line with any termination general equations
V  VR cosh  (l  x)  I R Z 0 sinh  (l  x)  (36a) I  VZR0 sinh  (l  x)  I R cosh  (l  x)  (36b)
• Let y be the distance measured from the receiving end, then y=l-x
and eq.36 will become
V  VR cosh y  I R Z 0 sinh y  (37a) I  VZR0 sinh y  I R cosh y  (37b)
• At the sending end, x=0, V=VS and I=IS. Substituting these values in
eq.36, we get
VS  VR cosh l  I R Z 0 sinh l  (38a) I S  VZR0 sinh l  I R cosh l  (38b)
• Line with any termination input impedance
 Z cosh l  Z 0 sinh l   Z R  Z 0 tanh l 
Z IN  Z 0  R   (39a) Z IN  Z0    (39b)
 Z R sinh l  Z 0 cosh l   Z 0  Z R tanh l 
 The transfer impedance, ZT is defined as the ratio of sending end
voltage to the receiving end current.
ZT  Z R cosh l  Z 0 sinh l  (40)
 Input impedance of a lossless line
 Z  jZ 0 tan l   Z R  jZ 0 tan 2 l 
Z IN  Z0  R   (41) Z IN  Z0    (42)
 Z 0  jZ R tan l   0
Z  jZ R tan  2
 l 
 The phenomenon of setting up of a reflected wave at the load due

to improper termination or due to impedance irregularity in a line is
called reflection. Reflection is normally undesirable on transmission
line. If the attenuation is not large the reflected wave appears as
echo at the sending end.
 In addition there is a reduction in efficiency at the output because a
portion of the received energy is rejected back by the load.
 Reflection coefficient denoted by K is defined as the ratio of the
reflected voltage to the incident voltage. The reflection coefficient
can also be defined in terms of the ratio of reflected current and
incident current.
 Let Vi and Vr be the incident and reflected voltages respectively, then
Similarly, let Ii and Ir be the incident and reflected current
respectively. Then
Vr Ir
 K  (43a)  K  (43b)
Vi Ii
• If y is the distance measured from the termination ZR, eq.8 can be
expressed in terms of y simply by putting x=-y. Thus,
V  bey  aey  (44a) I  Zb ey  Za aey  (44b) b  VR  I R Z 0  (45a) a  VR  I R Z 0  (45b)
0 0
2 2
• Thus reflection coefficient, K can be computed, if the termination
impedance, ZR and characteristic impedance, Z0 of the line are given.
 Z  Z0 
K R   (46a)
 R
Z  Z 0
• In decibels reflection loss is given as

Power to load 4(ZR Z 0 )  2 ZR Z 0 
Fl  10 log10  10 log10 dB  20 log10  dB  (46b)
Incident power (ZR  Z 0 ) 2  ZR  Z 0 
 
 This reflection loss can also be computed from reflection factor by
the relationship Fl  20 log10 Fr  (46c)
 Reflection factor, Fr is the geometric mean of the two impedances
divided by the arithmetic mean.
2 Z R Z0
 Therefore Fr  2 ZR Z 0  (46d ) F   (46 f )
ZR  Z 0
2
Fr  1  K  (46e)
r
Z R  Z0
1 K 1 K
VSWR   (46 g ) CSWR   (46h)
1 K 1 K
 It is significant that VSWR is always greater than 1, and when it is
equal to 1, the line is correctly terminated and there is no reflection.
1  Ke 2l 
Z IN  Z0   2l 
 (47)
1  Ke 
I1 Z2 VS VS VS I 3 2 Z1Z 2
  n  (48a) I1   (48b) I 2 ''   (48c) I3   (48d )   (48e)
I2 Z1 2Z1 2 Z1Z 2 Z1  Z 2 I 2 ' Z1  Z 2
Z  Z2
'
2 Z1Z 2 I 1
K  (48 f ) Reflection loss (in Nepers)  log e 2  log e  log e 1  (48 g )
Z1  Z 2 I3 K 2 Z1Z 2
Z1  Z 2
Reflection loss (in dB)  20 log10  (48h)
2 Z1Z 2
• Power delivered to the load PR  I R RR  (49)

2
• Power sent PS  VS I S cos   (51)

P
• Efficiency of transmission   R x 100%  (50)
PS

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EM WAVES & TXN LINES

24-Jun-23 Prof K.Venkat Reddy 4

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24-Jun-23 Prof K.Venkat Reddy 28

24-Jun-23 Prof K.Venkat Reddy 29

24-Jun-23 Prof K.Venkat Reddy 31

24-Jun-23 Prof K.Venkat Reddy 32

• The shunt admittance, Y of the line per unit length is

• Z and Y have special significance in the study of

24-Jun-23 Prof K.Venkat Reddy 36

• which is also a complex constant for a given frequency.

24-Jun-23 Prof K.Venkat Reddy 46

24-Jun-23 Prof K.Venkat Reddy 50

• Equation.9 are general line equations expressing

Fig.4: Infinite Line

24-Jun-23 Prof K.Venkat Reddy 57

24-Jun-23 Prof K.Venkat Reddy 61

• Thus putting x=l, V=VR and I=IR in eq.9, we get

Z 0 I s (cosh l  sinh l )  Vs (cosh l  sinh l )  Z 0 I s  Vs

• It governs the way in which the waves are propagated.

24-Jun-23 Prof K.Venkat Reddy 75

• Taking logarithm of both the sides, x  log e I

• If Isi and Ix are unit distance apart, as shown in figure, x=1

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Fig.6: Voltage and Current at unit distance apart

• Propagation constant of a uniform transmission line is defined

• However eq.12e and eq.12f hold good for uniform properly

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dω/dβ is evaluated at the carrier of the centre frequency.

• Actually α and β both are functions of frequency and

• After substituting the value of α2 in it, we have

• After computing the propagation constant γ, components

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where R0 is the resistive component of Z0. For low loss

    j  0.01  j0.035  36.4x10 -3 7403'

Propagation Constant,   ZY  25.366.80 x52.1x10 6 89.60

 10.4  j 23.2  25.2660

Propagation Constant,   ZY  25.2660 x52.6x10 6 900

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10.Computation of Sending and receiving end parameters

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This reduces to  2 2 RGLC   2 L2G 2   2C 2 R2  0

Then   RG  (21c) which is also independent of frequency

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