The Modalities of Nostalgia

Current Sociology http://csi.sagepub.
com/ ^ J
The Modalities of Nostalgia

Michael Pickering and Emily Keightley
Current Sociology 2006 54: 919
DOI: 10.1177/0011392106068458
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The Modalities of Nostalgia
Michael Pickering and Emily Keightley
Loughborough University
abstract: N o stalg ia h as b e e n v iew e d as th e c o n c e p tu al o p p o site o f p ro g ress,

ag ain st w h ic h it is n e g ativ e ly v iew e d as reac tio nary , sen tim e n tal o r m elan c h o lic .
It h as b e e n se en as a d e fe atist retreat fro m th e p resen t, an d e v id e n c e o f lo ss o f
faith in th e fu tu re. N o stalg ia is c e rtain ly a resp o n se to th e e x p e rie n c e o f lo ss
e n d e m ic in m o d e rn ity an d late m o d ern ity , b u t the au th o rs arg u e th at it h as
n u m e ro u s m an ifestatio n s an d c an n o t b e red u c ed to a sin g u lar o r ab so lu te d efi
n itio n . Its m e an in g an d sig n ific an c e are m u ltip le, and so sh o u ld b e seen as ac c o m
m o d atin g p ro g re ssiv e, e v e n u to p ian im p u lse s as w ell as re g ressiv e stan c e s and
m e lan c h o lic attitu d es. Its c o n trarie tie s are e v id e n t in b o th v e rn ac u lar an d m ed ia
fo rm s o f re m e m b e rin g an d h isto ric al rec o n stru c tio n . T h e au th o rs arg u e th at th ese
c o n trarie ties sh o u ld b e v iew ed as m u tu ally c o n stitu tiv e, fo r it is in th eir in terre
latio n s th at th ere arise s th e p o te n tial fo r so c io lo g ic al c ritiq u e.
keywords: m o d alitie s ♦ m o d e rn ity ♦ n o stalg ia
T h e te m p o r a l d ic h o to m ie s o f c la s s ic a l s o c io lo g y a s s e r te d a s e v e r e , if n o t
c o m p l e te r u p tu r e b e tw e e n m o d e r n a n d p r e m o d e r n s o c ie tie s , a n d w e re
la rg e ly w e ig h te d in f a v o u r o f th e p re s e n t o v e r th e p a s t in th e ir th e o r iz a
tio n s o f th is r a d ic a l h is to r i c a l tr a n s itio n . A s s u m p tio n s o f ir r e v e r s ib le
ru p tu r e c r e a te d a n in d is p o s itio n to a tte n d in a m o r e b a la n c e d w a y to
p a tte r n s o f c o n tin u ity a c r o s s tim e , f o r c h a n g e a n d m o v e m e n t a w a y f ro m
th e p a s t w e r e th e k e y is s u e s o f f o c u s . P o s itiv e v a lu a tio n s o f p r e s e n t o v e r
p a s t w e r e b a s e d n o t o n ly o n v ie w s o f th e in e v ita b il ity o f l in e a r p r o g r e s s
f o r w a r d to a n im p r o v e d f u tu r e , b u t w e r e a ls o s u p p o r te d b y e v o lu tio n is m
a n d h is to r i c is m , a n d la te r b y s ta tic f u n c ti o n a lis t p a r a d i g m s a n d th e o r ie s
o f m o d e r n iz a tio n . B e lie f in th e in e v ita b il ity o f p r o g r e s s w a s b o ls te r e d in
its o r ie n ta tio n to th e f u tu r e b y th e g e n e r a tio n o f its a n tith e s is - a n o s ta l
g ic y e a r n in g f o r th e p a s t - a n d y e t, a s th e id e o lo g ic a l c o m p o n e n ts o f th e
d o g m a o f p r o g r e s s h a v e b e e n s te a d ily c r itiq u e d , it is n o to r io u s ly d if f ic u lt
to k n o w w h e r e to tu r n f o r a n y v ia b le a lte r n a tiv e . W e m a y lo o k b a c k o n
Current Sociology ♦ November 2006 ♦ Vol 54(6): 919-941

© International Sociological Association
SAGE (London, Thousand Oaks, CA and New Delhi)
DOI: 10.1177/0011392106068458
919
Current Sociology Vol. 54 No. 6
th e v a r ie ty o f d if f e r e n t p o s iti o n s th a t w e r e d e v e lo p e d in r e s p o n s e to th e
a b r u p t s o c ia l tr a n s itio n s e x p e r ie n c e d d u r in g m o d e rn ity , r a n g in g f ro m
w h o le s a le a c c e p ta n c e th r o u g h g ra d u a l a d ju s tm e n t to e ith e r m e la n c h o ly
o v e r u n c h a n g e a b le f o r m s o f s o c ia l m a la is e o r a r g u m e n ts f o r f u r th e r
r a d ic a l c h a n g e , b u t a ll o f th e s e s e e m f la w e d in s o m e w a y o r a n o th e r, a n d
so n o t a v a ila b le f o r a d o p tio n w ith o u t c o n s id e r a b le c h a n g e a n d re v is io n .
In th e f a c e o f th is p e r tu r b a tio n , w e f e e l it u s e f u l to th in k a g a in a b o u t
p r o g r e s s 's c o n c e p tu a l o p p o s ite . In b e in g n e g a tiv e l y othered a s its b in a r y
o p p o s ite , n o s ta lg ia b e c a m e f ix e d in a d e te r m in a te b a c k w a r d s - lo o k i n g
s ta n c e . T h is n o t o n ly c lo s e d d o w n lin e s o f a c tiv e r e la tio n to th e p a s t, b u t
a ls o ^ v a lo riz e d w h a t w as~ se t u p a s its s in g le , in e s c a p a b le a lte r n a tiv e , f a c il
ita te d c o n v e n ie n t v e r s io n s o f th e p a s t in f a v o u r o f th e p r e s e n t, a n d le f t
th e s ta g e f re e f o r o n ly a v o w e d ly c o n s e r v a tiv e r e a c tio n s to m o d e rf T H m e sT "
N o s ta lg ia b e c a m e a s s o c ia te d W ith d e f e a tis t a ttitu d e to p re se n t an d \
f u tu r e , a p p e a r in g ta c itly to a c q u ie s c e in th e te m p o r a l ru p tu r e s of \
m o d e r n ity b y its v e r y a s s u m p tto r T o f th is a ttitu d e . N o s ta lg ia w a s a ls o I
c o n c e iv e d a s s e e k in g to a tta in th e u n a tta in a b le , to * s a tis f y th e u n s a tis h - /
a b le ^ If a d o g m H ic "Be lie f in p ro g r e s s erfFaiTed a n a r d e n t l o n g in g f o r th e
f u tu r e , n o s ta lg ia a s its p a ir e d in v e r s io n e n ta ile d o n ly a n a r d e n t lo n g in g
f o r th e p a s t. It is , th e n , a s if n o s ta lg ia a r is e s o n ly in c o m p e n s a tio n f o r a
lo s s o f f a ith in p r o g r e s s , a n d f o r w h a t is s o c ia lly a n d c u ltu r a lly d e s tr o y e d
in th e n a m e o f p ro g r e s s .
In lo n g in g f o r w h a t is la c k in g in a c h a n g e d p r e s e n t, n o s ta lg ia f o r a lo s t
tim e c le a r ly in v o lv e s y e a r n in g f o r w h a t is n o w n o t a tta in a b le , s im p ly
b e c a u s e o f th e ir r e v e r s ib ility o f tim e ; b u t to c o n d e m n n o s ta lg ia s o le ly to
th is p o s iti o n l e a v e s u n a tte n d e d n o t o n ly m o re g e n e r a l f e e lin g s o f re g r e t
f o r w h a t tim e h a s b r o u g h t, b u t a ls o m o r e g e n e r a l q u e s tio n s f o r h o w th e
p a s t m a y a c tiv e ly e n g a g e w ith th e p r e s e n t a n d f u tu re . T h e te m p o r a l
e m p h a s i s in m o d e r n ity h a s a lw a y s b e e n o n r e le n tle s s s u p e r s e s s io n a n d
m o v e m e n t b e y o n d e x is tin g c o n d itio n s a n d c ir c u m s ta n c e s . T h is m o d e r n is t
e m p h a s i s le a v e s n o s p a c e , re m e d ia l o r o th e r w is e , f o r d e a lin g w ith th e
e x p e r ie n c e o f lo s s . It is a s if th is e x p e r ie n c e , b e in g n e g a tiv e l y v a lu e d , h a s
s im p ly to b e o v e r c o m e , r e g a r d le s s o f th e p a in a n d p a th o s th a t m a y b e
in v o lv e d . T h e g r e a te s t te m p o r a l v a lu e in m o d e r n ity is o n w h a t is te m p o r
ary , a n d th is d is o r ie n ta tio n f ro m a n y s e n s e o f c o n tin u ity o r d u r a b ility
in c r e a s e s o u r s e n s e o f e th ic a l p e r tu r b a tio n b y c u ttin g a w a y th e g r o u n d s
f o r a c tiv e d ia l o g u e b e tw e e n p a s t a n d p r e s e n t. A ll th a t is le f t is th e n e g a
tiv ity o f n o s ta lg ia - a s if, in th e h e a d lo n g tilt o f tim e , a ll w e c a n d o is s ig h
a n d la m e n t. T h is s u g g e s ts th a t w e n e e d e ith e r to r e c o n f ig u r e th e c o n c e p t
o f n o s ta lg ia o r m o v e b e y o n d it if w e a re to d e a l m o r e a d e q u a te ly w ith th e
e x p e r ie n c e o f lo s s .
T h e e x p e r ie n c e o f lo s s is e n d e m ic to liv in g in m o d e rn ity , r e g a r d le s s o f
w h a te v e r v e r s io n o f it a p p lie s in a n y p a r tic u la r tim e o r p la c e . W h e th e r
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Pickering and Keightley The Modalities of Nostalgia
th r o u g h w a r, r e v o lu tio n o r r e g im e c h a n g e , m a s s in v o lu n ta r y m i g r a tio n
a n d e m ig r a tio n , o r le s s d r a m a tic a l ly th r o u g h s o c ia l m o b ili ty o r s o c ia l r e d e
v e lo p m e n t a n d th e d is p e r s io n o f e x is tin g c o m m u n i tie s b u i l t u p o v e r tim e ,
c h a n g e a n d a tte n d a n t f e e lin g s o f lo s s h a v e a lte r e d h o w th e p a s t is s e e n
an d c o n s id e r e d . T h is c a n n o t b e s u b s u m e d e n tir e ly w ith in a s e n s e o f
n o s ta lg ia , n o t le a s t b e c a u s e f e e lin g s o f lo s s a re a t tim e s c o m m in g le d w ith
a s e n s e o f s o c ia l g a in o r lib e r a tio n , o r w ith e f f o r ts to re g a in w h a t h a s b e e n
lo s t in n e w w a y s th a t a c tiv e ly e n g a g e w ith th e p r o c e s s o r c o n s e q u e n c e s
o f c h a n g e . M o d e r n ity h a s c h a n g e d th e v e r y c o n c e p tio n o f lo s s a lo n g w ith
th e c o m p e n s a tio n s o f fe re d fo r it, su c h as n a tio n a lis m or in v e n te d
tr a d itio n s , b u t lo s s , la c k a n d lo n g in g d o n o t h a v e a n y s in g u la r o r a b s o lu te
c o n d itio n in m o d e rn ity . It f o llo w s th a t th is is th e c a s e w ith n o s ta lg ia , s in c e
n o s ta lg ia is th e c o m p o s ite f e e lin g o f lo s s , la c k a n d lo n g in g .
R a th e r th a n d is m is s in g it a s a c o n c e p t, w e s h o u ld p e r h a p s re c o n f ig u r e
it in te r m s o f a d is tin c tio n b e tw e e n th e d e s ire to r e tu r n to a n e a r lie r s ta te
o r id e a liz e d p a s t, a n d th e d e s ire n o t to re tu r n b u t to r e c o g n i z e a s p e c ts o f
th e p a s t a s th e b a s is f o r r e n e w a l a n d s a tis f a c tio n in th e f u tu re . N o s ta lg ia
c a n th e n b e s e e n a s n o t o n ly a s e a r c h f o r o n to lo g ic a l s e c u r ity in th e p a s t,
b u t a ls o a s a m e a n s o f ta k in g o n e 's b e a r in g s f o r th e ro a d a h e a d in th e
u n c e r ta in tie s o f th e p r e s e n t. T h is o p e n s u p a p o s itiv e d im e n s io n in n o s ta l
g ia , ¿ n e ji s s o c i a t e d w ith d e s ir e f o r e n g a g e m e n t w ith d if f e r e n c e , w ith a s p i-
r a tio n a n d c r itiq u e , a n d w ith th e id e n tif ic a tio n o f w a y s o f liv in g la c k in g
in m o d e rn ity . N o s ta lg ia c a n b e b o th m e la n c h o lic a n d u to p ia n .
It is v ita l th a t th is d is tin c tio n is n o t c o n c e iv e d a s y e t a n o th e r s o c io lo g i
c a l d ic h o to m y , f o r it is th e w a y th e s e tw o d im e n s io n s o f n o s ta lg ia in f o r m
e a c h o th e r, in a n y p a r tic u la r c a s e , th a t is im p o r ta n t. T h e re a re c a s e s w h e re
p a s t- f ix a te d m e la n c h o l ic r e a c tio n s to th e p r e s e n t p r e v a il, a n d o th e r s w h e re
u to p ia n l o n g in g s d r if t f re e o f a n y a c tu a l o n to lo g ic a l b a s is in th e p r e s e n t;
b u t f o r u s , in r e th in k i n g th e c o n c e p t, th e k e y p o in t o f in te r e s t lie s in th e
m u tu a lly c o n s titu tiv e in te r r e la tio n s o f b o th d im e n s io n s o f n o s ta lg ia , s in c e
it is th e r e th a t th e p o te n tia l f o r s o c io lo g ic a l c r itiq u e a ris e s .
In th is a r ti c le , w e d e v e lo p o u r r e th in k in g o f n o s ta lg ia a s a s o c io lo g ic a l
p heno m eno n by c r itic a lly a s s e s s in g ho w it h a s p r e d o m in a n tly b een
v ie w e d , h o w it f ig u r e s a s a c o n c e p t o f te m p o ra lity , a n d h o w in its m e d ia
f o r m s it h a s b e e n c o n s id e r e d in th e f ie ld o f s tu d y n o w a s s o c ia te d w ith
s o c ia l m e m o r y .1
Nostalgic Assessments
T h e te r m n o s ta lg ia d e r iv e s e ty m o lo g ic a lly f ro m th e G r e e k nostos, m e a n in g
to re tu rn h o m e , a n d algia, m e a n in g a p a in f u l c o n d itio n ( D a v is , 1 9 7 9 : 1). It
w a s c o in e d b y th e Sw is s p h y s ic ia n Jo h a n n e s H o f n e r, in th e 1 7 th c e n tu ry ,
as a d ia g n o s tic la b e l fo r w h at w as th e n c o n s id e re d a d is e a s e w ith
921
s y m p to m s r a n g in g f r o m m e la n c h o lia a n d w e e p in g to a n o r e x ia a n d s u ic id e .
T h e a p p a r e n t d is e a s e w a s re la te d to p r o lo n g e d a n d u s u a lly in v o lu n ta r y
a b s e n c e s f ro m h o m e . G r a d u a l l y o v e r th e n e x t tw o c e n tu r ie s , n o s ta lg ia
b ecam e s e m a n tic a lly u n m o o re d f ro m its m e d ic a l b a s is , s u b s e q u e n tly
e n te r in g in to b o th a c a d e m ic a n d p o p u la r v o c a b u la r y a s a te rm re f e rrin g
to 'c a p r ic i o u s ly s e n tim e n ta l a n d v a rio u s ly c o m m o d if ie d ' f o r m s o f th e p a s t
( G r a in g e , 2 0 0 2 : 2 0 ) . By th e tim e d e b a te o v e r th e a lle g e d c o n d itio n a n d d ia g
n o s tic u s e s o f th e te r m d is a p p e a r e d f ro m m e d ic a l d is c o u r s e in th e la te 1 9 th
c e n tu ry , its m e ta p h o r ic a l a p p lic a tio n , a s s o c ia te d w ith a s o r t o f h o m e s ic k
n e s s f o r a lo s t p a s t, h a d beco m e its d o m in a n t m e a n in g in o rd in a ry
p a r la n c e . T h is in v o lv e d a s h if t f ro m s p a tia l d is lo c a tio n to te m p o r a l d is lo
c a tio n , a n d th e s e n s e o f f e e lin g o n e s e lf a s tra n g e r in a n e w p e rio d th a t
c o n tr a s te d n e g a tiv e l y w ith a n e a r lie r tim e in w h ic h o n e f e lt, o r im a g in e d ,
o n e s e lf a t h o m e . T h e m e ta p h o r ic a l u s e w a s a lw a y s a id e d b y th e m u ltip le
c r o s s o v e r s o f s e n s e b e tw e e n p e o p le 's o r ie n ta tio n s to ti m e - s p a c e c o o r d i
n a te s ( a s in th e c o m m o n p la c e d e ix ic a l u s e s o f th e p h r a s e s 'h e r e a n d n o w '
to d e n o te th e im m e d ia te p r e s e n t, a n d 'd is ta n t p a s t' to d e n o te th e o p p o s ite
o f te m p o r a l p r o x im ity ) y e t o v e r tim e th a t w h ic h th e te rm s to o d in f o r
b e c a m e w h a t w a s p r e d o m in a n tly m e a n t b y th e a c tu a l te rm its e lf .
F o l lo w i n g th is d e v e lo p m e n t, n o s ta lg ia h a s b e e n u s e d in m a n y f ie ld s o f
s tu d y a s a c ritic a l to o l to in te r r o g a te th e a r ti c u l a tio n o f th e p a s t in th e
p re s e n t, a n d in p a r tic u la r, to in v e s tig a te s e n tim e n ta lly in f le c te d m e d ia te d
r e p r e s e n ta tio n s o f th e p a s t, p e r h a p s m o s t o f a ll w h e r e th e r e is a n e le m e n t
o f c o m m e r c ia l e x p lo ita tio n a t s ta k e . D e p lo y m e n t o f th e c a te g o r y in s u c h
d if f e r e n t a c a d e m i c d o m a in s a s p s y c h o lo g y , h is to r y a n d c u ltu r a l s tu d ie s
c r e a te s d if f ic u ltie s o f a p p l ic a tio n a n d r e f e r e n c e w ith in a c o h e r e n t e x p la n a
to r y f r a m e w o r k . T a k in g it a t its s im p le s t, a s a s p e c if ic a lly m o d e r n c o n c e p t
n o s ta lg ia h a s b e e n u s e d to id e n tif y b o th a s e n s e o f p e r s o n a l lo s s a n d
lo n g in g f o r a n id e a liz e d p a s t, a n d a d is to rte d p u b lic v e r s io n o f a p a r tic u
la r h is to r i c a l p e r io d o r a p a r tic u la r s o c ia l f o r m a tio n in th e p a s t. In m u c h
o f th e m o s t r e c e n t w o r k , n o s ta lg ia h a s b e e n c lo s e ly lin k e d w ith th e n o tio n
o f c o lle c tiv e , s o c ia l o r c u ltu r a l m e m o r y a s a w a y o f a tte m p tin g to e x p la in
ho w m e m o r ie s a re g e n e r a te d , a lte re d , s h a r e d an d le g itim a te d w ith in
p a r tic u la r s o c io c u l tu r a l e n v ir o n m e n ts , y e t in b o th s e n s e s it is c o n n e c te d
w ith th e c h a r a c te r is tic f e a tu re s o f m o d e rn ity , s u c h a s its r e le n tle s s s o c ia l
u p r o o tin g an d e r o s io n of tim e - h o n o u r e d s ta b ilitie s , w h ile b o th th e
p h e n o m e n o n its e l f a n d c o m m e n ta r y o n it h a v e in te n s if ie d p r o p o r tio n a te ly
to th e a c c e le r a tio n o f s o c ia l a n d c u ltu r a l c h a n g e d u r in g m o d e r n ity a n d
la te m o d e r n i ty
H is to r ic a l a c c e le r a tio n h a s c r e a te d a n e w s e n s e o f tim e , in v o lv in g w h a t
T o d d G itlin h a s c a lle d 'a n e w v e lo c ity o f e x p e r ie n c e , a n e w v e r ti g o ' ( G itlin ,
1 9 8 0 : 2 3 3 ) , w h ic h is in p a r t a s s o c ia te d w ith th e c o n s tr u c tio n a n d r e c o n
s tr u c tio n o f e v e n ts b y th e m a s s m e d ia .2 N o s ta lg ia is a f o r m o f re a c tio n to
922
th e v e lo c ity a n d v e r tig o o f m o d e r n te m p o ra lity . It r e je c ts its in s is te n tly

p o s itiv e v a lu a tio n o f th e te m p o r a r y a n d tr a n s ie n t. In th e f a c e o f th is v a lu
a tio n , a d e s ir e to i m a g in a tiv e l y re tu rn to e a r lie r tim e s is th e n f e lt to c o r r e
la te w ith a n a c u te d is s a tis f a c tio n w ith th e p re s e n t, a n d to in v o lv e a n
a tte m p t to r e c a p tu r e a p u ta tiv e c o n tin u ity a n d c o h e r e n c e u n a v a ila b le in
th e f r a g m e n te d m o d e r n o r la te m o d e r n e n v ir o n m e n t ( Sm ith , 1 9 9 8 ; L o w e n -
th a l, 1 9 8 9 : 2 1 ) . T h is is o n e s id e o f th e sto ry . N o s ta lg ia m a y a ls o b e s e e n a s
s e e k in g a v ia b le a lte r n a tiv e to th e a c c e le r a tio n o f h is to r i c a l tim e , o n e th a t
a tte m p ts a f o r m o f d ia lo g u e w ith th e p a s t a n d r e c o g n iz e s th e v a lu e o f
c o n tin u itie s in c o u n te r p a r t to w h a t is f le e tin g , tr a n s ito r y a n d c o n tin g e n t.
L o n g in g fo r an id e a liz e d p ast h as b e en c o n s id e r e d in tw o , q u ite
o p p o s e d w a y s . O n th e o n e h a n d , it c a n b e v ie w e d a s p o te n tia lly d a n g e r
o u s in th a t it c lo s e s d o w n th e tr a n s a c tio n a l v a lu e o f th e p a s t in th e p r e s e n t
an d r e s u lts in v a r io u s d e g re e s o f s o c ia l a m n e s ia ( s e e e .g . D o a n e a n d
H o d g e s , 1 9 8 7 ) . T h e r e a r e v a r io u s v e r s io n s o f th is a r g u m e n t. F o r e x a m p le ,
in c o n s id e r in g th e d if f ic u ltie s o f d e v e lo p in g o r r e ly in g o n a n o s ta lg ic
r e la tio n s h ip to th e p a s t, S v e tla n a B o y m s u g g e s ts th a t 'n o s ta lg ia to o e a s ily
m a te s w ith b a n a lity , f u n c ti o n in g n o t th r o u g h s tim u la tio n , b u t b y c o v e r in g
u p th e p a in o f lo s s in o rd e r to g iv e a s p e c if ic f o rm o f h o m e s ic k n e s s a n d
to m a k e h o m e c o m in g a v a ila b le o n r e q u e s t' ( B o y m , 2 0 0 1 : 3 3 9 ) . A s s u c h it
f a ils b o th h is to r i c a l k n o w le d g e an d th e h is to r i c a l im a g in a tio n . Fo r
Ja m e s o n , a n a c tiv e r e la tio n to th e p a s t h a s b e c o m e a lm o s t im p o s s ib le in
o u r c o n te m p o r a r y c o n d itio n , w h e r e w e h a v e lo s t a s e n s e o f h is to r ic a l
lo c a ti o n a n d a re lo c k e d in to a n e n d le s s s u c c e s s io n o f d e p th le s s p r e s e n ts
( Ja m e s o n , 1 9 9 1 ; s e e a ls o H u y s s e n , 1 9 9 5 ) . O n th e o th e r h a n d , n o s ta lg ia c a n
b e v a lu e d a s p o te n tia lly d e m o c r a tic , o p e n in g u p n e w s p a c e s f o r th e a r ti c u
la tio n o f th e p a s t a n d a c tin g a s a m o d e o f a s s im ila tin g th is to th e ra p id ly
c h a n g in g m o d e r n e n v i r o n m e n t ( s e e Ba e r, 2 0 0 1 ; D a v is , 1 9 7 7 ) . T h is d if f e r
e n t f o r m o f v a lu a tio n b e g in s to a c k n o w le d g e th a t n o s ta lg ia is n o t in h e r
e n tly n e g a tiv e ; th e r e a re o th e r, m o re f a v o u r a b ly in c lin e d w ay s of
c o n s id e r in g it. It m a y b e 's h a m e le s s ly e x p lo ite d ' b y th o s e w h o m Ja c q u e s
L e G o f f h a s c a lle d th e 'n o s ta lg ia - m e r c h a n ts ', b u t a b r o a d p u b lic in te r e s t
in c o lle c tiv e m e m o r y c a n a ls o b e s e e n a s a n e x p r e s s io n o f th e fear o f s o c ia l
a m n e s ia , e v e n w h e n th is is 'a w k w a r d ly e x p r e s s e d in th e ta s te f o r th e
f a s h io n s o f e a r lie r ti m e s ' ( L e G o f f , 1 9 9 2 : 9 5 ) .
N o s ta lg ia is c e n tr a lly c o n c e r n e d w ith th e c o n c e p t o f lo ss. M o s t o f th e
lite r a tu r e o n n o s ta lg ia re f e rs to a lo s s o f m e m o r y o r h is to r ic ity ( B a u d r illa r d ,
1 9 9 4 : 4 4 ) . Ja m e s o n ( 1 9 9 1 : 2 8 1 ) s u g g e s ts th a t n o s ta lg ia in v o lv e s th e p r io r i
tiz a tio n o f p o s itiv e a c c o u n ts o f th e p a s t to th e e x c lu s io n o f le s s th a n
r o m a n tic a s p e c ts o f e x p e r ie n c e . H is to r y m a y th e n h a v e little o r n o th in g to
do w ith its re a lity , w h ile m e d ia te d r e p r e s e n ta tio n s o f th e 'p a s t' m a y
h a m p e r th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f h is to r ic a l a w a re n e s s . P o s tm o d e r n is t a n d p o s t
s tr u c tu r a lis t a c c o u n ts o f n o s ta lg ia s u c c e s s f u lly p r o b le m a tiz e th e m e d ia te d
923
n a tu re o f c o n te m p o r a r y u n d e r s ta n d in g s o f th e p a s t a n d th e te n u o u s lin k s
th e y m a y h a v e w ith h is to r ic a l re a litie s a n d h is to r ic a l m e a n in g s . T h e y a ls o
g e n e r a lly r e c o g n iz e h o w th e a r tic u la tio n o f th e p a s t in th e m e d ia is in te g ra l
to c o n te m p o r a r y te m p o ra lity . It is, h o w e v e r, to o e a s y to s e e in th is r e la tio n
s h ip a n a r c is s is tic p r e s e n tis m , o r a d r a s tic lo s s o f e n g a g e m e n t w ith h is to r i
c a l tim e . R a th e r th a n d is m is s in g m e d ia re p r e s e n ta tio n s o f th e p a s t in th is
w ay , w e m a y d e r iv e f ro m th e m a m o re c o m p le x u n d e r s ta n d in g o f r e la tio n s
b e tw e e n ti m e 's tra c e s a n d h is to r ic a l re c o n s tr u c tio n s , in c lu d in g th e p o s s i
b ilitie s o f ir o n y a n d p la y in r e th in k in g h is to r y a n d o u r v a r io u s r e la tio n
s h ip s to it.
T o c o n c e iv e o f n o s ta lg ia a s th e d e f in in g f e a tu re o f a n a m n e s ia c c u ltu r e
n e c e s s a r ily e n ta il s th e d e g r a d a tio n o f s o c ia l a n d c u ltu r a l m e m o ry . A g a in ,
th is a c k n o w le d g e s o n ly th e n e g a tiv e c o m p o n e n ts o f n o s ta lg ia , c o n f in in g
its id e n tif ic a tio n to s u c h m a s s c u ltu r a l te n d e n c ie s a s s u r f a c e s ty le , s te r e o
ty p e , k its c h an d p a s tic h e . T h e c r itiq u e o f m e d ia n o s ta lg ia a n d re tro
c u ltu r a l a c tiv a tio n s o f th e p a s t p a y s c lo s e a tte n tio n to th e p o litic s o f
h is to r ic a l r e p r e s e n ta tio n , in v o lv in g q u e s tio n s of r e la tiv e m e a n in g ,
p e r s p e c tiv e a n d u n d e r s ta n d in g a s w e ll a s s tra tif ie d f o r m s o f s o c ia l r e m e m
b e r in g . T h e p r o b le m is its a n a ly tic a l o n e - s id e d n e s s . H e r e th e r e is m o re
th a n a p a s s in g r e s e m b la n c e to e a r lie r f o r m s o f m a s s c u ltu r a l c r itic is m
w h e r e th e m e d ia a u d ie n c e w a s h o m o g e n iz e d a n d a to m iz e d a t o n e a n d
th e s a m e tim e , so b e in g s trip p e d o f a c tiv e p a r tic ip a tio n in e v e r y d a y
h is to r i c a l c o n s c io u s n e s s . O n th e o th e r h a n d , in e x a m in in g h o w m e d ia
te x ts c o m m u n ic a te v e r s io n s o f th e p a s t, w e s h o u ld a v o id th e p o s tm o d
e r n is t m i s ta k e o f b r a c k e tin g a ll h is to r y w ith s u b je c tiv is t r e la tio n s to it a n d
in te r te x tu a l r e p r e s e n ta tio n s o f it ( H u tc h e o n , 1 9 8 9 : 1 1 3 - 1 4 ) . T h is a s s u m e s
th a t th e p a s t h a s n o r e f e r e n ts o u ts id e th e c ir c u la tio n o f te x tu a l r e p r e s e n
ta tio n s , an d th a t h is to r i c a l u n d e r s ta n d in g is f a ta lly c o m p r o m is e d .
C o n c e r n s o v e r th e w a y in w h ic h th e p a s t is d e p ic te d , o r e f f o r ts m a d e to
e n s u r e th a t o p p o r tu n itie s e x is t f o r m in o r ity g r o u p s to h a v e th e ir e x p e r i
e n c e a n d p a s t r e p r e s e n te d , a re th e n ir r e le v a n t a n d u n n e c e s s a r y . W h a t is
lo s t is a n y s e n s e o f w h a t is p o litic a lly a t s ta k e o u ts id e th e te x ts th e m s e lv e s .
M o d e r n ity is th e e x p e r ie n c e o f lif e liv e d in f r a g m e n ts , w ith th e s w if t
p a c e o f c h a n g e a n d th e p ro b le m s o f s e m io tic o v e r lo a d c o n tr ib u tin g to th e
f r a g m e n ta tio n o f e x p e r ie n c e an d o u r a b ility to a s s im ila te it in to an
o n g o in g lif e - p r o c e s s . T h is can c r e a te th e se n se o f c o n te m p o r a r y lif e
f lo a tin g f r e e f ro m th e p a s t, b e c o m in g te m p o r a ll y u n m o o r e d a n d a d rif t.
T h e r e is n o th in g in e v ita b le o r a b s o lu te a b o u t th is . It c a n b e c o u n te r e d in
v a r io u s w a y s . R e lin k in g s o f p a s t a n d p r e s e n t c a n b e s o u g h t a f te r a n d
n e w ly e le v a te d s y m b o lic im p o r ta n c e m a y b e a tta c h e d to v a r io u s f o r m s o f
ti m e 's tr a c e s in th e p r e s e n t. T h is h a s to b e u n d e r s to o d in te r m s o f a c u ltu r a l
p a r a d o x , f o r a s D a v id C h a n e y h a s p o in te d o u t, w h ile 'i n th e o n r u s h in g
p r o g r e s s o f m o d e r n ity th e r e h a s b e e n a s im u lta n e o u s d is c a r d in g o f th e
924
p a s t', n e v e r th e le s s 'i n a ll s o rts o f w a y s m e m e n to e s a n d s u r v iv a ls m a r k a

w id e s p r e a d c o n c e rn fo r an d s e n tim e n ta l tr e a s u r in g of th e p a s t, of
p e r s o n a l, c o m m u n a l a n d n a tio n a l h e r ita g e s r u n n in g th r o u g h so m u c h o f
e v e r y d a y l i f e ' ( C h a n e y , 2 0 0 2 : 1 5 2 ) . T h e c u ltu r a l a m n e s ia th e s is s e e s o n ly
o n e s id e o f th is a n d s o d o e s n 't g ra s p it a s a p a r a d o x . It c a n b e s u m m e d
u p b y s a y in g th a t th e m o re th e p a s t a p p e a r s to b e d is c a r d e d , th e m o r e is
its s ig n if ic a n c e e le v a te d in p e r s o n a l lif e a n d p u b lic c u ltu r e . T h is s ig n if i
c a n c e in c lu d e s s e n tim e n ta l a tta c h m e n ts to th e p a s t, b u t is c e r ta in ly n o t
c o n f in e d to th e m .
So w e n e e d to r e c o g n i z e th e v a r io u s w a y s in w h ic h p e o p le a re in v o lv e d
in p u ttin g th e s itu a te d p a s t in to s o m e f o r m o f n a r r a tiv e o r d e r f o r th e m
s e lv e s , o r in c r itic a lly n e g o tia tin g m e d ia te d r e p r e s e n ta tio n s o f th e p a s t f o r
th e ir r e la tio n s to c o lle c tiv e id e n titie s a n d e x p e r ie n c e s . In m a k in g th is
p o in t, w e d o n ' t m e a n to s u g g e s t th a t m e d ia c o n s u m p tio n is a lw a y s a n d
e v e r y w h e re c h a r a c te r iz e d b y a c r itic a l r e s p o n s e to f o r m s o f h is to r ic a l
r e p r e s e n ta tio n . If o n e o f th e p r e c o n d itio n s o f n o s ta lg ia is d is s a tis f a c tio n
w ith th e p r e s e n t, th is illu m in a te s o n e o f th e w a y s in w h ic h n o n - c r itic a l
m e d ia r e p r e s e n ta tio n s o f th e p a s t a re le g itim a te d , o r a t le a s t a llo w e d to
p a s s b y u n c o n te s te d . T h e ris e o f th e m a s s m e d ia th r o u g h o u t m o d e r n ity
h a s c h a n g e d th e f a c e o f p u b lic k n o w le d g e . In th e c o n te m p o r a r y p e rio d ,
n e g a tiv e n e w s a n d a la r m i s t is s u e s a re d is s e m in a te d w ith in c r e a s in g s p e e d
a n d s c o p e w ith in a c u ltu r e o f r is k ( B e c k , 1 9 9 9 ) . T h e m e s s a g e m a y c o n s is t
o f y e t a n o th e r p o ll s h o w in g a f u r th e r lo s s o f p u b lic c o n f id e n c e in th e
i n te g r ity a n d c r e d ib il ity o f p o litic ia n s , y e t a n o th e r r e p o r t o f a f u r th e r w a v e
o f s u p e r - b u g s s u c h a s M R SA s e t to d e v a s ta te th e c iv ilia n p o p u la tio n , o r
y e t a n o th e r a c c o u n t o f a f u r th e r ris e in c r im in a l v io le n c e a n d h a r m to
th o s e w h o a re s o c ia lly m o s t v u ln e r a b le , s u c h a s c h i ld r e n a n d th e e ld e rly .
C o n te m p o r a r y m e d ia p r o v id e a b u n d a n t s o u r c e s o f k n o w le d g e a b o u t
w h a t p e o p le s h o u ld w o r r y a b o u t.
U n c e r ta in ty an d in s e c u r ity in p re se n t c ir c u m s ta n c e s c r e a te f e rtile
g r o u n d f o r a s e n tim e n ta l lo n g in g f o r th e p a s t, o r f o r a p a s t f o n d ly r e c o n
s tru c te d o u t o f s e le c tiv e ly id e a liz e d f e a tu re s , a n d a g a in th e m e d ia h e lp to
f ill th is g r o u n d e v e n a s , in o th e r d im e n s io n s o f th e ir o u tp u t, th e y s e r v e
to u n d e r m in e it. A r e p r e s e n ta tio n a l c y c le o f n e g a tiv e p r e s e n t a n d p o s itiv e
p a s t p r o m o te s m e a n in g s m a d e b y m e a n s o f o p p o s itio n , c o n tr a d is ti n c ti o n
a n d d ic h o to m o u s c o n tr a s t, r a th e r th a n in te r m s o f th e m o r e a m b ig u o u s ,
u n s e ttle d a n d c o n te s te d r e la tio n s b e tw e e n p a s t a n d p r e s e n t. T h e f o r m e r
d e n y th e p a s t its tr a n s a c tio n a l ro le in th e p r e s e n t, w h ile th e la tte r s e r v e
to o p e n it u p a n d a llo w it to b e in te r r o g a te d . O u r p o in t is th a t h is to r ic a l
m e a n in g is p o p u la r ly c o n s tr u c te d a n d u n d e r s to o d in b o th w a y s , a t d if f e r
e n t tim e s a n d in d if f e r e n t c o n te x ts , r a th e r th a n ju s t o n e o r th e o th e r b e in g
th e m o d e in w h ic h n o s ta lg ic a s s e s s m e n ts o f s o c ia l a n d c u ltu r a l c h a n g e
a re m a d e .
925
Historical Assessments
T h e d is tin c tio n w e h a v e m a d e is o f te n m a p p e d o n to a c a d e m ic h is to r ic a l
p r a c tic e . In How Societies Remember, C o n n e r to n ( 1 9 8 9 : 13) s u g g e s ts th a t a
k e y a s p e c t o f h is to r i c a l w o r k is its in f e re n tia lity . T h r o u g h c r o s s - q u e s tio n
in g th e e v id e n c e a v a ila b le to th e m , h is to r i a n s c a n e x tr a c t 'in f o r m a tio n
w h ic h it d o e s n o t e x p lic itly c o n ta in o r e v e n w h ic h is c o n tr a r y to th e o v e r t
a s s e r tio n s c o n ta in e d in it'. T h e y a re 'a b le to r e je c t s o m e th in g e x p lic itly
to ld th e m in th e ir e v id e n c e a n d to s u b s titu te th e ir o w n in te r p r e ta tio n o f
e v e n ts in its p l a c e '. T h r o u g h s u c h c r itic a l p r a c tic e , h is to r i a n s c a n r e m a in
r e la tiv e ly in d e p e n d e n t f ro m th e b ia s o f s o c ia l m e m o r y in o r d e r to a c h ie v e
th e m o s t o b je c tiv e a c c o u n ts o f th e p a s t p o s s ib le . W h a t th e y m a y in f e r f ro m
th e h is to r i c a l e v id e n c e is th e n s e t in d ir e c t c o n tr a s t w ith a n a f f e c tiv e ly
a p p e a lin g n o s ta lg ic r e la tio n s h ip to th e p a s t a n d a s s u c h p r o v id e s a s e t o f
b e n c h m a r k s f o r d is tin g u is h in g b e tw e e n d if f e r e n t a r ti c u l a tio n s o f th e p a s t
an d d if f e r e n t f o r m s o f h is to r ic a l r e p r e s e n ta tio n . S o , f o r in s ta n c e , th e
m e to n y m ic s h o r tc u t in p o p u la r ic o n o g r a p h y th a t c a n im m e d ia te ly e v o k e
a p e r io d an d f a c ilita te a n o s ta lg ic r e s p o n s e ( M a r ily n M o n r o e h o ld in g
d o w n h e r p le a te d s k ir t o v e r a n a ir v e n t, o r W in s to n C h u r c h ill w ith h is
tr a d e m a r k f a t c ig a r, a re tw o e x a m p le s f r o m th e 1 9 5 0 s ) c a n b e c o m p a r e d
w ith th e s y s te m a tic r e c o n s tr u c tio n o f a p e r io d , e v e n t o r b io g r a p h y th a t
in v o lv e s a n a w a r e n e s s o f th e r e m a k in g o f h is to r i c a l m e a n in g a n d an
a tte m p t to g e n e r a te n e w h is to r i c a l k n o w le d g e , n e w c o m b in a tio n s o f s u c h
k n o w le d g e o r n e w in te r p r e ta tio n s o f w h a te v e r k n o w le d g e is a lr e a d y
s c h o la r ly a v a ila b le .
T h is is a f a ir ly c o n v e n tio n a l w a y o f d is tin g u is h in g b e tw e e n c r itic a l
h is to r ic a l p r a c tic e a n d a s e n s u a l, n o s ta lg ic lo n g in g f o r th e p a s t, b u t w e
s h o u ld b e c a r e f u l n o t to p o la r iz e th e tw o in a f ix e d s c a lin g o f o r ie n ta tio n s
to th e p a s t a n d to h is to r ic a l k n o w le d g e . It is n o t a s i f th e h is to r i a n is
im m u n e to s o c ia l m e m o r y o r th e f o r c e o f ic o n ic im a g e s , n o r is it th e c a s e
th a t s o c ia l m e m o r y o r s y m b o lic f ig u r a tio n c o n s is t e n tir e ly o f n o s ta lg ic
a p p e a ls to th e p a s t. M o r e im p o r ta n tly , n o s ta lg ia is n o t c o n f in e d to tr i v i
a liz e d m a s s r e p r e s e n ta tio n s , o r s e n tim e n ta liz e d e x p r e s s io n s o f r e g r e t a n d
y e a r n in g f o r tim e s p a s t, a s th e s e m a y b e f o u n d in h is to r i c a l to u r is m o r
a d v e r tis in g c u ltu re . T h is p o in t is c e n tra l to o u r a r g u m e n t. N o s ta lg ia is
m o re c o m p l e x th a n th a t, a n d c o v e r s a r a n g e o f w a y s o f o r ie n tin g to a n d
e n g a g in g w ith th e p a s t. P o l a r iz in g h is to r ic a l o b je c tiv ity a n d n o s ta lg ia in
m e m o r y w o r k a s i f th e y a re r e s p e c tiv e ly th e c a r d in a l v ir tu e a n d s in o f
h is to r i o g r a p h y is to u n d e r w r ite s im p lis tic v e r s io n s o f th e c o n c e p t o f
n o s ta lg ia , a n d p r o v i d e a d u b io u s m e a n s f o r m a i n ta in in g th e le g itim a c y
o f h is to r y a s a n a c a d e m i c p r a c tic e . C o n v e n tio n a lly , th is h a s p r o d u c e d a
h ie r a r c h ic a l r a n k in g o f a c c o u n ts in te r m s o f tr u s tw o r th in e s s , a u th e n tic ity
a n d a u th o r ity , w ith p r o f e s s io n a l h is to r y a t th e a p e x a n d n o s ta lg ia a t th e
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b a s e , r e g a r d le s s o f w h e th e r th is in v o lv e s m e d ia h is to r i c a l r e p r e s e n ta tio n s
o r v e r n a c u la r f o r m s o f s o c ia l re m e m b e r in g . T h e s e d is tin c tio n s h a v e b e e n
c a lle d in to q u e s tio n , an d so s h o u ld p e rh a p s be re c o n c e iv e d as a
c o n tin u u m , 'w ith h is to r y a t o n e e n d , n o s ta lg ia a t th e o th e r a n d m e m o r y
a s a b r id g e o r tr a n s itio n b e tw e e n th e m ' ( C o o k , 2 0 0 5 : 3) .
T h is s e e m s a p p r o p r ia te b e c a u s e , a s a c r ite r io n o f h is to r i o g r a p h ic a l
v a lu e , o b je c tiv ity h a s b e e n s u b je c t to e x te n s iv e c r itic is m . W h a t s e e m s m o re
w o r k a b le th a n a n y s tr i c t n o tio n o f o b je c tiv ity is th e d e g r e e o f c r itic a l q u e s
tio n in g th a t is o p e r a tiv e in a n y tr a n s a c tio n a l e n g a g e m e n t w ith th e p a s t
a n d w ith ti m e 's tr a c e s a s th e s e h a v e b e e n s e a r c h e d o u t a n d g a th e r e d
to g e th e r a s p a r t o f th e p r a c tic e o f h is to r ic a l r e c o n s tr u c tio n . T h is p r o v id e s
u s w ith a m o r e s a tis f a c to r y m e a n s o f a s s e s s in g th e in te l le c tu a l s c o p e o f
e ith e r a c a d e m i c o r m e d ia h is to ry , a n d th e e x te n t to w h ic h it e n c o u r a g e s
re f le x iv e c o n n e c tio n s o f p a s t a n d p r e s e n t ( s e e e .g . N o r a , 1 9 9 6 ) . W h e n th a t
s c o p e is n a r r o w o r w h e n , say , p a s t a n d p re s e n t a re c o n c e iv e d in te r m s o f
d e te r m in is tic c a u s a l r e la tio n s , h is to r ic a l r e p r e s e n ta tio n c a n b e s a id to
p r o v id e little a lte r n a tiv e to b a n a l f o rm s o f n o s ta lg ic lo n g in g .
W e d e lib e r a te ly m e n tio n a c a d e m ic a n d m e d ia h is to r y a lo n g s id e e a c h
o th e r b e c a u s e , f o r a v a r ie ty o f r e a s o n s , th e y a re o f te n c o u n te r p o s e d . T h e
p r e ju d ic e s in v o lv e d in th is w o u ld r e p a y c r itic a l a tte n tio n in th e ir o w n
r ig h t, b u t h e r e w e w a n t to s u g g e s t th a t it is m o r e f r u itf u l to o p e r a te w ith
a b r o a d e r n o tio n o f w h a t it m e a n s to e n g a g e w ith th e p a s t in a p r o d u c
tiv e a n d im a g in a tiv e m a n n e r. A lth o u g h n o t c la im in g th a t th e y a re n e c e s s
a r ily o r in v a r ia b ly a b s e n t in m a s s - m e d ia te d tr e a tm e n ts o f th e p a s t, B a e r
( 2 0 0 1 : 4 9 2 ) s u g g e s ts th a t 'c r iti c a l r e f le c tio n a n d r e s p o n s e ' a re c h a r a c te r
is tic o f a s ig n if ic a n t r e la tio n s h ip w ith th e p a s t. E n g a g in g w ith th e p a s t
b e c o m e s s ig n if ic a n t w h e n it in v o lv e s s e e in g p a s t a n d p r e s e n t a s d ia le c ti-
c a lly re la te d a n d r e f u s in g th e te m p ta tio n to c o lla p s e th e m in to e a c h o th e r.
T h is is w h e r e Ja m e s o n 's ta k e o n th e c o n c e p t o f h is to r i c ity is r e le v a n t, f o r
h e c la im s th a t th is a llo w s a 'p e r c e p tio n o f th e p r e s e n t a s h is to r y ; th a t is a
r e la tio n s h ip to th e p r e s e n t w h ic h d e f a m ili a r i s e s it a n d a llo w s u s th a t
d is ta n c e f r o m im m e d ia c y w h ic h is a t le n g th c h a r a c te r is e d a s a h is to r ic a l
p e r s p e c tiv e ' ( Ja m e s o n , 1 9 9 1 : 2 8 4 ) . H is to r ic a l e n g a g e m e n t is th u s a b o u t f a r
m o r e th a n th e w r itin g o f a c a d e m i c h is to ry . It is a w a y o f e n g a g i n g w ith
th e p a s t th r o u g h w h ic h th e p r e s e n t c a n b e s e e n in th e in te r r e la te d c o n te x ts
o f p a s t, p r e s e n t a n d f u tu re . It is c o n tin g e n t a n d f lu id , o p e n to s c ru tin y ,
c o n te s ta tio n a n d c h a n g e b u t u ltim a te ly d e p e n d e n t o n th e m a i n te n a n c e o f
a d is ta n c e a n d d is tin c tio n b e tw e e n p a s t a n d p re s e n t.
T h e im p o r ta n c e o f h is to r y o u ts id e th e a c a d e m y is a c k n o w le d g e d in
w h a t h a s b e c o m e k n o w n a s th e h e r ita g e d e b a te ( s e e e .g . S a m u e l, 1 9 9 4 ;
L o w e n th a l, 1 9 9 7 ) , b u t th e c r itic s in v o lv e d te n d a t tim e s to re ly im p lic itly
o n th e h i e r a r c h ic a l r a n k in g o f h is to ry , m e m o r y a n d n o s ta lg ia a n d so f a il
to g e t p r o p e r ly to g r ip s w ith th e c o m p l e x s e t o f p r o c e s s e s in v o lv e d in
927
p u b lic l y r e p r e s e n tin g , c o n s u m in g a n d u n d e r s ta n d in g th e p a s t ( s e e e .g .
H e w iso n , 1987). The d is tin c tio n s m ad e in c r itic is m of th e 'h e r ita g e
i n d u s tr y ' b e tw e e n n o s ta lg ia an d h is to r y or n o s ta lg ia an d a u th e n tic
m e m o r y a re n o w h e r e f u lly in v e s tig a te d o r c o n c e p tu a liz e d , s o m a k in g it
u n c le a r h o w to d if f e r e n tia te b e tw e e n p o s iti v e a n d n e g a tiv e r e p r e s e n ta
tio n s o f th e p a s t. R a p h a e l S a m u e l 's ( 1 9 9 4 : 2 5 9 ) c r itiq u e o f w h a t h e te r m s
'h e r ita g e b a i ti n g ' ta r g e te d a c ritic a l u n d e r e s tim a tio n o f , a n d la c k o f im a g
in a tiv e s y m p a th y w ith , th e w a y in w h ic h 'h e r i ta g e in d u s tr y ' a n d its
d iv e r s e p r a c tic e s h av e d e m o c r a tiz e d th e p a s t, o r a t le a s t f a c ilita te d
p r o g r e s s to w a r d s th is g o a l, e v e n w h e r e th is h a s a p p e a le d to n o s ta lg ic
s e n tim e n t. A lth o u g h th is is n o t to c la im th a t Sa m u e l p r o v id e s a c o m p r e
h e n s iv e a c c o u n t o f th e d is tin c tio n b e tw e e n r e d u c tiv e a n d d e m o c r a tic u s e s
o f th e p a s t, h e d o e s m a k e th e p r o b le m s o f n o s ta lg ia a s a c o n c e p tu a l to o l
e v id e n t th r o u g h a c o n tr a s t b e tw e e n p o p u la r n e g o tia tio n s o f th e p a s t a n d
th e in te l le c tu a l p r e s u p p o s itio n s o f th e h e r ita g e c r itic s . D e s p ite a te n d e n c y
o n h is p a r t to w a r d s c u ltu r a l p o p u lis m o v e r c r itic a l e n g a g e m e n t, S a m u e l's
e x a m in a tio n o f th e p r o lif e r a tio n o f lo c a l m u s e u m s a n d th e a m a te u r
h is to r i a n , a r c h i v is t a n d o r a l h is to r y p r o je c ts , s e r v e s to c o n te s t th e c la im
o f le f t- w in g c r itic s th a t h e r ita g e is id e o lo g y th r o u g h a n d th r o u g h , a n d as
s u c h in h e r e n tl y s e r v e s th e in te r e s ts o f a b o u r g e o i s a g e n d a w h ic h d im in
is h e s o r g lo s s e s o v e r th e d e m o c r a tiz in g p o w e r o f p o p u la r h is to r ic a l p r a c
tic e s . S a m u e l 's c o n te n tio n th a t th e w id e n in g o f p o p u la r p a r tic ip a tio n a n d
g r a s s r o o ts a c tiv i ty h a s o p e n e d u p a p lu r a lity o f i n te r p r e ta tio n s , m e m o r ie s
a n d n a r r a tiv e s o f th e p a s t th a t w e re p r e v io u s ly n e g le c te d o r s u p p r e s s e d
in d e f e r e n c e to d o m in a n t h is to r ic a l a c c o u n ts , s u g g e s ts th a t h e r ita g e c r itic s
an d p o s tm o d e r n i s ts a lik e a re to ta liz in g in th e ir c o m m e n ta r y o f la te
m o d e r n in te r a c tio n s w ith th e p a s t. B e h in d th e ir b a c k s , n o s ta lg ia h a s a r is e n
to s e r v e o r s ta n d in f o r a c r itic a l a n d s u b v e r s iv e p o te n tia l w h e r e o th e r
r e s o u r c e s s e e m la c k in g . A s s e s s in g th is a lw a y s r e m a in s d if f ic u lt, b u t it is
n e v e r th e le s s p a r t o f a c o n tin u u m w ith h is to r y a n d n o t u tte r ly d iv o r c e d
f ro m it.
T h is is w h y n o s ta lg ia is s o m e tim e s u s e d a s a c r itic a l to o l in a s s e s s in g
a c a d e m ic a s w e ll a s p o p u la r h is to ry , b e c a u s e in f u s in g o u r h is to r ic a l w o r k
w ith s o m e a v o w e d p r e f e r e n c e , if n o t n o s ta lg ic lo n g in g , f o r a p r e v io u s
m o d e o f r e p r e s e n tin g o r e n g a g i n g w ith th e p a s t, r e m a in s a n a b id in g te m p
ta tio n . O v e r 3 0 y e a r s a g o , L e o n o r e D a v id o f f w a r n e d f e llo w h is to r i a n s o f
w o m e n 's h is to r y a g a in s t c a tc h in g h is to r i c a l h e r o i n e s 'i n th e a m b e r o f a
new f e m in is t h a g i o lo g y ', w h ile m o re re c e n tly , in w r itin g o n f e m in is t
f ic tio n a n d s o c ia l r e m e m b e r in g , G a y le G re e n h a s b e e n a c c u s e d o f f a llin g
p r e y to n o s ta lg ic b ia s in s e e k in g to r e v iv e a f o r m e r a g e o f a c tiv e f e m in is t
m e m o r y ( D a v id o f f , 1 9 7 4 ; G r e e n , 1 9 9 1 ; T a n n o c k , 1 9 9 5 ) . S tu a r t T a n n o c k
s u g g e s ts th a t th e o n ly w a y to c ir c u m v e n t th is tr a p is to a c k n o w le d g e th e
e x is te n c e o f m u ltip le n o s ta lg ia s - s o m e p r o d u c ti v e a n d s o c ia lly u s e f u l a n d
928
o th e r s le s s so . T h is is e x a c tly o u r p o in t. N o s ta lg ia is n o t a ll o f a p ie c e . It
is s u b je c t to c ir c u m s ta n c e , m o tiv a tio n a n d in te re s ts , a n d o v e r b o th tim e
a n d s p a c e , to d e g r e e , v a r ia tio n a n d c h a n g e .
It m a y s e e m th a t th is e n ta ils c o n c e iv in g o f n o s ta lg ia in s u c h a b r o a d
w a y th a t th e c o n c e p t is in d a n g e r o f lo s in g a n y c r itic a l e d g e it m a y h a v e
h a d . In o u r v ie w th e o p p o s ite is th e c a s e . It is n o t s o m u c h its la c k o f s p e c i
f ic ity th a t is th e p r o b le m a s th e te n d e n c y to s e e it in a s in g u la r a n d d e te r
m in is tic w a y . T h e p r o b le m is in n o t a c c e p tin g a n d k e e p in g in p la y its
m u ltip le s e n s e s a n d m a n if e s ta tio n s . Fo r e x a m p le , it is s o m e tim e s a s s u m e d
th a t in a p p ly in g th e te r m to a n a u d ie n c e 's w a y s o f th in k in g a n d r e la tin g
to th e p a s t, it c a n lik e w is e b e a p p lie d to c u ltu r a l te x ts , a s if p a r tic u la r te x ts
a re in e v ita b ly tie d to s p e c if ic r e s p o n s e s . P o l y s e m y is p la y e d d o w n a n d
c a u s a l r e la tio n s h ip s in f e rr e d . Fre d D a v is ( 1 9 7 9 ) c a n b e c ite d a s u s in g
n o s ta lg ia in te r c h a n g e a b ly to r e f e r to b o th th e c h a r a c te r is tic s o f m e d ia a n d
o th e r c u ltu r a l a r te f a c ts , a n d th e te m p o r a l o r ie n ta tio n a n d c o n s u m p tio n
p r a c tic e s o f m e d ia a u d ie n c e s . T h is c o n f la te s th e w o r k in g s o f th e m e d ia 's
r e la tio n s h ip to th e p a s t a n d s p e c if ic p r a c tic e s o f m e d ia c o n s u m p tio n . P o s t
m o d e r n is t c o n c e p tio n s o f n o s ta lg ia a ls o f a ll p re y to a n a s s u m e d r e la tio n
s h ip b e tw e e n a u d ie n c e a n d te x t, s u g g e s tin g th a t th e r e d u c tio n o f m e a n in g
v ia p ro c e sse s o f m e d ia r e p r e s e n ta tio n in p a s s iv e ly a c c e p te d by th e
a u d ie n c e , r e s u ltin g in lo s s o f m e a n in g a t th e s ite o f r e c e p tio n . A n in v e s ti
g a tio n o f th e w a y s in w h ic h a u d ie n c e s m a y a c tiv e ly e n g a g e in th e c u ltu r a l
m a k in g o f m e a n in g is n o t c o n s id e r e d . W e n e e d to in v e s tig a te th e in te r
a c tio n b e tw e e n d if f e r e n t s ite s o f m e a n in g - m a k in g if w e a re to m o v e n o s ta l
g ia a w a y f r o m a n e b u lo u s c h a r a c te r iz a tio n o f a p a r tic u la r o r ie n ta tio n to
th e p a s t, a n d e n g a g e in s te a d w ith th e d is tin c t a n d s p e c if ic w a y s in w h ic h
c o n te m p o r a r y in te r a c tio n w ith th e p a s t is e n a c te d .
Media Assessments
D a v is 's c o n c e p tio n o f th e m e d ia p r o d u c ti o n o f n o s ta lg ia is c e n tr a lly
c o n c e r n e d w ith th e s e lf - r e f e r e n tia l n a tu r e th a t m e d ia te d n o s ta lg ic r e m e m
b e r in g in v o lv e s . R a th e r th a n r e m e m b e r in g e x p e r ie n c e s , w e a re m o r e lik e ly
to r e m e m b e r m e d ia te d e x p e r ie n c e s a n d a s s u c h , m e d ia tio n o f th e p a s t is
a p r o c e s s b y w h ic h th e m e d ia c a n fix a n d lim it s o c ia l m e m o r y ( D a v is ,
1 9 7 9 : 1 3 0 ) . L y n n S p i g e l ( 1 9 9 5 ) h ig h li g h ts th is in h e r s tu d y o f th e in c r e a s
in g r e c y c lin g o f o ld te le v i s io n s it- c o m s . S h e s u g g e s ts th a t th e c o m m e r c ia l
m o tiv a tio n a n d p r a c tic e s o f th e ir s y n d ic a tio n h a v e p r o f o u n d e f f e c ts o n
th e n a r r a tiv e s o f th e p a s t a v a ila b le to p e o p le in th e p r e s e n t a n d th e r e f o re
on th e ir h is to r i c a lly s itu a te d u n d e r s ta n d in g of th e ir ow n s itu a tio n .
D e s p ite p r o b le m s a r is in g f ro m th e im p lie d d iv is io n b e tw e e n h e r s tu d e n ts '
m e d ia - in f o r m e d te m p o r a l k n o w le d g e a n d h e r o w n , w h ic h is e x p e r ie n -
tia lly in f o r m e d , p o litic a lly in f le c te d y e t a p p a r e n tly u n m e d ia te d , Sp ig e l
929
h ig h li g h ts th e k e y r o le o f te le v i s io n r e r u n s in w o m e n 's s e n s e o f th e p a s t
a n d th e ir n o tio n s o f th e 1 9 5 0 s a s c o m p a r e d to th e p r e s e n t.
T h is s u p p o r ts o u r c a s e f o r a n a ly s in g th e w a y s in w h ic h u s e s o f th e p a s t
in c o n te m p o r a r y m e d ia c o n tr ib u te to a h is to r ic a l im a g in a tio n . It is c le a r ly
im p o r ta n t to a d d r e s s a n e n v ir o n m e n t w h e re th e p a s t is s e n s u o u s ly ra th e r
th a n c r itic a lly e v o k e d , w h e re th e m e a n in g s a v a ila b le a re ju x ta p o s e d a n d
ju m b le d r a th e r th a n r e p r e s e n te d in a n in te g r a lly c u m u la tiv e w a y a n d
in s ta n tly to h a n d ra th e r th a n re p r e s e n te d th r o u g h a p r o c e s s w h ic h its e lf
e x is ts th r o u g h tim e . In r e f u s in g th e n o tio n o f a n a m n e s ia c c u ltu r e w h e re
th e m e d ia tr e a tm e n t o f th e p a s t is o f n o c o n s e q u e n c e a s it h a s n o h is to r i
c a l m e a n in g , th e e f f e c ts o f p r o c e s s e s o f m e d ia tio n n e e d to b e m a d e c e n tra l
to a n e x a m in a tio n o f th e m e d ia c o n s tr u c tio n o f th e p a s t. T h is in v o lv e s
k e e p in g th e d if f e r e n t s e n s e s a n d m o d a litie s o f n o s ta lg ia in v ie w o f e a c h
o th e r, b u t th e d if f ic u lty o f th is is e x a g g e ra te d b y la c k o f a tte n tio n to h o w
it is d iv e r s e ly a r tic u la te d . W h e r e n o s ta lg ia p r im a r ily e n ta ils a re la tio n
b e tw e e n th e m o d e r n h u m a n s u b je c t a n d th e p a s t a s th is is te m p o r a lly
m e d ia te d b y c u ltu r a l te x ts , th e re is s u r p r is in g ly little a tte m p t to d is c u s s
th e m o d e s o f r e p re s e n ta tio n a n d o p e r a tio n in v o lv e d in th e c o m m u n ic a tio n
o f n o s ta lg ia . T o r e tu r n to D a v is , th e m e d ia a re s im p ly a s s u m e d b y h im to
u s e p a r tic u la r m o d e s o f r e p r e s e n ta tio n th a t w ill 'to u c h n o s ta lg ic " c h o r d s "
in th e a u d ie n c e ' ( D a v is , 1 9 7 9 : 8 2 ) . W e m a y g r a n t th a t n o s ta lg ia is a w a y o f
th in k in g a n d f e e lin g r a th e r th a n b e in g d ir e c tly p r o d u c e d o r c o n s titu te d b y
c o n s u m in g n o s ta lg ic m e d ia te x ts , b u t th e re a re n e v e r th e le s s c u ltu r a l a r te
f a c ts th a t f a c ilita te n o s ta lg ia a s a w a y o f f e e lin g a n d th in k in g . A lth o u g h
D a v is 's a n a ly s is id e n tif ie s a n e w w a y in w h ic h w e r e la te to tim e a n d th e
p a s t in la te m o d e rn ity , h e is v a g u e a b o u t th e s p e c if ic w a y s in w h ic h th is
o p e ra te s . H e f a ils to e x p la in h o w th e m e d ia e lic it n o s ta lg ic re s p o n s e s ,
a s s u m in g th a t w h a t is re a lly a t is s u e a re th e p r e - e x is tin g p s y c h o lo g ic a l
s tru c tu re s a s s o c ia te d w ith s u c h re s p o n s e s . D a v is a ls o f a ils to e n g a g e w ith
th e m e c h a n ic s o f re p r e s e n tin g th e p a s t in a n o s ta lg ic w a y , s o th e q u e s tio n
o f 'w h a t c o n s titu te s a n o s ta lg ic m e d ia te x t? ' g o e s u n a n s w e r e d .
D a v is p r o v id e s ju s t o n e e x a m p le . T h e g e n e r a l lite r a tu r e o n n o s ta lg ia
o f f e r s little in a c c o u n ti n g f o r why th e m e d ia r e p r e s e n t th e p a s t in p a r tic u
la r w a y s , a n d th is c a n le a v e th e s ta g e o p e n f o r r e d u c tio n is t a c c o u n ts .
W h e r e th e n e g a tiv e s e n s e o f n o s ta lg ia p r e v a i ls , th e r e is a te n d e n c y to
n e g le c t th e r e c ip r o c a l r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n a u d ie n c e a n d m e d ia in g e n e r
a tin g th e c o n d itio n s f o r m a k in g s e n s e a n d m e a n in g . W h e n u s e d as a
c r itic a l to o l, n o s ta lg ia e a s ily o b s c u r e s th e s e c o m p l e x r e la tio n s in th e
m e a n in g - m a k i n g p r o c e s s , b e in g p r e s e n te d in s te a d a s a u n if ie d c o n c e p t
th a t c la im s to e n c o m p a s s th e ro le o f a u d ie n c e a n d te x t. C o n c e p tu a lly , th e
te r m th e n la c k s a n a ly tic a l p u r c h a s e o n th e r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n m e d ia
a u d ie n c e s a n d th e p r o d u c ti o n o f te x ts a n d c a n n o t a d e q u a te ly g r a p p le w ith
th e w a y s in w h ic h e ith e r m e d ia te x ts o r m e d ia c o n s u m e r s a re o r ie n te d to
930
th e p a s t. D a v is d o e s a t le a s t a tte m p t to d e v e lo p a s o c io lo g y o f n o s ta lg ia
th a t s u g g e s ts th a t n o s ta lg ia its e lf is s o c ia lly u s e f u l, h e lp in g c u ltu r e s a d a p t
to r a p id c h a n g e , a s w e ll a s h a m p e r in g a m o re d e v e lo p e d h is to r i c a l u n d e r
s ta n d in g . N o s ta lg ia is th u s c h a r g e d w ith lim itin g s o c ia l m e m o r y y e t b e in g
n e c e s s a r y to it. T h is is h e lp f u l, a t le a s t in in itia tin g a c k n o w le d g e m e n t o f
p r o d u c tiv e o r c o n te s ta to r y a p p l ic a tio n s o f n o s ta lg ia .
T o th e e x te n t th a t n o s ta lg ia c h a r a c te r is tic o f w e s te r n m o d e r n ity te s tif ie s
to 'th e d e s ta b ilis a tio n o f e v e r y d a y li f e ', P a tr ic k W r ig h t h a s p o in te d to its
'c r iti c a l a n d s u b v e r s iv e p o te n tia l' a s w e ll a s its m o r e o b v i o u s c o n s e r v a
tiv e o r r e a c tio n a r y f o r m s . T h is w o u ld f o r in s ta n c e in c lu d e 'a r tic u la tio n s
o f c u ltu r a l p a r ti c u l a r i ty ' in e v e r y d a y h is to r ic a l c o n s c io u s n e s s th a t a re n o t
r e p r e s e n te d in m a i n s tr e a m o r d o m in a n t v e r s io n s o f th e 'n a ti o n a l p a s t'.
S u c h c o n s c io u s n e s s h a s its jin g o is tic e x p r e s s io n s , b u t c a n a ls o te s tif y to
'r a d ic a l n e e d s w h ic h - f in d in g n e ith e r r e a lis a tio n in p r e s e n t e v e r y d a y lif e
n o r r e c o g n itio n in th e c o m p l a c e n t g r a n d e u r o f o f f ic ia l s y m b o lis m - m a y
s till b e r e a c h in g o u t to " s e i z e h o ld o f a m e m o r y a s it f la s h e s u p a t a
m o m e n t o f d a n g e r " ' , a s W a lte r B e n ja m in f a m o u s ly p u t it ( W rig h t, 1 9 8 5 :
2 6 ) . T h is h e lp s u s k e e p in v ie w th e p o litic s o f m e m o r y a n d r e p r e s e n ta
tio n . W h a t D a v is d o e s n 't a c k n o w le d g e is th a t d e lim itin g m e m o r y m a y
r e s u lt in a n in a b ility to c o n te s t d o m in a n t n a tio n a lis ti c a c c o u n ts o f th e p a s t
by r e f e r r in g to a n d d r a w in g o n th e s itu a te d e x p e r ie n c e o f p a r tic u la r
g r o u p s o r g e n e r a tio n s , w h e r e a s w h a t W r ig h t d o e s a c k n o w le d g e , in h is
r e w a r d in g a s s e s s m e n t o f h is to r ic a l e x p e r ie n c e f o r th o s e 'li v in g in a n o ld
c o u n tr y ', is th a t is s u e s o f o r d e r a n d p o w e r c a n n o t b e d iv o r c e d f ro m w a y s
o f r e la tin g to th e p a s t in e ith e r s o c ia l m e m o r y o r h is to r i c a l r e c o n s tr u c tio n .
M o r e r e c e n t a p p r o a c h e s to n o s ta lg ia in m e m o r y s tu d ie s d is p la y r a th e r
d if f e r e n t s h o r tc o m in g s . T o o o f te n th e y s u f f e r f ro m a s im p lis ti c a p p r o a c h
to th e m e d ia . H o s k i n s 's ( 2 0 0 1 ) a s s u m p tio n th a t th e m e d ia o p e r a te in a
s im ila r w a y to in d iv id u a l o r c o lle c tiv e m e m o r y p r o v e s p r o b le m a tic a s h e
s u g g e s ts th a t tr a u m a tic , n e g a tiv e o r d if f ic u lt m e m o r ie s a r e 'r e p r e s s e d '.
Q u ite h o w 'r e p r e s s i o n ' f its c o n c e p tu a lly w ith th e s e le c tiv e p r e s e n ta tio n ,
re p r o d u c tio n an d d is c a r d in g o f p a r tic u la r im a g e s o f p a s t o r p r e s e n t
b e c a u s e o f m e d ia a s s u m p tio n s a b o u t a u d ie n c e s a n d c o n s u m e r ta s te s o r
m e d ia v a lu e s c o n c e r n in g c u ltu r a l s ty le s a n d f a s h io n s is le f t u n e x p lo r e d ,
w h ile th e e m p h a s is o n 'r e p r e s s io n ' d e n ie s th e ro le o f th e m e d ia in a c tiv e ly
f o rg in g m e m o ry a c r o s s a s o c ia l f o r m a tio n . In a m o re r e c e n t a r tic le ,
H o s k in s ( 2 0 0 4 ) c o n tin u e s to o v e r lo o k th e p lu r a lity o f a u d ie n c e s a n d d if f e r
e n c e s b e tw e e n s o c ia l, c o lle c tiv e m e m o r y a n d m e d ia r e p r e s e n ta tio n s o f th e
p a s t, a s i f c o o r d in a te d , u n if ie d m e d ia g e n e r a te h o m o g e n e o u s n a r r a tiv e s
th a t c ir c u la te u n c o n te s te d . P o s tm o d e r n is t th e o r is ts a ls o s im p lif y th e ro le
o f th e m e d ia in r e p r e s e n tin g th e p a s t, s u g g e s tin g th a t d e c is io n s o v e r r e p r e
s e n ta tio n a re d ic ta te d ( r a th e r th a n in f lu e n c e d ) b y w h a t h a s p r e v io u s ly
b e e n u s e d to r e p r e s e n t a n e v e n t o r p e rio d . T h is is a n a h is to r i c a l v ie w o f
931
m e d ia r e p r e s e n ta tio n s in c e a n y s a m p le o f it is n o t m a d e o n c e - a n d - f o r - a ll
a n d s im p ly re c y c le d . If th is w e re th e c a s e , h is to r i c a l m e a n in g w o u ld
r a p id ly b e c o m e to ta lly d e r e lic t r a th e r th a n b e in g m a n a g e d o r lim ite d b y
r e p r e s e n ta tio n a l p r a c tic e s . P o s tm o d e r n is t a c c o u n ts e f f e c tiv e ly re m o v e
a g e n c y o r in te n t f r o m r e p r e s e n ta tio n a l p r a c tic e s . It is a s i f th e ir a s s o c i
a tio n w ith a s u p p o s e d ly r e d u n d a n t h u m a n is m ir r e d e e m a b ly d a m n s th e s e
te rm s .
In a tte m p tin g to d e v e lo p a m o re s o p h is tic a te d c o n c e p tu a l u n d e r s ta n d
in g o f n o s ta lg ia , a t th e v e r y le a s t w e n e e d to a c c e p t P a u l G r a i n g e 's ( 2 0 0 2 )
d if f e r e n tia tio n b e tw e e n n o s ta lg ia a s a s tru c tu r e o f f e e lin g o r a f f e c tiv e a n d
e x p e r ie n tia l d is c o u r s e a n d n o s ta lg ia a s a c o m m o d if ie d s ty le o r c o m m o d
if ie d s e t o f p r a c tic e s . H e d e s c r ib e s th e f o r m e r a s th e n o s ta lg ia m o o d a n d
th e la tte r, th e n o s ta lg ia m o d e . H is n o tio n o f th e n o s ta lg ia m o d e is r e lia n t
o n p o s tm o d e r n is t n o tio n s o f th e c o n te m p o r a r y r e p r e s e n ta tio n a l e n v i r o n
m e n t. T h e c la im th a t w e in h a b it a m e d ia la n d s c a p e c h a r a c te r iz e d by
h y p e r - r e a lity , p a s tic h e a n d re p e titio n p r o v id e s a u s e f u l p e r s p e c tiv e o n
h o w th e m e d ia r e p r e s e n t th e p a s t f ro m a r e s tr ic te d p o o l o f te x tu a l r e p r e
s e n ta tio n s , th u s h ig h li g h tin g th e p r o c e s s b y w h ic h m e d ia r e p r e s e n ta tio n
o f th e p a s t is o f te n d e p e n d e n t o n th e u s e o f a n i c o n o g r a p h ic f o r m of
c o m m u n i c a tio n . T h e c o e x is te n c e o f th is w ith a n o s ta lg ia m o o d s to p s s h o r t
o f th e p o s tm o d e r n c u r ta il m e n t o f a u d ie n c e a g e n c y , s u g g e s tin g th a t m o d e s
o f r e p r e s e n ta tio n a re in e x tr ic a b ly lin k e d to m e a n in g - m a k i n g p r o c e s s e s b u t
h a v e th e p o te n tia l to lim it r a th e r th a n d e te r m in e th e ir o u tc o m e . T h is m o r e
c a u tio u s a n d b a la n c e d a c c o u n t is h e lp f u l, b u t G r a i n g e 's a p p r o p r ia tio n o f
f e a tu r e s o f th e p o s tm o d e r n i s t a c c o u n t o f th e c o n te m p o r a r y m e d ia is n o t
u n p r o b le m a tic . In d is c u s s in g n o s ta lg ia a s a c u ltu r a l s ty le , h e in h e r its s o m e
o f th e d if f ic u ltie s o f p o s tm o d e r n i s t c la im s o f d e c lin in g r e f e r e n tia lity w h e r e
'i n c r e a s in g ly s o p h is tic a te d m e d ia a p p r o p r ia te im a g e s f r o m a d iv e r s ity o f
s o c ia l a n d h is to r ic a l c o n te x ts ', s o g e n e r a tin g a 'r e c o m b in a n t c u ltu r e ' w h e r e
m e d ia te x ts a re c o n s u m e d o n th e b a s is o f s u r f a c e a p p e a r a n c e s , le a d in g to
a c o m p l e te lo s s o f m e a n in g ( H a r m s a n d D ic k e n s , 1 9 9 6 : 2 1 1 ) . A lth o u g h n o t
c la im in g a c o m p l e te lo s s o f m e a n in g , G r a in g e a s s e r ts th a t, a s a n a e s th e tic
s ty le o f m e m o ry , m o n o c h r o m e re p r e s e n ta tio n d e f e r s a te x t's c o n te n t to its
e v o c a tio n o f a g e n e r a liz e d f e e lin g o f p a s tn e s s ( G r a in g e , 2 0 0 2 : 5 9 ) T h is f a ils
to e x p la in w h y p a r tic u la r im a g e s o r te x ts a re r e g u la r ly u s e d a s s y m b o li
c a lly r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f a p e r io d , d e n ie s th a t th is h a s a n y c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r
h is to r i c a l m e a n in g a s id e f r o m g e n e r a tin g a n im p a lp a b le s e n s e o f th e
q u a lity o f b e in g p a s t, a n d ig n o re s q u e s tio n s o f o r d e r a n d p o w e r r a is e d in
th e s y s te m a tic m a n ip u la tio n o f th e w a y th e p a s t is re p r e s e n te d . In h is
r e lia n c e o n th e s e a s s u m p tio n s , G r a in g e 's n o tio n o f a n o s ta lg ia m o d e
c a n n o t m o v e b e y o n d th e c ir c u la tio n o f im a g e s th e m s e lv e s in o r d e r to
e x p lo r e th e ir r e p e r c u s s io n s f o r s o c ia l u n d e r s ta n d in g s o f th e p a s t.
A lth o u g h th e d if f e r e n tia tio n b e tw e e n th e a f f e c tiv e n o s ta lg ia m o o d a n d
932
th e n o s ta lg ia m o d e a s a c o m m o d if ie d s ty le o r p r a c tic e is a u s e f u l o n e ,
th e re a re a t le a s t p o te n tia l d if f ic u ltie s w ith th e d is tin c tio n w h e n th e n o tio n
o f m o d e is c o n c e p tu a lly b a s e d o n th e n o tio n o f f o r m o v e r r id in g c o n te n t
a s a s ite o f te x tu a l m e a n in g . G r a in g e c o n c u r s w ith Ie n A n g 's ( 1 9 9 6 ) r e je c
tio n o f to ta liz in g p o s tm o d e r n i s t c la im s th a t c u ltu r a l a m n e s ia is a fait
accompli a n d s o s u g g e s ts a p o te n tia l a s s o c ia tio n b e tw e e n m e m o r y a n d th e
n o s ta lg ia m o o d . H e c r itic iz e s p o s tm o d e r n i s m , a s w e h a v e , f o r f a ilin g to
r e c o g n iz e th e a g e n c y o f th e a u d ie n c e b y r e d u c in g th e m to a n u n th in k in g
c o lle c tiv ity w h o p a s s iv e ly a b s o r b th e m e a n in g s c o m m u n i c a te d to th e m
v ia th e m e d ia , th u s d e n y in g th e m a ro le in m e a n in g - m a k in g p ro c e s s e s .
H e g o e s o n to c la im th a t m e a n in g f u l h is to r ic a l n a r r a tiv e s c a n c o n tin u e to
b e p r o d u c e d 'th r o u g h th e re c y c lin g a n d / o r h y b r id is a tio n o f p a s t s ty le s '
( G r a in g e , 2 0 0 2 : 6 ) . T h e s u g g e s tio n th a t m e a n in g f u l n a r r a tiv e s c a n b e m a d e
f ro m te x ts w h e r e th e r e f e r e n t is s e m a n tic a lly s e c o n d a r y to its s ty lis tic
a ttr ib u te s e lid e s th e c r itic a l d is tin c tio n b e tw e e n m e d ia te d a n d b r o a d e r
f o r m s o f s o c ia l r e m e m b e r in g . T h e im p o r ta n c e o f a e s th e tic s ty le c a n n o t b e
ig n o r e d a s it is c e n tr a l to th e p o te n tia l te m p o r a l m e a n in g s o f a te x t, b u t
to s y s te m a tic a lly f o r e g r o u n d th is o v e r r e f e r e n tia lity a s a lo c u s o f m e a n in g
n e c e s s a r ily im p lie s th a t a c a p a c ity to g e n e r a te m e a n in g f u l h is to r i c a l n a r r a
tiv e s h a s b e e n s e r io u s ly c o m p r o m is e d . G r a in g e is r ig h t to s u g g e s t th a t
a m o n g th e m u ltip le s s e n s e s a n d a p p lic a tio n s o f c o n te m p o r a r y n o s ta lg ia
a re th o s e w h ic h a re n o t o n ly a s s o c ia te d w ith f e e lin g s o f lo s s f o r s o m e
a s p e c t o r tim e o f th e p a s t, b u t a ls o th o s e a s s o c ia te d w ith re tro m a r k e r s o f
ta s te o r s ty le in th e p r e s e n t. T h e p r o b le m is th a t th e s e te n d to b lu r in to
e a c h o th e r a s G r a in g e g e ts h is m o o d s m ix e d u p w ith h is m o d e s a n d ru n s
to g e th e r c o n s u m p tio n p r a c tic e s , liv e d e x p e r ie n c e a n d d iv e r s e p u b lic tr e a t
m e n ts o f th e p a s t. W h o s e h is to r i c ity is w a n in g h e re ?
Conclusion
O v e r th e c o u r s e o f th e p a s t c e n tu ry , n o s ta lg ia h a s b e c o m e th e bête noire
o f c u ltu r a l c r itic s , s o c io lo g is ts a n d h is to r i a n s . W e f u lly a c k n o w le d g e th a t
n o s ta lg ia c a n d e l im i t o r d i m in is h e v e r y d a y h is to r ic a l c o n s c io u s n e s s a s
w e ll as u n d e r m in i n g th e c r e d e n tia ls of h i s to r i c a l n a r r a tiv e . It can
c e r ta in ly o p e r a te id e o l o g i c a l l y o r c a r r y c o n v e n ie n t id e o lo g ic a l m e a n in g s ,
a s f o r i n s ta n c e w h e n it a c ts a s a s o p to th e r a v a g e s o f p r o g r e s s . R e n a to
R o s a ld o h a s w r itte n o f im p e r i a l is t n o s ta lg ia in th is r e s p e c t a s 'm o u r n i n g
f o r w h a t o n e h a s d e s tr o y e d ', s o th a t 'p u ta ti v e l y s a v a g e s o c ie tie s b e c o m e
a s ta b le r e f e r e n c e p o in t f o r d e f in in g ( th e f e lic ito u s p r o g r e s s o f ) c iv ilis e d
i d e n tity '. H e a d d s : ' " W e " ( w h o b e l ie v e in p r o g r e s s ) v a lo r is e in n o v a tio n ,
a n d th e n y e a r n f o r m o r e s ta b le w o r ld s , w h e th e r th e s e r e s id e in o u r o w n
p a s t, in o th e r c u ltu r e s , o r in th e c o n f la tio n o f th e tw o ' ( R o s a ld o , 1 9 9 3 :
6 9 ) . W e e n d o r s e th is p o i n t o f c r itic is m , a n d a t th e s a m e tim e re g a r d it as
933
s u p p o r tin g o u r a r g u m e n t th a t th e m e a n in g s o f n o s ta lg ia a re m u ltip le
b e c au se c u ltu r a lly an d h is to r i c a lly s p e c if ic . N o s ta lg ia is n e ith e r an
a b s o lu te n o r s i n g u la r ly u n iv e r s a l p h e n o m e n o n .
Jo T a c c h i ( 2 0 0 3 ) illu s tr a te s th is p o in t in c itin g S e r e m a ta k is 's ( 1 9 9 4 ) e x p li
c a tio n o f th e d if f e r e n c e b e tw e e n th e A m e r ic a n n o tio n o f n o s ta lg ia , w h ic h
is c h a r a c te r iz e d a s tr iv ia liz in g r o m a n tic s e n tim e n ta lity , a n d th e G r e e k
n o tio n o f n o s ta lg ia , w h ic h is u n d e r s to o d a s d e s ir e o r lo n g in g w ith a
b u r n in g p a in to jo u r n e y ( T a c c h i, 2 0 0 3 : 2 8 7 - 8 ) . T a c c h i s u g g e s ts th a t th e s e
v a r y in g in te r p r e ta tio n s h a v e d if f e r e n t s e m a n tic c o n s e q u e n c e s , w h e r e th e
A m e r ic a n u n d e r s ta n d in g f o r e c lo s e s th e p o s s ib ili ty o f th e p a s t h a v in g a n y
tr a n s f o r m a tiv e ro le in th e p r e s e n t w h ile th e G r e e k c o n c e p tio n e v o k e s a
r a n g e o f b o d i l y e x p e r ie n c e s to n e g o tia te th e p a s t a n d a s s u c h a llo w s th e
p a s t a tr a n s a c tio n a l ro le in th e p re s e n t. T h e c o n tin u e d u n q u a lif ie d u s e o f
a te r m la d e n w ith c u ltu r a lly s p e c if ic m e a n in g s p r e v e n ts a f a r - r e a c h in g a n d
tr a n s f e r a b le a n a ly s is o f th e m e d ia tio n o f th e p a s t.
W e h a v e s e e n h o w 'h e r ita g e - b a itin g ' h a s r e lie d o n a h ie r a r c h ic a l s e t o f
h is to r i o g r a p h ic a l d is tin c tio n s . O u r o b je c tio n to th is c o n c e p tu a l r e lia n c e is
n o t m a d e in d e n ia l o f th e f a c t th a t c o n s tr u c tio n s o f n a tio n a l h e r ita g e a re
c o m m e r c ia lly e x p lo ite d , a ll th e w a y f ro m D is n e y 's M a in s tr e e t U S A to re tro
f a s h io n s ty lin g s , o r o f th e w a y s in w h ic h , o v e r th e p a s t 2 5 y e a r s , h e r ita g e
h a s b e e n u s e d id e o lo g ic a l ly in y o k in g im a g in e d c o n tin u itie s to r u th le s s
n e o c o n s e r v a tiv e d r iv e s f o r e c o n o m ic c h a n g e ( s e e C o r n e r a n d H a rv e y ,
1 9 9 1 ) . O u r c r itic is m is d ir e c te d a g a in s t th e r e le n tle s s u s e o f n o s ta lg ia a s
h i s to r y 's n e g a tiv iz e d O th e r. 'B a i ti n g ' m a y b e th e b e s t te r m w h e n it re lie s
o n s im p lis ti c n o tio n s o f c a p ita lis t m a n ip u la tio n , b u t o b v i o u s ly d o e s n o t
a p p ly tout co urt to th e c u ltu r a l c r itiq u e o f u s e s o f th e p a s t in m o r e g e n e r a l
te rm s . T h a t is w h y w e h a v e f o u n d P a tr ic k W r ig h t's a n a ly s is o f h e r ita g e
s o u r c e s o f s o c ia l n o s ta lg ia a m u c h m o r e c o m p e llin g a c c o u n t th a n th a t
o f f e re d b y H e w i s o n , a m o n g o th e r s , f o r w h a t h e s e e k s to e x p la in is th e ir
p o p u la r a p p e a l, in a ll th e ir c o m p le x itie s an d c o n tr a d ic tio n s ( se e
M c G u ig a n , 1 9 9 6 :1 1 6 - 3 4 ) . T h e r e re m a in s , n o n e th e le s s , a c o n s ta n t te n d e n c y
to s lid e i n e x o r a b ly to w a r d s e ith e r c u ltu r a l e litis m o r c u ltu r a l p o p u lis m in
c r itic a l a s s e s s m e n ts o f n o s ta lg ia . In b o th c a s e s a n id e a liz a tio n is in v o lv e d .
T h is te n d e n c y h a s a lo n g e r h is to r y th a n th e 'h e r ita g e d e b a te ' its e lf . It h a s
b e e n o p e r a tiv e o v e r th e p a s t c e n tu r y in th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f a n th ro p o lo g y ,
s o c io lo g y a n d c r itic a l th e o ry .
W h e n th e id e a liz e d p a s t o f p r e m o d e r n s o c ie tie s h a s b e e n u s e d s o c io
lo g ic a lly in c o n tr a s t to m o d e r n s o c ie tie s , w h a t h a s o f te n b e e n in v o k e d is
a m y th ic a l s ta b ility , u n ity a n d o n to lo g ic a l s e c u rity , s o d r a w in g o n s o m e
v a r ia n t o r o th e r o f T o n n i e s 's G emeinschaft/G esellschaft p o la rity , o r a n y o f
th e o th e r te m p o r a l d ic h o to m ie s w e m e n tio n e d a t th e o u ts e t. E ith e r im p lic
itly o r e x p lic itly , n o s ta lg ia h a s a ls o b e e n c h a r a c te r is tic o f e lite c r itic is m s
o f m a s s c u ltu r e w h e r e , a g a in , a s ta r k b e f o r e / a f te r h is to r i c a l s c e n a r io p o s its
934
p re m o d e rn a r t a s h a v in g 'a n o rg a n ic r e la tio n s h ip to th e c o m m u n i ty
e x p r e s s in g r itu a lis tic a lly its n a tu r a l f o r m s of p r o d u c ti o n an d s o c ia l
r e la tio n s h ip s ' ( Sta u th a n d T u rn e r, 1 9 8 8 : 5 1 0 ) . T h e f o lk s o c ie ty p a r a d i g m
in a n th r o p o l o g y a n d f o lk lif e s tu d ie s r e lie d o n e x a c tly s u c h a n a s s u m e d
o r g a n ic is m a n d in s o m e c a s e s s u p p o r te d a n a n ti- m o d e r n r e a c tio n to so -
c a lle d m a s s c u ltu r e in w a y s c lo s e ly a llie d to R o s a ld o 's 'im p e r i a l i s t n o s ta l
g i a ' ( P ic k e r i n g a n d G r e e n , 1 9 8 7 ) . G e o r g Sta u th a n d B r y a n T u rn e r h a v e
sh o w n h o w n o s ta lg ia p a r a d i g m a tic a lly in f o r m e d th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f
G e r m a n s o c ia l th e o r y f r o m M a r x to th e F r a n k f u r t S c h o o l, a n d e s p e c ia lly
th e c u ltu r a l c r itiq u e o f T h e o d o r A d o r n o . T o th e e x te n t th a t c r itic a l th e o r y
a n d m a s s c u ltu r e c r itic is m r e lie d o n th e d ic h o to m y o f 'h i g h ' a n d 'l o w '
c u ltu re , th e y w e r e b o th e litis t a n d n o s ta lg ic , ' lo o k in g b a c k w a r d to w a r d s
a p e r io d in h is to r y w h e n th e re w a s a g r e a te r in te g r a tio n b e tw e e n lif e a n d
a rt, f e e lin g a n d th o u g h t' ( Sta u th a n d T u rn e r, 1 9 8 8 : 5 1 8 ) . P o s tm o d e r n is t
th e o r y h a s in v o lv e d th e c r itic a l d e c o n s tr u c tio n o f th is d ic h o to m y to th e
e x te n t th a t it is n o w u n s u s ta in a b le a s th e g r o u n d o f a e s th e tic e v a lu a tio n ,
w h e th e r o f p o p u la r c u ltu r e o r a r t m u s ic a n d th e f in e a r ts , n o n e o f w h ic h
in a n y c a s e a re u n a f f e c te d b y th e c u ltu r a l in d u s tr ie s . W h e th e r a n e g a li
ta r ia n p o te n tia l r e s id e s in c u ltu r a l c o m m o d itie s a n d m o d e r n f o r m s o f
c o n s u m e r is m , s in c e th e y a re in p r in c ip le o p e n to a ll, r e m a in s d e b a ta b le ,
b u t it is c e r ta in ly th e c a s e th a t 'm a s s ' c u ltu r a l c r itiq u e is n o w c o n s ta n tly
b e s e t w ith h a v in g to a v o id a n e litis t d is d a in a n d n o s ta lg ic w ith d r a w a l,
s e e in g c o n te m p o r a r y c u ltu r e o n ly th r o u g h th e d is ta n t le n s o f m e la n c h o
lia . So m e f o r m o f n o s ta lg ic p a th o s u n d e r p in s m a n y o f th e c r itic a l o b je c
tio n s th a t h a v e b e e n le v e lle d a g a in s t n e w m e d ia , w h e th e r o f th e e a r ly 2 0 th
o r e a r ly 2 1 s t c e n tu r ie s .
A s th e s e e x a m p le s sh o w , n o s ta lg ia h a s n e v e r b e e n th e p r e s e r v e o f th e
'm a s s e s ' o r th e 'c u ltu r a l in d u s tr ie s '. N o r c a n it b e r e d u c e d to a f in a l o r
u n ita r y d e f in itio n , s in c e its m e a n in g s a n d m o d a litie s a re c u ltu r a lly a n d
h is to r i c a lly v a r ie g a te d . It c e r ta in ly c a n n o t b e c o n f in e d to th e D is n e y f ic a -
tio n o f th e p a s t o r to s e le c tiv e p o s tm o d e r n i s t p a s tic h e , a s in s u c h n o s ta l
g ia f ilm s a s A merican Graffiti. N o s ta lg ia is a n e a s y c o m m e r c ia l p lo y ,
w h e th e r i t's r o c k ' n ' ro ll, C h r is tm a s c a r d s o r T V p r o g r a m m e s a b o u t th e
Se c o n d W o rld W a r th a t a re b e in g m a r k e te d . A n d n o o n e is f u lly im m u n e .
E v e n m o m e n ta r ily , w e a re a ll p r e y to n o s ta lg ia , p a r tic u la r ly w h e r e a
v e h ic le o f p e r s o n a l m e m o ry , s u c h a s a p h o to g r a p h o f a d e a d p a r e n t o r
lo s t lo v e r, m a y to u c h u s e m o tio n a lly . C e r ta in m e d ia o f c o m m u n i c a tio n
a n d c e r ta in a r t f o r m s m a y r e a c h u s m o r e d ir e c tly in th is r e s p e c t th a n
o th e r s . S in c e it c a n c a r r y a p o w e r f u l a f f e c tiv e o r s e n s u o u s c h a r g e , m u s ic
c a n a c t a s th e c a ta ly s t o f m o v in g s u r g e s o f m e m o ry . B y e x te n s io n , m u s ic
a ls o h a s a w id e s p r e a d a s s o c ia ti o n w ith a n id e a liz e d lo s t p a s t, a n d is
c la im e d to b e 'a b l e to c o n ju r e f o r th th e lo s t q u a litie s a n d g o o d s a s s o c i
a te d w ith it' ( F lin n , 1 9 9 2 : 8 9 ) . In d e e d , in c i n e m a to g r a p h y i t is m u s ic th a t
935
h a s r e p e a te d ly b o r n e th e b u r d e n o f n o s ta lg ia , f u n c tio n i n g 'a s a s o r t o f
c o n d u it to c o n n e c t lis te n e r s - a n d c o m m e n ta to r s - to a n id e a lis e d p a s t,
o f f e r in g th e m th e p r o m is e o f a re tr ie v a l o f lo s t u to p ia n c o h e r e n c e ' ( Flin n ,
1 9 9 2 : 5 0 ) . T h is u to p ia n e le m e n t c a n th u s b e p r e s e n t in m a n y 'm a s s '
c u ltu r a l c o m m o d itie s , a n d n o t ju s t in th e re if ie d id e a ls th a t th e c a te g o r ie s
o f ' f o l k ' o r ' a r t' m u s ic h a v e b e e n m a d e to c a rry . It is c le a r e n o u g h in th e
c o m p o s itio n o f c o m m e r c ia l f ilm m u s ic , p a r tic u la r ly th a t a s s o c ia te d w ith
f ilm n o i r a n d m e lo d r a m a . C a r o l Flin n h a s s u g g e s te d th a t th e i n v e s tm e n t
o f c la s s ic a l H o ll y w o o d f ilm s c o r e s in 1 9 th - c e n tu r y r o m a n tic is m w a s p a r t
o f 'a w id e r id e o lo g ic a l n o s ta lg ia o f th e tim e ' th a t 's e e m e d to p r o v id e a n
e s c a p e f ro m th e n c u r r e n t d e f ic ie n c ie s , b o th re a l a n d p e r c e i v e d ', a s w e ll as
' a s o u r c e o f r e s to r e d p le n itu d e a n d u n ity '. T h e h is to r i c a l ir o n y in th is is
th a t f o r la te 1 9 th - c e n tu r y r o m a n tic is m , th e m o d el f o r i n te g r ity an d
s tr e n g th w a s f o u n d in H e lle n ic c u ltu re : 'L ik e H o ll y w o o d 's in te r e s t in
r o m a n tic is m , r o m a n tic is m 's o w n in te r e s t in H e lle n ic to ta lity c a n b e u n d e r
s to o d in te r m s o f a d e s ir e to e x c e e d c o n te m p o r a r y e x p e r ie n c e , to g e t
b e y o n d th e s e n s e o f s o c ia l, e c o n o m ic , a n d s u b je c tiv e f r a g m e n ta tio n o r
im p o te n c e ' ( F lin n , 1 9 9 2 : 4 9 - 5 0 ) .
It is n o t o n ly ir o n y th a t is a t p la y in n o s ta lg ic e n te r p r is e s a n d e x p e r i
e n c e s . C e n tr a l to o u r arg u m e n t h as b e e n th a t n o s ta lg ia c a n o n ly b e
p r o p e r ly c o n c e p tu a liz e d a s a c o n tr a d ic to r y p h e n o m e n o n , b e in g d r iv e n b y
u to p ia n im p u ls e s - th e d e s ir e f o r r e - e n c h a n tm e n t - a s w e ll a s m e la n c h o lic
r e s p o n s e s to d is e n c h a n tm e n t. It is f a r to o s im p lis ti c to c a ll it 'a f lig h t f ro m
th e p r e s e n t', a s th e p h i lo s o p h e r H a r r y M o o d y d e s c r ib e d it ( M o o d y , 19 8 4 :
1 6 1 ) . In s te a d , it c a n b e b o th n e g a tiv e l y a n d p o s iti v e ly c h a r g e d , a n d so 'c a n
b e c o n c e p tu a lis e d a s c o n v e y in g a k n o w in g a n d r e f le x iv e r e la tio n s h ip w ith
th e p a s t, a s a y e a r n in g f o r a b e tte r b u t ir r e tr ie v a b le p a s t, o r, in m o r e s c e p
tic a l a c c o u n ts , a s e m b le m a tic o f a n e n g r o s s in g b u t u ltim a te ly f a b r ic a te d
a p p r o x i m a tio n o f th e p a s t' ( D r a k e , 2 0 0 3 :1 9 0 ) . T o n y B l a i r ' s a c c u s a tio n th a t
'c o u n tr ie s w r a p p e d in n o s ta lg ia c a n n o t b u ild a s tro n g f u tu r e ' g lo s s e s o n ly
its n e g a tiv e d im e n s io n (Sunday Times, 5 A p r il 1 9 9 8 ) . N o s ta lg ia in p o p u la r
c u ltu r e d o e s n 't n e c e s s a r ily o p e r a te w ith th e d ic h o to m o u s b e f o r e / a f te r
s c e n a r io w e h a v e s e e n a s s o c ia te d w ith c la s s ic a l s o c io lo g y a n d c r itic a l
th e o ry . M o r e c o m m o n ly , it is m a n if e s t in a n a m b ig u o u s r e la tio n to th e
p a s t a n d p r e s e n t, a s f o r in s ta n c e in th e m u s ic o f m i g r a n ts , w h e r e a s e n s e
o f lo s s a s s o c ia te d w ith th e p a s t c o e x is ts w ith a s e n s e o f lo n g in g a s s o c i
a te d w ith th e f u tu r e . 'M i g r a n t m u s ic e p ito m is e s d re a m an d n o s ta lg ia
c o m b i n e d ', o n e e x a m p le b e in g P o r tu g u e s e fado a n d its e x p r e s s io n o f 'a
s o r r o w th a t w a s a lm o s t h o p e ' ( C o n n e ll a n d G ib s o n , 2 0 0 3 : 1 6 1 - 2 ) .
A n a ly tic a lly , a s w e h a v e b e e n a rg u in g , th e te r m c a n n o t b e s e t o f f a g a in s t
's tr o n g ' h is to r y ( o r a 's tr o n g f u tu r e ') b u t m u s t b e r e c o n c e iv e d in its
in tim a te c o n n e c tio n s to b o th h is to r i c a l p r a c tic e a n d d iv e r s e f o r m s o f s o c ia l
r e m e m b e r in g , f o r 'w h e r e h is to r y s u p p r e s s e s th e e le m e n t o f d is a v o w a l o r
936
f a n ta s y in its r e - p r e s e n ta tio n o f th e p a s t, n o s ta lg ia f o r e g r o u n d s th o s e
e le m e n ts , a n d in e f f e c t la y s b a r e th e p r o c e s s e s a t th e h e a r t o f r e m e m
b r a n c e '. T h is m a y p r o d u c e 'k n o w le d g e a n d in s ig h t, e v e n th o u g h th e s e
m a y b e o f a d if f e r e n t o r d e r f ro m th o s e p r o d u c e d b y c o n v e n tio n a l h is to r i
c a l a n a ly s is , a n d m a y b e e x p e r ie n c e d in d if f e r e n t w a y s ' ( C o o k , 2 0 0 5 : 4).
In th is s u ita b l y n u a n c e d e s tim a tio n , r e th in k in g n o s ta lg ia 'm a y in v o lv e a
r e d r a f tin g o f th e te c h n iq u e s a n d c o n v e n tio n s o f h is to r i c a l a n a ly s is to ta k e
o n b o a r d th e d ia l e c tic b e tw e e n m e m o r y a n d h is to ry , h o ld in g to g e th e r
o b je c tiv e a n a ly s is a n d s u b je c tiv e r e s p o n s e in a p r o d u c ti v e te n s i o n ' ( C o o k ,
2 0 0 5 : 17). T h is is c lo s e to o u r o w n p o s itio n , w h ic h s e e k s a r a p p r o c h e m e n t
o f h is to r y a n d m e m o r y a n d th e f ie ld s o f s tu d y a s s o c ia te d w ith th e m . W e
h a v e s u g g e s te d th a t r e th in k in g n o s ta lg ia o f f e r s o n e w a y o f ta k in g o n th is
ta s k , s in c e it m e a n s o v e r c o m in g th e o p p o s itio n b e tw e e n h is to r y an d
m e m o r y ju s t a s m u c h a s it e n ta ils r e f u s in g to s e t o f f m e la n c h o l ia a n d
u to p ia a g a in s t e a c h o th e r, a s if th e y a re lo c k e d in a d u e l to th e d e a th .
If th e f u tu r e d o e s n 't c o m e in to b e in g th r o u g h f o r g e ttin g , th ro u g h
d e n y in g o r d is m is s in g th e p a s t, e s p e c ia lly w h e n th e p r e s e n t is ju d g e d to
b e in s o m e w a y d e f ic ie n t, th e im p e r a tiv e c o n c e r n is th e n w ith f o r w a r d -
lo o k in g u s e s o f th e p a s t, o f th e p a s t a s a s e t o f r e s o u r c e s f o r th e f u tu re .
T h e s e h a v e a lw a y s to b e c r itic a lly n e g o tia te d a n d d r a w n u p o n , w h a te v e r
h is to r y is in th e f r a m e , b u t th e e q u a lly c r itic a l id e n tif ic a tio n is w ith w h a t
h a s b e e n p a s s iv e ly o r a c tiv e ly s e t a s id e a n d n e g le c te d in th e p r e s e n t. Fo r
e x a m p le , th e d e m a n d s o f c e r ta in s u b a lte r n g r o u p s f o r s o c ia l ju s tic e a n d a
f a ir e r f u tu re a re f o s te r e d , a t le a s t in p a r t, 'b y v ig ila n tly r e tu r n in g to th e
p a s t, r e in v e s tig a tin g th e p a s t o v e r a n d o v e r a g a in in o r d e r to f in d p la c e s
a n d m o m e n ts o f r e s is ta n c e to o p p r e s s io n th a t m i g h t o p e n u p a b e tte r
f u tu r e ' ( O liv e r, 2 0 0 1 : 1 3 5 ) . Fo r m a n y s u c h g r o u p s , th e p a s t h a s lo n g b e e n
a lo c u s o f p o s s ib ili ty a n d s o u r c e o f a s p ir a tio n , o f p r o v id in g a w a y o f im a g
in in g 'p r e s e n t im p o s s ib ilitie s b e c o m in g p o s s ib le in th e f u tu r e ', f o r 'th e
f u tu re o p e n s in to o th e r n e s s o n ly in s o f a r a s th e p a s t d o e s to o ' ( O liv e r, 2 0 0 1 :
1 3 6 ; s e e a ls o P ic k e r in g , 1 9 8 7 f o r o n e e x a m p le u tiliz i n g p o p u la r s o n g in
th is w a y ) . W h e n th is r e c ip r o c a l m o v e m e n t is o p e r a tiv e , n o s ta lg ia b e c o m e s
a n a c tio n r a th e r th a n a n a ttitu d e , s h o w in g h o w th e p o litic s o f n o s ta lg ia
a re re a liz e d in its a p p l ic a tio n s r a th e r th a n b e in g in h e r e n t in th e a f f e c tiv e
p h e n o m e n o n its e lf .
N o s ta lg ia a r is e s b e c a u s e o f th e d iv e r g e n c e o f e x p e r ie n c e a n d e x p e c
ta tio n g e n e r a te d b y m o d e rn ity , b u t a s w e h a v e a r g u e d th r o u g h o u t, it is
n o t a s in g u la r o r f ix e d c o n d itio n ( K o s e lle c k , 1 9 8 5 ; P ic k e r i n g , 2 0 0 4 ) . It is
n o t to b e c o n c e iv e d a s n e c e s s a r ily 'th e o p p o s ite o f u to p ia , b u t, a s a f o rm
o f m e m o ry , a lw a y s im p lic a te d , e v e n p r o d u c tiv e in i t', fo r, a s H u y s s e n
r e m in d s u s , ' i t is th e id e o lo g y o f m o d e r n is a tio n its e l f th a t h a s g iv e n n o s ta l
g ia its b a d n am e, an d w e do no t need to a b id e b y th a t ju d g e m e n t'
( H u y s s e n , 1 9 9 5 : 8 8 ) . N o s ta lg ia a s r e tr e a t f ro m th e p r e s e n t a n d n o s ta lg ia
937
a s r e tr ie v a l f o r th e f u tu r e a re n o t m u tu a lly e x c lu s iv e , a n y m o r e th a n e ith e r
im p u ls e is th e p r e s e r v e o f d o m in a n t o r s u b o r d in a te g ro u p s . R e tr e a t a n d
r e tr ie v a l a re e le m e n ts in 'e v e r y n o s ta lg ic v i s i o n ', a n d th is a m b iv a le n c e 'is
w o r th k e e p in g in m in d w h e n c o n s id e r in g th e m a n y w a y s in w h ic h n o s ta l
g ia h a s b e e n in s titu tio n a lis e d in W e s te rn s o c ie tie s ' ( T a n n o c k , 1 9 9 5 : 4 5 9 ) .
T h e a b ili ty o f n o s ta lg ia a s a c o n c e p t to h is to r ic a lly lo c a te r e la tio n s h ip s
w ith th e p a s t m e a n s th a t it is a n in v a lu a b le to o l in in v e s tig a ti n g th e w a y
in w h ic h th e m e d ia a n d o th e r c u ltu r a l in s titu tio n s c o n s tr u c t th e p a s t
a c c o r d in g to th e im p e r a tiv e s o f m o d e r n ity a n d la te m o d e r n ity , n o t a s a
s ta tic , is o la te d s y s te m o f r e p r e s e n ta tio n b u t a s p a r t o f a w id e r te m p o r a l
o r ie n ta tio n w h o s e c h a r a c te r is tic s a re h is to r i c a lly g r o u n d e d a n d s u b je c t to
ch an g e o v er tim e . N o s ta lg ia is a te r m th a t e n a b le s th e r e la tio n s h ip
b e tw e e n p a s t a n d p r e s e n t to b e c o n c e iv e d o f a s f r a g ile a n d c o r r u p tib le ,
in h e r e n tly d e p e n d e n t o n h o w th e re s o u r c e s o f th e p a s t a re m a d e a v a il
a b le , h o w th o s e tr a c e s o f w h a t h a s b e e n a re m e d ia te d a n d c ir c u la te d , a n d
h o w th e y a re e m p lo y e d a n d d e p lo y e d in th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f a r e la tio n
s h ip b e tw e e n p a s t a n d p re s e n t. I’h e a c k n o w le d g e m e n t o f w h a t is in v o lv e d
in c r e a tin g a n d s u s ta in i n g a r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n p a s t a n d p r e s e n t m a k e s
it p o s s ib le f o r u s to c o n c e p tu a liz e n o s ta lg ia a s a c r itic a l to o l a n d d is tin
g u is h b e tw e e n p o s iti v e , p r o d u c tiv e , a c tiv e u s e s o f th e p a s t a n d th o s e
w h ic h a re s te r ile , im p o te n t, n o n - tr a n s a c tio n a l. T h e c r itic a l u s e o f n o s ta l
g ia h a s b e e n c e n tr a l ly c o n c e r n e d w ith th e e m e r g e n c e o f a n e w w ay o f
r e la tin g to th e p a s t in m o d e r n ity th a t h a s g e n e ra lly , f o r v a r io u s r e a s o n s ,
b e e n c o n s id e r e d re g re s s iv e . W e h o p e to h a v e s h o w n th a t it c a n ju s t as
f e a s ib ly b e c o n s id e r e d a s p r o g re s s iv e .
Notes
1. Fo r a w id e-ran g in g su rv e y o f th e d ifferen t ac ad e m ic c o n trib u tio n s to th is field ,
see O lic k an d R o b b in s (1998).
2. See Sm ith (1998) fo r an o v e rv iew o f late m o d e rn te m p o rality in c o n n e c tio n
w ith n o stalg ia an d A p p ad u rai (1990) fo r a m o re g en eral ac c o u n t o f c o n te m
p o rary relatio n s o f tim e, sp ac e and c u ltu re.
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b o ro u g h , L e ic e ste rsh ire LE11 3TU , U K . [em ail: E.K e ig h tle y @ lb o ro .ac .u k ]
941

The Modalities of Nostalgia

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The Modalities of Nostalgia

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abstract: N o stalg ia h as b e e n v iew e d as th e c o n c e p tu al o p p o site o f p ro g ress,

keywords: m o d alitie s ♦ m o d e rn ity ♦ n o stalg ia

Current Sociology ♦ November 2006 ♦ Vol 54(6): 919-941

th e v e lo c ity a n d v e r tig o o f m o d e r n te m p o ra lity . It r e je c ts its in s is te n tly

p a s t', n e v e r th e le s s 'i n a ll s o rts o f w a y s m e m e n to e s a n d s u r v iv a ls m a r k a

Bec k, U. (1999) W orld Risk Society. M ald en , M A an d C am b rid g e: P o lity Press.

Lo w e n th al, D . (1989) 'N o stalg ia Tells it Like it W asn 't', in C . Sh aw an d M . C h ase

(2005, w ith Sh aro n Lo c k y er). H e is c u rren tly w ritin g a b o o k o n b lac k fac e

Bio graphical N o te: Em ily K e ig h tley g ain ed h er u n d e rg rad u ate d eg ree in m ed ia

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